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116-571: In 1963 the financial condition of the Pennsylvania and Reading Railroads was such that neither was able to upgrade their money-losing commuter operations on their own. As a result, state and local government stepped in to purchase new cars that would be in turn used by the private railroads to run the required commuter operations through an entity known as the Passenger Service Improvement Corporation . The new cars would be

232-768: A cowcatcher , twin overhead luggage racks, and color light (though PRR-compatible) cab signals; the latter were removed after the RDG discontinued its 1928 cab signal installation on the Bethlehem Branch between Jenkintown and Lansdale in 1967, and 9001–9017 would have to be re-equipped with cab signal equipment in 1983–84 in preparation for operation through the Center City Commuter Connection and former PRR lines. The first group of PRR cars (201–219) were intended by be used on longer distance runs to places like Harrisburg, PA and New York City and were equipped with

348-708: A martensitic stainless steel alloy, today known as AISI type 420. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in The New York Times . The metal was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel in London in 1929. Brearley applied for a US patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes had already registered one. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and, with

464-676: A bathroom on the "F" end to facilitate this. The second set of PRR cars, along with all of the Reading cars, were not equipped with comfort facilities, substituting a 3-person bench seat is its place. While all of the Silverliner cars were delivered with disc brakes, the PRR disliked this feature as it required trains to be placed over a drop pit for routine brake work, and all of their 38 cars were converted to conventional tread brakes by 1968. The Reading cars were not converted to tread braking until rebuilding in

580-575: A body-centered tetragonal crystal structure, and offer a wide range of properties and are used as stainless engineering steels, stainless tool steels, and creep -resistant steels. They are magnetic, and not as corrosion-resistant as ferritic and austenitic stainless steels due to their low chromium content. They fall into four categories (with some overlap): Martensitic stainless steels can be heat treated to provide better mechanical properties. The heat treatment typically involves three steps: Replacing some carbon in martensitic stainless steels by nitrogen

696-519: A classification system for their freight cars. Similar to their locomotives, the Pennsy used a letter system to designate the various types and sub-types of freight and maintenance cars. As noted, Pennsy colors and paint schemes were standardized. Locomotives were painted in a shade of green so dark it seemed almost black. The official name for this color was DGLE (Dark Green Locomotive Enamel), though often referred to as "Brunswick Green." The undercarriage of

812-588: A continuous railroad line ran between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh over the tracks of several entities including the Pennsylvania Railroad. In 1853, the Pennsy was granted trackage rights over the Philadelphia and Columbia, providing a connection between the two cities and connecting with the HPMtJ&;L at Lancaster and Columbia. By 1854, the Pennsy completed its line from Harrisburg to Pittsburgh, eliminating

928-473: A dark gray diamond-patterned foam rubber "plush", which began to wear out by the mid-1970s. Four cars (#259, #269, #9012 and #9015) were experimentally retrofitted with brown vinyl leatherette seats. However, the balance of the fleet was redone in the SEPTA/Conrail era with canvas-textured padded covering in a so-called "Ketchup and Mustard" theme, with the three-person seats upholstered in mustard yellow and

1044-477: A few even catching fire in service. Due to the lack of a public address system the Silverliner IIs were operating under an ADA waiver set to expire on July 1, 2012, and with deliveries of Silverliner V cars accelerating SEPTA began to retire cars as their FRA 92-day inspections ran out. By May 2012 most Silverliner IIs had been retired and in their final week of service the last operating Silverliner II, #9010,

1160-660: A government-guaranteed $ 200 million operating loan forced Penn Central to file for bankruptcy protection on June 21, 1970. In May 1971, passenger operations, including equipment, were transferred to a new government-subsidized company called the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, or Amtrak . This was devised to relieve the Penn Central (and other railroads) of money-losing passenger service. Penn Central rail lines, including ex-Pennsy lines, were transferred to Conrail in 1976, and eventually Amtrak received

1276-604: A group of investors, formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. Brearley initially called his new alloy "rustless steel". The alloy was sold in the US under different brand names like "Allegheny metal" and "Nirosta steel". Even within the metallurgy industry, the name remained unsettled; in 1921, one trade journal called it "unstainable steel". Brearley worked with

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1392-554: A hindrance at SEPTA's increasing number of stations equipped with high level platforms. However design delays and a contract bidding dispute delayed the order of their 120 replacement Silverliner V cars until past 2005 and then problems with the builder, Hyundai Rotem , setting up a production facility in South Philadelphia , further delayed deliveries until 2010. During this period an increasing number of Silverliner II cars began to be sidelined with serious mechanical problems with

1508-511: A local cutlery manufacturer, who gave it the name "stainless steel". As late as 1932, Ford Motor Company continued calling the alloy "rustless steel" in automobile promotional materials. In 1929, before the Great Depression, over 25,000 tons of stainless steel were manufactured and sold in the US annually. Major technological advances in the 1950s and 1960s allowed the production of large tonnages at an affordable cost: Stainless steel

1624-451: A lower design criteria and corrosion resistance is required, for example in high temperatures and oxidizing environments. Martensitic , duplex and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic , while austenitic stainless steel is usually non-magnetic. Ferritic steel owes its magnetism to its body-centered cubic crystal structure , in which iron atoms are arranged in cubes (with one iron atom at each corner) and an additional iron atom in

1740-540: A multi-modal freight transportation subsidiary of the Pennsylvania Railroad. It owned oil tanker cars and used them to transport refined oil for mostly independent oil refiners during the era of John D. Rockefeller's and Standard Oil's oil refinery mergers of the 1870s. The company also owned grain freight boats on the Great Lakes and oil pipelines in the oil regions of Pennsylvania . When the company attempted to buy and build some oil refineries in 1877, Standard Oil bought

1856-469: A percentage of its capital stock. Several lines were then aided by the Pennsy in hopes to secure additional traffic. By the end of 1854, the Pennsy purchased stock in the Ohio & Pennsylvania, Ohio & Indiana, Marietta & Cincinnati, Maysville & Big Sandy, and Springfield, Mt. Vernon & Pittsburgh railroads, totalling $ 1,450,000 (equivalent to $ 49.2 million in 2023). The Steubenville & Indiana

1972-414: A production order based on 6 1958 Pioneer III type cars with improvements based on the lessons learned from the earlier design. A total of 38 cars were purchased for the PRR with the remaining 17 going to the Reading. While some referred to the new vehicles as "PSIC Cars", the modern stainless steel body shells quickly defined the fleet and the name "Silverliner" was soon adopted. In addition to their looks,

2088-469: A protective oxide surface film, such as aluminum and titanium, are also susceptible. Under high contact-force sliding, this oxide can be deformed, broken, and removed from parts of the component, exposing the bare reactive metal. When the two surfaces are of the same material, these exposed surfaces can easily fuse. Separation of the two surfaces can result in surface tearing and even complete seizure of metal components or fasteners. Galling can be mitigated by

2204-835: A series of railroads, inclined planes, and canals was proposed. The route consisted of the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad , canals up the Susquehanna and Juniata rivers, an inclined plane railroad called the Allegheny Portage Railroad , a tunnel across the Allegheny Mountains , and canals down the Conemaugh and Allegheny rivers to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania , on the Ohio River; it was completed in 1834. Because freight and passengers had to change conveyances several times along

2320-499: A stake in Madison Square Garden . The company began to acquire a portfolio of insurance companies in 1988. In 1994, the company reorganized as American Premier Underwriters , a subsidiary of American Financial Group , which continues to operate as a property and casualty insurance company as-of January 2024. Thomson (1808–1874) was the entrepreneur who led the Pennsylvania Railroad from 1852 until his death in 1874, making it

2436-406: A useful interchange table. Although stainless steel does rust, this only affects the outer few layers of atoms, its chromium content shielding deeper layers from oxidation. The addition of nitrogen also improves resistance to pitting corrosion and increases mechanical strength. Thus, there are numerous grades of stainless steel with varying chromium and molybdenum contents to suit the environment

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2552-600: A welded bar pilot to protect the leading wheels from debris impact. All cars were equipped with WABCO AA2 horns. As part of the High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965 the United States Department of Transportation placed an order for 4 additional Silverliners for use as test vehicles to explore the feasibility of a high-speed rail line in the United States. Numbered T-1 through T-4,

2668-406: Is a recent development. The limited solubility of nitrogen is increased by the pressure electroslag refining (PESR) process, in which melting is carried out under high nitrogen pressure. Steel containing up to 0.4% nitrogen has been achieved, leading to higher hardness and strength and higher corrosion resistance. As PESR is expensive, lower but significant nitrogen contents have been achieved using

2784-996: Is an alloy of iron that is resistant to rusting and corrosion . It contains iron with chromium and other elements such as molybdenum , carbon , nickel and nitrogen depending on its specific use and cost. Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion results from the 10.5%, or more, chromium content which forms a passive film that can protect the material and self-heal in the presence of oxygen. The alloy's properties, such as luster and resistance to corrosion, are useful in many applications. Stainless steel can be rolled into sheets , plates, bars, wire, and tubing. These can be used in cookware , cutlery , surgical instruments , major appliances , vehicles, construction material in large buildings, industrial equipment (e.g., in paper mills , chemical plants , water treatment ), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals and food products. Some grades are also suitable for forging and casting . The biological cleanability of stainless steel

2900-532: Is an extension of the heating- quenching - tempering cycle, where the final temperature of the material before full-load use is taken down to a cryogenic temperature range. This can remove residual stresses and improve wear resistance. Austenitic stainless steel sub-groups, 200 series and 300 series: Ferritic stainless steels possess a ferrite microstructure like carbon steel, which is a body-centered cubic crystal structure, and contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium with very little or no nickel. This microstructure

3016-426: Is bent or cut, magnetism occurs along the edge of the stainless steel because the crystal structure rearranges itself. Galling , sometimes called cold welding, is a form of severe adhesive wear, which can occur when two metal surfaces are in relative motion to each other and under heavy pressure. Austenitic stainless steel fasteners are particularly susceptible to thread galling, though other alloys that self-generate

3132-510: Is classified into five main families that are primarily differentiated by their crystalline structure : Austenitic stainless steel is the largest family of stainless steels, making up about two-thirds of all stainless steel production. They possess an austenitic microstructure, which is a face-centered cubic crystal structure. This microstructure is achieved by alloying steel with sufficient nickel, manganese, or nitrogen to maintain an austenitic microstructure at all temperatures, ranging from

3248-409: Is near that of ordinary steel, and much higher than the melting points of aluminium or copper. As with most alloys, the melting point of stainless steel is expressed in the form of a range of temperatures, and not a single temperature. This temperature range goes from 1,400 to 1,530 °C (2,550 to 2,790 °F; 1,670 to 1,800 K; 3,010 to 3,250 °R) depending on the specific consistency of

3364-1421: Is one of the most-produced industrial chemicals. At room temperature, type 304 stainless steel is only resistant to 3% acid, while type 316 is resistant to 3% acid up to 50 °C (120 °F) and 20% acid at room temperature. Thus type 304 SS is rarely used in contact with sulfuric acid. Type 904L and Alloy 20 are resistant to sulfuric acid at even higher concentrations above room temperature. Concentrated sulfuric acid possesses oxidizing characteristics like nitric acid, and thus silicon-bearing stainless steels are also useful. Hydrochloric acid damages any kind of stainless steel and should be avoided. All types of stainless steel resist attack from phosphoric acid and nitric acid at room temperature. At high concentrations and elevated temperatures, attack will occur, and higher-alloy stainless steels are required. In general, organic acids are less corrosive than mineral acids such as hydrochloric and sulfuric acid. Type 304 and type 316 stainless steels are unaffected by weak bases such as ammonium hydroxide , even in high concentrations and at high temperatures. The same grades exposed to stronger bases such as sodium hydroxide at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking. Increasing chromium and nickel contents provide increased resistance. All grades resist damage from aldehydes and amines , though in

3480-402: Is porous and fragile. In addition, as iron oxide occupies a larger volume than the original steel, this layer expands and tends to flake and fall away, exposing the underlying steel to further attack. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo passivation , spontaneously forming a microscopically thin inert surface film of chromium oxide by reaction with the oxygen in

3596-498: Is present at all temperatures due to the chromium addition, so they are not capable of being hardened by heat treatment. They cannot be strengthened by cold work to the same degree as austenitic stainless steels. They are magnetic. Additions of niobium (Nb), titanium (Ti), and zirconium (Zr) to type 430 allow good weldability. Due to the near-absence of nickel, they are less expensive than austenitic steels and are present in many products, which include: Martensitic stainless steels have

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3712-452: Is superior to both aluminium and copper, and comparable to glass. Its cleanability, strength, and corrosion resistance have prompted the use of stainless steel in pharmaceutical and food processing plants. Different types of stainless steel are labeled with an AISI three-digit number. The ISO 15510 standard lists the chemical compositions of stainless steels of the specifications in existing ISO, ASTM , EN , JIS , and GB standards in

3828-430: Is unaccounted for. Its whereabouts are unknown. Pennsylvania Railroad The Pennsylvania Railroad ( reporting mark PRR ), legal name The Pennsylvania Railroad Company , also known as the " Pennsy ", was an American Class I railroad that was established in 1846 and headquartered in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania. At its peak in 1882, the Pennsylvania Railroad was the largest railroad (by traffic and revenue),

3944-557: The Broadway Limited which became the most famous train operated by the Pennsylvania Railroad. This train ran from New York City to Chicago, via Philadelphia, with an additional section between Harrisburg and Washington (later operated as a separate Washington–Chicago train, the Liberty Limited ). In 1890, the Pennsylvania Railroad gained control of the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad (PCC&StL), itself

4060-642: The Congressional Limited s in both directions were the first trains in regular electric operation between New York and Washington, drawn by the first of the GG1 -type locomotives . In 1934, the Pennsylvania received a $ 77 million loan from the New Deal 's Public Works Administration to complete the electrification project begun in 1928. Work was started January 27, 1937, on the main line from Paoli to Harrisburg;

4176-562: The Essen firm Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft built the 366-ton sailing yacht Germania featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull, in Germany. In 1911, Philip Monnartz reported on the relationship between chromium content and corrosion resistance. On 17 October 1912, Krupp engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented as Nirosta the austenitic stainless steel known today as 18/8 or AISI type 304. Similar developments were taking place in

4292-549: The Hudson River tunnels . The next area to be electrified was the Philadelphia terminal area, where Pennsy officials decided to use overhead lines to supply power to the suburban trains running out of Broad Street Station . Unlike the New York terminal system, overhead wires would carry 11,000-volt 25-Hertz alternating current (AC) power, which became the standard for future installations. On September 12, 1915, electrification of

4408-725: The Northeast Corridor and Keystone Corridor lines. After Conrail was divided between the Norfolk Southern Railway and CSX Transportation , most of the former Pennsy's remaining trackage went to Norfolk Southern. The few parts of the Pennsylvania Railroad that went to CSX after the Conrail split were: After 1976, the Penn Central Corporation held diversified non-rail assets including the Buckeye Pipeline and

4524-676: The Senator from Boston to Washington. On July 1, 1869, the Pennsylvania Railroad leased the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway (PFtW&C) in which it had previously been an investor. The lease gave the Pennsy complete control of that line's direct route through northern Ohio and Indiana as well as entry into the emerging rail hub city of Chicago, Illinois . Acquisitions along the PFtW&;C: Erie and Pittsburgh Railroad , Cleveland and Pittsburgh Railroad, Toledo, Columbus and Ohio River Railroad, and Pittsburgh, Youngstown and Ashtabula Railway gave

4640-576: The Union Pacific and Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railroads. Its only formidable rival was the New York Central Railroad (NYC), which carried around three-quarters of the Pennsy's ton-miles. In 1968, the Pennsylvania Railroad merged with New York Central and the railroad eventually went by the name of Penn Central Transportation Company , or "Penn Central" for short. The former competitors' networks integrated poorly with each other, and

4756-638: The cryogenic region to the melting point. Thus, austenitic stainless steels are not hardenable by heat treatment since they possess the same microstructure at all temperatures. However, "forming temperature is an essential factor for metastable austenitic stainless steel (M-ASS) products to accommodate microstructures and cryogenic mechanical performance. ... Metastable austenitic stainless steels (M-ASSs) are widely used in manufacturing cryogenic pressure vessels (CPVs), owing to their high cryogenic toughness, ductility, strength, corrosion-resistance, and economy." Cryogenic cold-forming of austenitic stainless steel

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4872-528: The water industry . Precipitation hardening stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than other martensitic grades. There are three types of precipitation hardening stainless steels: Solution treatment at about 1,040 °C (1,900 °F) followed by quenching results in a relatively ductile martensitic structure. Subsequent aging treatment at 475 °C (887 °F) precipitates Nb and Cu-rich phases that increase

4988-462: The 17 Reading cars were numbered 9001-9017 and given Reading classification REB-13. With the delivery of the second set of "Silverliners" in 1967, the original Budd Silverliners were renamed "Silverliner II" with the Pioneer III cars becoming Silverliner I. In 1968 the Pennsylvania Railroad was merged into the new Penn Central and although funding for the commuter rail services were being provided by

5104-536: The 1840s, both Britain's Sheffield steelmakers and then Krupp of Germany were producing chromium steel with the latter employing it for cannons in the 1850s. In 1861, Robert Forester Mushet took out a patent on chromium steel in Britain. These events led to the first American production of chromium-containing steel by J. Baur of the Chrome Steel Works of Brooklyn for the construction of bridges. A US patent for

5220-403: The 1990s the cars received SEPTA's standard full length Red and Blue window decal wrapping and some of the cars had a minor interior upgrade with the original "ketchup and mustard" seats being converted to a padded brown leather appearance. By 2000 the cars' age was becoming apparent with decreasing reliability and lack of ADA compliance which included the manually operated doors which were becoming

5336-549: The 19th century didn't pay attention to the amount of carbon in the alloyed steels they were testing until in 1898 Adolphe Carnot and E. Goutal noted that chromium steels better resist to oxidation with acids the less carbon they contain. Also in the late 1890s, German chemist Hans Goldschmidt developed an aluminothermic ( thermite ) process for producing carbon-free chromium. Between 1904 and 1911, several researchers, particularly Leon Guillet of France, prepared alloys that would be considered stainless steel today. In 1908,

5452-461: The 20th century, the Pennsy tried electric power for its trains. Its first effort was in the New York terminal area, where tunnels and a city law restricting the burning of coal precluded steam locomotives. In 1910, the railroad began operating a direct current (DC) 650-volt system whose third-rail powered Pennsy locomotives (and LIRR passenger cars) used to enter Penn Station in New York City via

5568-736: The B&;O's rights void the following August. In 1847, the Pennsy's directors chose J. Edgar Thomson , an engineer from the Georgia Railroad , to survey and construct the line. He chose a route that followed the west bank of the Susquehanna River northward to the confluence with the Juniata River, following its banks until the foothills of the Allegheny Mountains were reached at a point that would become Altoona, Pennsylvania . To traverse

5684-633: The Delaware River from Philadelphia) to South Amboy, New Jersey (across Raritan Bay from New York City), as well as a newer line from Philadelphia to Jersey City, New Jersey, much closer to New York, via Trenton, New Jersey. Track connection in Philadelphia was made via the Pennsy's Connecting Railway and the jointly owned Junction Railroad . The Pennsy's Baltimore and Potomac Rail Road opened on July 2, 1872, between Baltimore and Washington, D.C. This route required transfer via horse car in Baltimore to

5800-532: The New York Central Railroad. The Pennsylvania Railroad absorbed the New York Central and eventually went by the name of Penn Central Transportation Company . The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) required that the ailing New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad (NH) be added in 1969. A series of events including inflation, poor management, abnormally harsh weather, and the withdrawal of

5916-562: The PRR began passenger train service from New York City via Philadelphia to Washington with limited stops along the route. This service became known as the "Congressional Limited Express." The service expanded, and by the 1920s, the Pennsy was operating hourly passenger train service between New York, Philadelphia and Washington. In 1952, 18-car stainless steel streamliners were introduced on the Morning Congressional and Afternoon Congressional between New York and Washington, as well as

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6032-538: The Pennsy access to the iron ore traffic on Lake Erie. On June 15, 1887, the Pennsylvania Limited began running between New York and Chicago. This was also the introduction of the vestibule, an enclosed platform at the end of each passenger car, allowing protected access to the entire train. In 1902 the Pennsylvania Limited was replaced by the Pennsylvania Special which in turn was replaced in 1912 by

6148-443: The Pennsy owned 439 freight cars. By 1857, it had 1,861 cars, and in 1866, 9,379 cars. Freight equipment was either acquired new from builders or built by the railroad itself. The Pennsy acquired more cars from the railroads it absorbed. In some instances, privately owned cars were either purchased from a builder or railroad acquisition. One such example was the 1877 purchase of Empire Transportation merchandise and oil cars. By

6264-412: The Pennsylvania Railroad did not raise enough capital and contract to build enough railroad within a year, then the B&O bill would become effective and the Pennsy's void, thereby allowing the B&O to build into Pennsylvania and on to Pittsburgh. The Pennsylvania Railroad fulfilled the requirements and Letters Patent were issued by the Pennsylvania governor on February 25, 1847. The governor declared

6380-545: The Pennsylvania Railroad gained control of the Northern Central Railway , giving it access to Baltimore, Maryland , and points along the Susquehanna River via connections at Columbia, Pennsylvania, or Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. On December 1, 1871, the Pennsy leased the United New Jersey Railroad and Canal Company , which included the original Camden and Amboy Railroad from Camden, New Jersey (across

6496-522: The SEPTA era in 1989. In addition to the disc brakes, all classes of Budd Silverliner were delivered with an early multi-function coupler design that consisted of an AAR "tightlock" knuckle coupler mounted above a separate automatic coupler for air and electrical connections. This design allowed the new MU cars to be attached (in emergencies or planned shop moves) for towing behind locomotives, conventional passenger and heavyweight MU cars, or in freight trains;

6612-593: The United States, where Christian Dantsizen of General Electric and Frederick Becket (1875–1942) at Union Carbide were industrializing ferritic stainless steel. In 1912, Elwood Haynes applied for a US patent on a martensitic stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919. While seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels in 1913, Harry Brearley of the Brown-Firth research laboratory in Sheffield, England, discovered and subsequently industrialized

6728-441: The air and even the small amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. This passive film prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and thus prevents corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. This film is self-repairing, even when scratched or temporarily disturbed by conditions that exceed the inherent corrosion resistance of that grade. The resistance of this film to corrosion depends upon

6844-587: The alloy in question. Like steel , stainless steels are relatively poor conductors of electricity, with significantly lower electrical conductivities than copper. In particular, the non-electrical contact resistance (ECR) of stainless steel arises as a result of the dense protective oxide layer and limits its functionality in applications as electrical connectors. Copper alloys and nickel-coated connectors tend to exhibit lower ECR values and are preferred materials for such applications. Nevertheless, stainless steel connectors are employed in situations where ECR poses

6960-610: The alloy must endure. Corrosion resistance can be increased further by the following means: The most common type of stainless steel, 304, has a tensile yield strength around 210 MPa (30,000 psi) in the annealed condition. It can be strengthened by cold working to a strength of 1,050 MPa (153,000 psi) in the full-hard condition. The strongest commonly available stainless steels are precipitation hardening alloys such as 17-4 PH and Custom 465. These can be heat treated to have tensile yield strengths up to 1,730 MPa (251,000 psi). Melting point of stainless steel

7076-699: The alloy. The invention of stainless steel followed a series of scientific developments, starting in 1798 when chromium was first shown to the French Academy by Louis Vauquelin . In the early 1800s, British scientists James Stoddart, Michael Faraday , and Robert Mallet observed the resistance of chromium-iron alloys ("chromium steels") to oxidizing agents . Robert Bunsen discovered chromium's resistance to strong acids. The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys may have been first recognized in 1821 by Pierre Berthier , who noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery. In

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7192-419: The average capacity of a Pennsylvania Railroad freight car increased from 31 to 54 short tons (28 to 48 long tons; 28 to 49 t). This increased to 55 short tons (49 long tons; 50 t) in the mid-1930s and then to 56 short tons (50 long tons; 51 t) in 1945. By the start of 1946, the Pennsy's freight car ownership decreased to 240,293 cars and in 1963, down to 140,535. The Pennsylvania Railroad used

7308-473: The cars introduced many other modern innovations to the Philadelphia commuter rail network, including air conditioning, greater interior space (12 feet (3.66 m) longer than the PRR MP54 ) seating up to 127 persons, high acceleration with a greater top speed and near silent operation. The 38 PRR cars were numbered in two series, 201-219 and 250-269 and given PRR classification MP85B and MP85C respectively, while

7424-482: The cars were modified for operation up to speeds of 150 mph and were outfitted with various instrumentation to document the effects of rail travel at such speeds including CCTV cameras to monitor the wheels and pantograph. The most visible change was a slightly streamlined slab end applied to the T-1 car to reduce drag at high speed after the 4-car trainset was unable to reach the 150 mph (241 km/h) speed target with

7540-580: The center. This central iron atom is responsible for ferritic steel's magnetic properties. This arrangement also limits the amount of carbon the steel can absorb to around 0.025%. Grades with low coercive field have been developed for electro-valves used in household appliances and for injection systems in internal combustion engines. Some applications require non-magnetic materials, such as magnetic resonance imaging . Austenitic stainless steels, which are usually non-magnetic , can be made slightly magnetic through work hardening . Sometimes, if austenitic steel

7656-544: The chemical composition of the stainless steel, chiefly the chromium content. It is customary to distinguish between four forms of corrosion: uniform, localized (pitting), galvanic, and SCC (stress corrosion cracking). Any of these forms of corrosion can occur when the grade of stainless steel is not suited for the working environment. The designation "CRES" refers to corrosion-resistant (stainless) steel. Uniform corrosion takes place in very aggressive environments, typically where chemicals are produced or heavily used, such as in

7772-458: The company. The controlling, non-institutional shareholders of the PRR during the early 1960s were Henry Stryker Taylor , who was a part of the Jacob Bunn business dynasty of Illinois, and Howard Butcher III, a principal in the Philadelphia brokerage house of Butcher & Sherrerd (later Butcher & Singer). On February 1, 1968, the Pennsylvania Railroad merged with its longtime arch-rival,

7888-459: The earlier Pioneer IIIs, differences included a single-arm Faiveley pantograph, a state-of-the-art propulsion system that made use of solid-state phase angle controllers coupled to mercury arc ignitron rectifiers, higher-powered motors, a higher-capacity main transformer, multi-function couplers and disc brakes . One result of these upgrades was that the Silverliners were incompatible with

8004-619: The electrified trackage are still in use, owned and operated by Amtrak as the Northeast Corridor and Keystone Corridor high-speed rail routes, by SEPTA , and by NJ Transit . The Pennsylvania Railroad's corporate symbol was the keystone , the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania's state symbol, with the letters "PRR" intertwined inside. When colored, it was bright red with a silver-grey inline and lettering. The Pennsylvania Railroad bought its first 75 freight cars in 1849. Two years later,

8120-476: The end of the century, a third and fourth track were added. Over the next 50 years, the Pennsy expanded by gaining control of other railroads by stock purchases and 999-year leases. At the end of its first year of operation, the Pennsylvania Railroad paid a dividend, and continued the dividend without interruption until 1946. The Pennsy's charter was supplemented on March 23, 1853, to allow it to purchase stock and guarantee bonds of railroads in other states, up to

8236-599: The end of their careers. In late 1984 the Center City Commuter Connection opened allowing the Reading and PRR cars to mix and roam about either "side" of the system. In 1989 the entire fleet was sent to the Morrison-Knudsen plant in Hornell, New York , for a mid-life overhaul. In addition to this all of the cars eventually received upgrades to their propulsion system to increase reliability and remove PCBs from their transformers, upgraded HVAC systems to eliminate CFCs . In

8352-522: The first passenger train, the Metropolitan, went into operation over the newly electrified line from Philadelphia to Harrisburg. On April 15, the electrified freight service from Harrisburg and Enola Yard east was inaugurated, thus completing the Pennsy's eastern seaboard electrification program. The railroad had electrified 2,677 miles (4,308 km) of its track, representing 41% of the country's electrically operated standard railroad trackage. Portions of

8468-547: The largest business enterprise in the world and a world-class model for technological and managerial innovation. He served as the Pennsy's first Chief Engineer and third President. Thomson's sober, technical, methodical, and non-ideological personality had an important influence on the Pennsylvania Railroad, which in the mid-19th century was on the technical cutting edge of rail development, while nonetheless reflecting Thomson's personality in its conservatism and its steady growth while avoiding financial risks. His Pennsylvania Railroad

8584-505: The largest transportation enterprise, and the largest corporation in the world, on par with the London & North Western Railway . Over its existence, Pennsylvania Railroad acquired, merged with, or owned part of at least 800 other rail lines and companies. At the end of 1926, it operated 11,640.66 miles (18,733.83 kilometers) of rail line; in the 1920s, it carried nearly three times the traffic as other railroads of comparable length, such as

8700-541: The lettering and outlining was originally done in real gold leaf. After World War II, the lettering was done in a light shade of gold, called Buff Yellow. For most of its existence, the Pennsylvania Railroad was conservative in its locomotive choices and pursued standardization, both in locomotive types and their component parts. Almost alone among U.S. railroads, the Pennsy designed most of its steam locomotive classes itself. It built most of them at Altoona Works , outsourcing only when Pennsy facilities could not keep up with

8816-530: The line from Philadelphia to Paoli, Pennsylvania, was completed. Other Philadelphia lines electrified were the Chestnut Hill Branch (March 30, 1918), White Marsh (1924), the main line to Wilmington, Delaware (September 30, 1928), West Chester (December 2, 1928), Trenton line (June 29, 1930), and completed on July 20, 1930 the Schuylkill Branch to Norristown, Pennsylvania, later followed by

8932-470: The line served the coal region of southern Illinois and as a passenger route for the Pennsylvania Railroad's Blue Ribbon named trains The St. Louisan , The Jeffersonian , and the Spirit of St. Louis . By 1906, the Pennsylvania built several low-grade lines for freight to bypass areas of steep grade (slope) and avoid congestion. These included: Some other lines were planned, but never completed: Early in

9048-458: The locomotives were painted in black, referred to as "True Black." The passenger cars of the Pennsy were painted Tuscan Red , a brick-colored shade of red. Some electric locomotives and most passenger-hauling diesel locomotives were also painted in Tuscan Red. Freight cars of the Pennsy had their own color, known as "Freight Car Color," an iron-oxide shade of red. On passenger locomotives and cars,

9164-649: The low-grade freight line from Morrisville through Columbia to Enola Yard in Pennsylvania; the Port Road Branch from Perryville, Maryland, to Columbia; the Jamesburg Branch and Amboy Secondary freight line from Monmouth Junction to South Amboy; and the Landover-South End freight line from Landover, Maryland, through Washington to Potomac Yard in Alexandria, Virginia. In less than a year, on January 15, 1938,

9280-634: The merged product of numerous smaller lines in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Commonly called the Panhandle Route , this line ran west from Pittsburgh to Bradford, Ohio , where it split, with one line to Chicago and the other to East St. Louis, Illinois , via Indianapolis, Indiana . In 1905, the acquisition of the Vandalia Railroad gave the Pennsy access across the Mississippi River to St. Louis, Missouri . Double-tracked for much of its length,

9396-448: The mid-1860s, the railroad had 9,379 freight cars; a decade later, 32,718; the mid-1880s, over 49,000; 1896, more than 87,000. The Pennsy changed its car reporting methods around 1900. The railroads owned and operated by the Pennsylvania Railroad system were now included in reports, in addition to the Pennsylvania Railroad proper. So, in 1900, the Pennsy had over 180,000 freight cars; by 1910, 263,039. The zenith of freight car ownership

9512-502: The most widely used. Many grading systems are in use, including US SAE steel grades . The Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS) was developed by the ASTM in 1970. Europe has adopted EN 10088 . Unlike carbon steel , stainless steels do not suffer uniform corrosion when exposed to wet environments. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to a combination of air and moisture. The resulting iron oxide surface layer

9628-460: The mountains, the line would climb a moderate grade for 10 miles (16 km) until it reached a split of two mountain ravines which were cleverly crossed by building a fill and having the tracks ascend a 220-degree curve known as Horseshoe Curve that limited the grade to less than 2 percent. The crest of the mountain would be penetrated by the 3,612 ft (1,101 m) Gallitzin Tunnels , from which

9744-524: The newly formed SEPTA , from 1963 until the formation of Conrail in 1976, the Silverliners were operated by and wore the livery of their respective railroads, the PRR Keystone being replaced by the Penn Central "Worms" after the merger and the Reading diamond throughout. After 1976 the service continued to be operated under Conrail, but the cars were fully branded as SEPTA and would operate as such until

9860-520: The next day, ending Pennsylvania Air Line service. In the early 1880s, the Pennsylvania acquired a majority of PW&B Railroad's stock. This action forced the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) to build the Baltimore and Philadelphia Railroad to keep its Philadelphia access, where it connected with the Reading Company for its competing Royal Blue Line passenger trains to reach New York. In 1885,

9976-565: The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 and the beginnings of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in 1828, Philadelphia business interests became concerned that the port of Philadelphia would lose traffic. The state legislature was pressed to build a canal across Pennsylvania and thus the Main Line of Public Works was commissioned in 1826. It soon became evident that a single canal would not be practical and

10092-533: The other lines heading north from the city. On June 29, 1873, the Baltimore and Potomac Tunnel through Baltimore was completed. The Pennsylvania Railroad started the Pennsylvania Air Line service ("air line" at the time being understood as a nearly-straight and nearly-flat route with distance similar to "as the crow flies") via the Northern Central Railway and Columbia, Pennsylvania. This service

10208-529: The outer ends of the stepboxes were lettered with detailed instructions to train crews for doing so. However, the newer fleet of 232 Silverliner IVs were delivered with Budd's new "pin and cup" coupler and both the Silverliner II and III fleets were modified to both couple to and MU with the IVs, as opposed to the older cars the IVs were replacing. When this change was carried out the Penn Central fitted its cars with

10324-414: The product was issued in 1869. This was followed with recognition of the corrosion resistance of chromium alloys by Englishmen John T. Woods and John Clark, who noted ranges of chromium from 5–30%, with added tungsten and "medium carbon". They pursued the commercial value of the innovation via a British patent for "Weather-Resistant Alloys". Scientists researching steel corrosion in the second half of

10440-429: The pulp and paper industries. The entire surface of the steel is attacked, and the corrosion is expressed as corrosion rate in mm/year (usually less than 0.1 mm/year is acceptable for such cases). Corrosion tables provide guidelines. This is typically the case when stainless steels are exposed to acidic or basic solutions. Whether stainless steel corrodes depends on the kind and concentration of acid or base and

10556-445: The railroad filed for bankruptcy within two years. Bankruptcy continued and on April 1, 1976, the railroad gave up its rail assets, along with the assets of several other failing northeastern railroads, to a new railroad named Consolidated Rail Corporation , or Conrail for short. Conrail was itself purchased and split up in 1999 between the Norfolk Southern Railway and CSX Transportation , with Norfolk Southern getting 58 percent of

10672-466: The railroad's needs. In such cases, subcontractors were hired to build to PRR designs, unlike most railroads that ordered to broad specifications and left most design choices to the builder. The Pennsy's favorite outsourced locomotive builder was Baldwin Locomotive Works , which received its raw materials and shipped out its finished products on Pennsy lines. The two companies were headquartered in

10788-440: The rest of the main line to Trenton, New Jersey. In 1928, PRR's president William Wallace Atterbury announced plans to electrify the lines between New York, Philadelphia, Washington, and Harrisburg. In January 1933, through main-line service between New York and Philadelphia/Wilmington/Paoli was placed in operation. The first test run of an electric train between Philadelphia and Washington occurred on January 28, 1935. On February 1

10904-514: The route and canals froze in winter, it soon became apparent that the system was cumbersome and a better way was needed. There were two applications made to the Pennsylvania legislature in 1846. The first was for a new railroad called The Pennsylvania Railroad Company to build a line between Harrisburg and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The second was the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O), which wanted to build to Pittsburgh from Cumberland, Maryland. Both applications were granted with conditions. If

11020-643: The route descended by a more moderate grade to Johnstown . The western end of the line was simultaneously built from Pittsburgh, eastward along the Allegheny and Conemaugh rivers to Johnstown, while the eastern end was built from Harrisburg to Altoona. In 1848, the Pennsy contracted with the Harrisburg, Portsmouth, Mountjoy and Lancaster Railroad (HPMtJ&L) to buy and use equipment over both roads, providing service from Harrisburg east to Lancaster. In 1851, tracks were completed between Pittsburgh and Johnstown. In 1852,

11136-731: The same city; Pennsy and Baldwin management and engineers knew each other well. When the Pennsy and Baldwin shops were at capacity, orders went to the Lima Locomotive Works in Lima, Ohio. Only as a last resort would the Pennsy use the American Locomotive Company (Alco), based in Schenectady, New York, which also built for Pennsy's rival, the New York Central. Stainless steel Stainless steel , also known as inox , corrosion-resistant steel ( CRES ), and rustless steel ,

11252-412: The six Pioneer prototypes. Passenger amenities were also identical to the Pioneer III cars offering riders air cushion suspension , air conditioning , electric train heat and a nearly silent acceleration and braking. With 150 hp (110 kW) more than the Pioneer III cars (550 hp or 410 kW total), the Silverliners could achieve a 1.7 mph/s (2.7 km/(h⋅s)) acceleration rate, which

11368-574: The solution temperature. Uniform corrosion is typically easy to avoid because of extensive published corrosion data or easily performed laboratory corrosion testing. Acidic solutions can be put into two general categories: reducing acids, such as hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid , and oxidizing acids , such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid. Increasing chromium and molybdenum content provides increased resistance to reducing acids while increasing chromium and silicon content provides increased resistance to oxidizing acids. Sulfuric acid

11484-949: The standard AOD process. Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the ideal ratio being a 50:50 mix, though commercial alloys may have ratios of 40:60. They are characterized by higher chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the yield strength of austenitic stainless steel. Their mixed microstructure provides improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking in comparison to austenitic stainless steel types 304 and 316. Duplex grades are usually divided into three sub-groups based on their corrosion resistance: lean duplex, standard duplex, and super duplex. The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many applications. The pulp and paper industry

11600-409: The stock end. With the new streamlining in place the train was able to reach a top speed of 156 mph (251 km/h) on the straight track between Trenton and New Brunswick, New Jersey. As a result, this same level of deflection was applied to the front ends of the production high-speed MU Budd Metroliners . During the tests the cars were based at the PRR's Morrisville Yard engine facility, and after

11716-536: The strength up to above 1,000 MPa (150,000 psi) yield strength. This outstanding strength level is used in high-tech applications such as aerospace (usually after remelting to eliminate non-metallic inclusions, which increases fatigue life). Another major advantage of this steel is that aging, unlike tempering treatments, is carried out at a temperature that can be applied to (nearly) finished parts without distortion and discoloration. Typical heat treatment involves solution treatment and quenching . At this point,

11832-695: The structure remains austenitic. Martensitic transformation is then obtained either by a cryogenic treatment at −75 °C (−103 °F) or by severe cold work (over 70% deformation, usually by cold rolling or wire drawing). Aging at 510 °C (950 °F) — which precipitates the Ni 3 Al intermetallic phase—is carried out as above on nearly finished parts. Yield stress levels above 1400   MPa are then reached. The structure remains austenitic at all temperatures. Typical heat treatment involves solution treatment and quenching, followed by aging at 715 °C (1,319 °F). Aging forms Ni 3 Ti precipitates and increases

11948-430: The system, including nearly all of the remaining former Pennsylvania Railroad trackage. Amtrak received the electrified segment of the Main Line east of Harrisburg. The Penn Central Corporation held several non-rail assets which it continued to manage after the formation of Conrail. It reorganized in 1994 as American Premier Underwriters , which continues to operate as a property and casualty insurance company. With

12064-592: The tests were completed at least one of the cars was de-powered and used as a USDOT rail testing vehicle for some years afterward, and one was used by the U.S. Army at Fort Eustis . T-1 was purchased by a private buyer in 2015 and moved to the South Carolina Railway Museum, to be converted into a lounge car. T-2 exists as an office for the AAFES warehouse in Lee Hall, VA. T-3 and T-4 are presumed scrapped, but T-4

12180-448: The two-person seats done in a dark ketchup red. Despite both Reading and PRR cars being paid for in part by the PSIC, each railroad was allowed to put their own stamp on the design. These differences included the PRR units being fitted with only one overhead luggage rack , a bar pilot , a metal-framed engineer's window and position-light cab signals , with the Reading cars being fitted with

12296-487: The use of dissimilar materials (bronze against stainless steel) or using different stainless steels (martensitic against austenitic). Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling. Nitronic 60, made by selective alloying with manganese, silicon, and nitrogen, has demonstrated a reduced tendency to gall. The density of stainless steel ranges from 7.5 to 8.0 g/cm (0.27 to 0.29 lb/cu in) depending on

12412-601: The use of the inclined planes of the Allegheny Portage Railroad. In 1857, the PRR purchased the Main Line of Public Works from the state of Pennsylvania. This purchase included 275 miles (443 km) of canal, the Philadelphia & Columbia Railroad, and the New Portage Railroad (which replaced the now abandoned Allegheny Portage Railroad). The Pennsy abandoned most of the New Portage Railroad in 1857 as it

12528-415: The yield strength to about 650 MPa (94,000 psi) at room temperature. Unlike the above grades, the mechanical properties and creep resistance of this steel remain very good at temperatures up to 700 °C (1,300 °F). As a result, A286 is classified as an Fe-based superalloy , used in jet engines, gas turbines, and turbo parts. Over 150 grades of stainless steel are recognized, of which 15 are

12644-464: Was 54.5 miles (87.7 km) longer than the old route but avoided the transfer in Baltimore. The Union Railroad line opened on July 24, 1873. This route eliminated the transfer in Baltimore. Pennsy officials contracted with both the Union Railroad and the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad (PW&B) for access to this line. The Pennsy's New York–Washington trains began using the route

12760-537: Was assisted by the Pennsy in the form of a guarantee of $ 500,000 worth of bonds. In 1856, a controlling interest was purchased in the Cumberland Valley Railroad and the Pennsy constructed additional lines in Philadelphia. In 1857, the aforementioned Main Line of Public Works was purchased for $ 7,500,000 ($ 245 million in 2023). The Empire Transportation Company was founded in 1865 by Joseph D. Potts and became

12876-458: Was far higher than the older MP54s and a top speed of 85–100 mph (137–161 km/h) compared with the 55–65 mph (89–105 km/h) of the MP54 fleet (which was not often reached in service). Inside, the cars were equipped with 25 rows of 3+2 reversible (flipover) bench seating with 124 usable seats and either a bathroom or an additional 3-person bench seat. The seats were initially furnished in

12992-548: Was in his day the largest railroad in the world, with 6,000 miles of track, and was famous for steady financial dividends, high quality construction, constantly improving equipment, technological advances (such as replacing wood fuel with coal), and innovation in management techniques for a large complex organization. The railroad's other presidents were: The Pennsylvania Railroad's board chairman/CEOs were: The railroad's vice-presidents were: The Pennsy's main line extended from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1861,

13108-470: Was now redundant with the Pennsylvania Railroad's own line. In 1861, the Pennsy leased the HPMtJ&L to bring the entire stretch of road between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia under its control. The Johnstown to Pittsburgh stretch of canal was abandoned in 1865 and the rest of the canals sold to the Pennsylvania Canal Company in 1866. The main line was double track from its inception, and by

13224-476: Was one of the first to extensively use duplex stainless steel. Today, the oil and gas industry is the largest user and has pushed for more corrosion resistant grades, leading to the development of super duplex and hyper duplex grades. More recently, the less expensive (and slightly less corrosion-resistant) lean duplex has been developed, chiefly for structural applications in building and construction (concrete reinforcing bars, plates for bridges, coastal works) and in

13340-416: Was reached in 1919 when the Pennsy owned a reported 282,729 freight cars. Steel in freight car construction began during the later part of the 19th century, when cars were now being built with a steel underframe and wooden bodies or were all steel. The Pennsy steadily replaced their wooden cars with steel versions until there were no more wooden cars by 1934. During the first quarter of the 20th century,

13456-586: Was sent to run on the Cynwyd Line with the final run taking place on June 29. Ex-RDG car numbered 9001 survives, and is due to go to the Reading Railroad Heritage Museum . The design of the Budd Silverliner was based on a lightweight stainless steel body and frame coupled to an advanced AC/DC rectifier propulsion system and new lightweight, high-speed trucks . While largely identical to

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