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66-691: Samil may also refer to: Samil, an alternative name for the archangel Samael Samil, Portugal , a parish in the municipality of Bragança Sam-il Movement , a Korean independence movement during the Japanese occupation Samiljeol, a public holiday in South Korea on 1 March which commemorates the Samil Movement SAMIL Trucks , South African military logistical transport vehicles See also [ edit ] Yahya Samil Al Suwaymil Al Sulami ,

132-860: A Coptic version of the Apocalypse of Weeks. How extensive the Coptic text originally was cannot be known. It agrees with the Aramaic text against the Ethiopic, but was probably derived from Greek. Of the Latin translation, only 1:9 and 106:1–18 are known. The first passage occurs in the Pseudo-Cyprianic Ad Novatianum and the Pseudo-Vigilian Contra Varimadum ; the second was discovered in 1893 by M. R. James in an 8th-century manuscript in

198-455: A waw missing). The name might be explained, because in Jewish traditions, the snake had the form of a camel, before it was banished by God. To anthroposophists , Samael is known as one of the seven archangels : Saint Gregory gives the seven archangels as Anael , Gabriel , Michael , Oriphiel , Raphael , Samael, and Zerachiel . They are all imagined to have a special assignment to act as

264-507: A Ge'ez version. One is preserved in the Bodleian Library , another was presented to the royal library of France , while the third was kept by Bruce. The copies remained unused until the 19th century; Silvestre de Sacy , in "Notices sur le livre d'Enoch", included extracts of the books with Latin translations (Enoch chapters 1, 2, 5–16, 22, and 32). From this a German translation was made by Rink in 1801. The first English translation of

330-593: A Saudi Arabian national, held in extrajudicial detention in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Samil . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samil&oldid=1209171513 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

396-567: A book that was claimed to be identical to the one quoted by the Epistle of Jude and the Church Fathers. Hiob Ludolf , the great Ethiopic scholar of the 17th and 18th centuries, soon claimed it to be a forgery produced by Abba Bahaila Michael . Better success was achieved by the famous Scottish traveller James Bruce , who, in 1773, returned to Europe from six years in Abyssinia with three copies of

462-476: A distance equal to it, and from the crown of his head to the soles of his feet he was studded with glaring eyes. "This one," said Metatron, addressing Moses, "is Samael, who takes the soul away from man." "Whither goes he now?" asked Moses, and Metatron replied, "To fetch the soul of Job the pious." Thereupon Moses prayed to God in these words, "O may it be Thy will, my God and the God of my fathers, not to let me fall into

528-448: A global zeitgeist ('time-spirit'), each for periods of about 360 years. Book of Enoch The Book of Enoch (also 1 Enoch ; Hebrew: סֵפֶר חֲנוֹךְ, Sēfer Ḥănōḵ ; Ge'ez : መጽሐፈ ሄኖክ , Maṣḥafa Hēnok ) is an ancient Jewish apocalyptic religious text, ascribed by tradition to the patriarch Enoch who was the father of Methuselah and the great-grandfather of Noah . The Book of Enoch contains unique material on

594-529: A member of the heavenly host with often grim and destructive duties. One of Samael's most significant roles in Jewish lore is that of the main angel of death and the head of satans . Although he condemns man's sins, he remains one of God's servants. He appears frequently in the story of the Garden of Eden and engineered the fall of Adam and Eve with a snake in writings during the Second Temple period . However,

660-448: A purported "original" Book of Enoch was an inspired book. The Mormon Book of Moses , first published in the 1830s, is part of the standard works of the Church, and has a section which claims to contain extracts from the "original" Book of Enoch. This section has many similarities to 1 Enoch and other Enoch texts, including 2 Enoch , 3 Enoch , and The Book of Giants . The Enoch section of

726-572: A son, the "Sword of Samael" (or of Asmodai ). In the Kabbalistic work Treatise on the Left Emanation , Samael is part of the qlippoth , prince of all demons, and spouse of Lilith. The two are said to parallel Adam and Eve, being emanated together from the Throne of Glory as a counterpart. Asmodeus is also mentioned to be subservient to Samael and married to a younger, lesser Lilith. According to

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792-649: A true word from God. We cannot tell whether he ranked it alongside other prophetic books such as Isaiah and Jeremiah. What we do know is, first, that other Jewish groups, most notably those living in Qumran near the Dead Sea, also used and valued 1 Enoch, but we do not find it grouped with the scriptural scrolls." The attribution "Enoch the Seventh from Adam" is apparently itself a section heading taken from 1 Enoch ( 1 Enoch 60:8, Jude 1:14a) and not from Genesis. Enoch

858-615: Is cited in the New Testament Epistle of Jude , Jude 1:14–15 , and attributed there to "Enoch the Seventh from Adam" (1 Enoch 60:8), although this section of 1 Enoch is a midrash on Deuteronomy 33:2 , which was written long after the supposed time of Enoch. The full Book of Enoch only survives in its entirety in Ge'ez (Ethiopic) translation. It is part of the biblical canon used by the Ethiopian Jewish community Beta Israel , as well as

924-450: Is clearly composite representing numerous periods and writers". And that the dating of the various sections spans from early pre-Maccabean (i.e. c.  200 BC ) to AD 160. George W. E. Nickelsburg writes that "1 Enoch is a collection of Jewish apocalyptic traditions that date from the last three centuries before the common era". Paleographic analysis of the Enochic fragments found in

990-485: Is considered his proper name. He also fulfills the role of the Angel of Death when he comes to take the body of Moses and is called the leader of Satan. The title of satan is also applied to him in the midrash Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer , where he is the chief of the fallen angels , and a twelve-winged seraph . According to the text, Samael opposed the creation of Adam and descended to Earth to tempt him into evil. Riding

1056-524: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Samael Although many of his functions resemble the Christian notion of Satan , to the point of being sometimes identified as a fallen angel , he is not necessarily evil, since his functions are also regarded as resulting in good, such as destroying sinners. He is considered in Midrashic texts to be

1122-462: Is discussed in Hoffmann. The first critical edition, based on five manuscripts, appeared in 1851 as Liber Henoch, Aethiopice, ad quinque codicum fidem editus, cum variis lectionibus , by August Dillmann . It was followed in 1853 by a German translation of the book by the same author with commentary titled Das Buch Henoch, übersetzt und erklärt . It was considered the standard edition of 1 Enoch until

1188-769: Is not their leader, this being Samyaza . In the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch , he is the dominant evil figure. Samael plants the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil , thereupon he is banished and cursed by God. To take revenge, he tempts Adam and Eve into sin by taking the form of the serpent. He appears further as the embodiment of evil in the Ascension of Isaiah and is called by various names: The names Belial and Satan are also applied to him, and he gains control of King Manasseh to accuse Isaiah of treason. In Talmudic and midrash , Samael's role as an agent of evil

1254-716: Is plain from what has been explained by you; nay, even blasphemies, for you assert that angels sinned and revolted from God." By the fifth century, the Book of Enoch was mostly excluded from Christian biblical canons , and it is now regarded as scripture only by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church . "Enoch, the seventh from Adam" is quoted in Jude 1:14–15 : Compare this with Enoch 1:9, translated from

1320-460: Is quoted. Instead, it is necessary to demonstrate the nature of the quotation. In the case of the Jude ;1:14 quotation of 1 Enoch 1:9, it would be difficult to argue that Jude does not quote Enoch as a historical prophet, since he cites Enoch by name. However, there remains a question as to whether the author of Jude attributed the quotation believing the source to be the historical Enoch before

1386-635: Is referred to directly in the Epistle to the Hebrews . The epistle mentions that Enoch received testimony from God before his translation,( Hebrews 11:5 ) which may be a reference to 1 Enoch. It has also been alleged that the First Epistle of Peter ( 1 Peter 3:19–20 ) and the Second Epistle of Peter ( 2 Peter 2:4–5 ) make reference to some Enochian material. The Book of Enoch was considered as scripture in

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1452-561: Is relatively marginal. However, from the fifth or sixth century onward, he becomes one of the most prominent among the demonic entities. Samael has not been identified with the angel of death in the Talmud. In the Exodus Rabbah , Samael is depicted as the accuser in the heavenly court and tempter to sin, while Michael defends Israel's actions. Here, Samael is identified with Satan . While Satan describes his function as an "accuser," Samael

1518-702: The British Museum and published in the same year. The only surviving example of 1 Enoch in Syriac is found in the 12th century Chronicle of Michael the Great . It is a passage from Book VI and is also known from Syncellus and papyrus. Michael's source appears to have been a Syriac translation of (part of) the chronicle of Annianos. Ephraim Isaac, the editor and translator of 1 Enoch in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha , writes that "1 Enoch

1584-727: The Byzantine Empire by the 8th-century monk George Syncellus in his chronography, and in the 9th century, it is listed as an apocryphon of the New Testament by Patriarch Nicephorus . Sir Walter Raleigh , in his History of the World (written in 1616 while imprisoned in the Tower of London), makes the curious assertion that part of the Book of Enoch "which contained the course of the stars, their names and motions" had been discovered in Saba (Sheba) in

1650-570: The Dead Sea Scrolls in the Qumran Caves . They were kept by a Judaic splinter group not aligned with the mainstream Jewish sect of Pharisees . The Book of Enoch, alongside numerous other texts discovered in the caves, is recognized for its substantial variance from Rabbinic Judaism . Authors of the New Testament were also familiar with some content of the book. A short section of 1 Enoch

1716-480: The Epistle of Barnabas  (4:3) and by some of the early Church Fathers , such as Athenagoras , Clement of Alexandria , and Tertullian , who wrote c. 200 that the Book of Enoch had been rejected by the Jews because it purportedly contained prophecies pertaining to Christ . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints does not consider 1 Enoch to be part of its standard canon , although it believes that

1782-403: The Ge'ez language . Robert Henry Charles 's critical edition of 1906 subdivides the Ethiopic manuscripts into two families: Family α : thought to be more ancient and more similar to the earlier Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek versions: Family β : more recent, apparently edited texts Additionally, there are the manuscripts used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church for preparation of

1848-565: The Maccabean Revolt as a reaction to Hellenization . Scholars thus had to look for the origins of the Qumranic sections of 1 Enoch in the previous historical period , and the comparison with traditional material of such a time showed that these sections do not draw exclusively on categories and ideas prominent in the Hebrew Bible . David Jackson speaks even of an "Enochic Judaism" from which

1914-406: The destroyer angels . Although both Samael and Lilith are major demons in earlier Jewish traditions, they do not appear paired until the second half of the thirteenth century, when they are introduced together. Lilith is a demon created alongside Adam , originally created for the role Eve would fill, who then becomes Samael's bride. With her, Samael created a host of demon children, including

1980-671: The deuterocanonicals from Ge'ez into the targumic Amharic in the bilingual Haile Selassie Amharic Bible ( Mashaf qeddus bage'ezenna ba'amaregna yatasafe 4 vols. c.  1935 ). Eleven Aramaic -language fragments of the Book of Enoch were found in cave 4 of Qumran in 1948 and are in the care of the Israel Antiquities Authority . They were translated for and discussed by Józef Milik and Matthew Black in The Books of Enoch . Another translation has been released by Vermes and Garcia-Martinez. Milik described

2046-420: The guardian angel of Esau relating him to Rome , the one who wrestled with Jacob , the angel who ordered Abraham to sacrifice Isaac , and a patron of Edom . In Kabbalah , Samael is described as the "severity of God" and is listed as fifth of the archangels of the world of Beri'ah . Among his portions are Esau, the people who inherit the sword and bring war; the goats and se'irim (demons); and

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2112-499: The history of Jewish mysticism : the scholar Gershom Scholem wrote, "The main subjects of the later Merkabah mysticism already occupy a central position in the older esoteric literature, best represented by the Book of Enoch ." Particular attention is paid to the detailed description of the throne of God included in chapter 14 of 1 Enoch. For the quotation from the Book of the Watchers in

2178-573: The Bodleian / Ethiopic manuscript was published in 1821 by Richard Laurence . Revised editions appeared in 1833, 1838, and 1842. In 1838, Laurence also released the first Ethiopic text of 1 Enoch published in the West, under the title: Libri Enoch Prophetae Versio Aethiopica . The text, divided into 105 chapters, was soon considered unreliable as it was the transcription of a single Ethiopic manuscript. In 1833, Professor Andreas Gottlieb Hoffmann of

2244-571: The Book of Enoch as canonical and still preserves it in its liturgical language of Geʽez , where it plays a central role in worship. Apart from this community, the Book of Enoch was excluded from both the formal canon of the Tanakh and the Septuagint and therefore, also from the writings known today as the Deuterocanon . The main reason for Jewish rejection of the book is that it is inconsistent with

2310-561: The Book of Enoch. The relation between 1 Enoch and the Essenes was noted even before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. While there is consensus to consider the sections of the Book of Enoch found in Qumran as texts used by the Essenes, the same is not so clear for the Enochic texts not found in Qumran (mainly the Book of Parables): it was proposed to consider these parts as expression of

2376-422: The Book of Moses is believed by the Church to contain extracts from "the ministry, teachings, and visions of Enoch", though it does not contain the entire Book of Enoch itself. The Church considers the portions of the other texts which match its Enoch excerpts to be inspired, while not rejecting but withholding judgment on the remainder. The most extensive surviving early manuscripts of the Book of Enoch exist in

2442-578: The Christian Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church . Other Jewish and Christian groups regard it as non-canonical or non-inspired, but may accept it as having historical or theological interest. Based on the number of copies found in the Dead Sea Scrolls , the Book of Enoch was widely read during the Second Temple period . Today, the Ethiopic Beta Israel community of Haymanot Jews is the only Jewish group that accepts

2508-639: The Ethiopic (found also in Qumran scroll 4Q204=4QEnoch ar, col I 16–18): Compare this also with what may be the original source of 1 Enoch 1:9 in Deuteronomy ;33:2: In "He cometh with ten thousands of His holy ones" the text reproduces the Masoretic of Deuteronomy 33 in reading אָתָא ‎ = ἔρκεται , whereas the three Targums , the Syriac and Vulgate read אִתֹּה ‎, = μετ' αὐτοῦ . Here

2574-522: The Jewish development of Samael, in which Samael is merely an angel and messenger of God. Samael was first mentioned during the Second Temple period and immediately after its destruction. He is first mentioned in the Book of Enoch , which is a part of the Jewish apocrypha , along with other rebellious angels. In Enoch 1, he is one of the Watchers who descended to Earth to copulate with human women, although he

2640-559: The Jewish god with the devil. His appearance is that of a lion-faced serpent. Although the Gnostics and Jewish originally used the same source, both depictions of Samael developed independently. Samael is sometimes confused in some books with Camael , who appears in the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians also as an evil power, whose name is similar to words meaning "like God" (but Camael with

2706-471: The New Testament Epistle of Jude : 14 And Enoch also, the seventh from Adam, prophesied of these, saying, "Behold, the Lord cometh with ten thousand of His saints 15 to execute judgment upon all, and to convince all who are ungodly among them of all their godless deeds which they have godlessly committed, and of all the harsh speeches which godless sinners have spoken against Him." There is little doubt that 1 Enoch

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2772-590: The Origin of the World , his name is explained as "blind god" and his fellow Archons are said to be blind, too. This reflecting the characteristics of the Christian devil, making people blind, as does the devil in 2 Corinthians 4 . Also Samael is the first sinner in the Hypostasis of the Archons and the First Epistle of John calls the devil as sinner from the beginning. These characteristics combined with his boasting conflates

2838-469: The Qumran caves dates the oldest fragments of the Book of the Watchers to 200–150 BC. Since this work shows evidence of multiple stages of composition, it is probable that this work was already extant in the 3rd century BC. The same can be said about the Astronomical Book. Because of these findings, it was no longer possible to claim that the core of the Book of Enoch was composed in the wake of

2904-528: The Septuagint diverges wholly. The reading אתא ‎ is recognized as original. The writer of 1–5 therefore used the Hebrew text and presumably wrote in Hebrew. The Lord came from Sinai and dawned from Seir upon us; he shone forth from Mount Paran; he came from the ten thousands of Saints, with flaming fire at his right hand. Under the heading of canonicity, it is not enough to merely demonstrate that something

2970-612: The University of Jena released a German translation, based on Laurence's work, called Das Buch Henoch in vollständiger Uebersetzung, mit fortlaufendem Kommentar, ausführlicher Einleitung und erläuternden Excursen . Two other translations came out around the same time: one in 1836 called Enoch Restitutus, or an Attempt (Rev. Edward Murray) and one in 1840 called Prophetae veteres Pseudepigraphi, partim ex Abyssinico vel Hebraico sermonibus Latine bersi (A. F. Gfrörer). However, both are considered to be poor—the 1836 translation most of all—and

3036-551: The beginning of Jewish culture in Europe , Samael had been established as a representative of Christianity due to his identification with Rome. In some Gnostic cosmologies , Samael's role as a source of evil became identified with the Demiurge , the creator of the material world. Although probably both accounts originate from the same source, the Gnostic development of Samael differs from

3102-417: The beginning of the world, to execute His will. Moses was disquieted when he looked upon them, but Metatron embraced him, and said, "Moses, Moses, thou favorite of God, fear not, and be not terrified," and Moses became calm. There was another angel in the seventh heaven, different in appearance from all the others, and of frightful mien. His height was so great, it would have taken five hundred years to cover

3168-594: The book that make use of material from the Torah ; for example, 1 En 1 is a midrash of Deuteronomy  33. The content, particularly detailed descriptions of fallen angels , would also be a reason for rejection from the Hebrew canon at this period – as illustrated by the comments of Trypho the Jew when debating with Justin Martyr on this subject: "The utterances of God are holy, but your expositions are mere contrivances, as

3234-445: The chief of all the destroying angels . According to the apocryphal Gedulat Moshe ( The Apocalypse of Moses , "The Ascension of Moses" in The Legends of the Jews by Louis Ginzberg ) Samael is also mentioned as being in 7th Heaven: In the last heaven Moses saw two angels, each five hundred parasangs in height, forged out of chains of black fire and red fire, the angels Af, "Anger", and Hemah, "Wrath", whom God created at

3300-420: The connection is typically more branches of a common trunk than direct development. The Greek text was known to, and quoted, both positively and negatively, by many Church Fathers : references can be found in Justin Martyr , Minucius Felix , Irenaeus , Origen , Cyprian , Hippolytus , Commodianus , Lactantius and Cassian . After Cassian and before the modern "rediscovery", some excerpts are given in

3366-428: The documents as being white or cream in color, blackened in areas, and made of leather that was smooth, thick and stiff. It was also partly damaged, with the ink blurred and faint. The 8th-century work Chronographia Universalis by the Byzantine historian George Syncellus preserved some passages of the Book of Enoch in Greek (6:1–9:4, 15:8–16:1). Other Greek fragments known are: According to Elena Dugan, this Codex

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3432-465: The first century and was thus available to Origen and Tertullian . He attributes this information to Origen, although no such statement is found anywhere in extant versions of Origen. Outside of Ethiopia , the text of the Book of Enoch was considered lost until the beginning of the seventeenth century, when it was confidently asserted that the book was found in an Ethiopic (Ge'ez) language translation there, and Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc bought

3498-605: The flood, or as a midrash of Deut 33:2–3. The Greek text might seem unusual in stating that "Enoch the Seventh from Adam" prophesied "to" ( dative case) not "of" ( genitive case) the men, however, this Greek grammar might indicate meaning "against them" – the dative τούτοις as a dative of disadvantage ( dativus incommodi ). Davids (2006) points to Dead Sea Scrolls evidence but leaves it open as to whether Jude viewed 1 Enoch as canon, deuterocanon, or otherwise: "Did Jude, then, consider this scripture to be like Genesis or Isaiah? Certainly he did consider it authoritative,

3564-404: The hands of this angel." In the Apocryphon of John , On the Origin of the World , and Hypostasis of the Archons , found in the Nag Hammadi library , Samael is one of three names of the demiurge , whose other names are Yaldabaoth and Saklas . After Yaldabaoth claims sole divinity for himself, the voice of Sophia comes forth calling him Samael , due to his ignorance. In On

3630-436: The latest part (Book of Parables) is probably from around 100 BC. Scholars believe Enoch was originally written in either Aramaic or Hebrew , the languages first used for Jewish texts. Ephraim Isaac suggests that the Book of Enoch, like the Book of Daniel , was composed partially in Aramaic and partially in Hebrew. No Hebrew version is known to have survived. Copies of the earlier sections of 1 Enoch were preserved among

3696-426: The mainstream, but not-Qumranic, essenic movement. The main peculiar aspects of the not-Qumranic units of 1 Enoch are the following: Classical rabbinic literature is characterized by near silence concerning Enoch. It is possible that rabbinic polemics against Enochic texts and traditions might have led to the fall from use of these books in Rabbinic Judaism . However, the book of Enoch plays an important role in

3762-506: The origins of demons and Nephilim , why some angels fell from heaven, an explanation of why the Genesis flood was morally necessary, and a prophetic exposition of the thousand-year reign of the Messiah . Three books are traditionally attributed to Enoch, including the distinct works 2 Enoch and 3 Enoch . None of the three are considered to be canonical scripture by most Jewish or Christian church bodies. The older sections of 1 Enoch are estimated to date from about 300–200 BC, and

3828-425: The same work later calls him Azazel , which might be a case of mistaken identity, as Azazel may be himself in Zoharistic lore a combination of the angels Ouza and Azrael . It is also said that the Baal Shem Tov summoned Samael to make him do his bidding. Samael is also depicted as the angel of death and one of the seven archangels, the ruler over the Fifth Heaven and commander of two million angels such as

3894-493: The second. It has been claimed that several small additional fragments in Greek have been found at Qumran (7QEnoch: 7Q4, 7Q8, 7Q10-13), dating about 100 BC, ranging from 98:11? to 103:15 and written on papyrus with grid lines, but this identification is highly contested. Portions of 1 Enoch were incorporated into the chronicle of Panodoros ( c.  400 ) and thence borrowed by his contemporary Annianos . A sixth- or seventh-century fragmentary manuscript contains

3960-406: The serpent is not a form of Samael, but a beast he rode like a camel . In a single account he is also believed to be the father of Cain , as well as the partner of Lilith . In early Talmudic and Midrashic literature, he has not yet been identified with Satan. Only in later Midrashim is he entitled "head of satans." As guardian angel and prince of Rome , he is the archenemy of Israel . By

4026-409: The serpent, he convinces Eve to eat the forbidden fruit. His role here might be similar to the Islamic idea of Iblis , who refused to prostrate himself before Adam because he consists of fire and Adam merely from dust. The midrash also reveals Samael fathered Cain with Eve. In the smaller midrashim , he is the ruler of hell. Several sources, such as Yalkut Shimoni (I, 110) describe him as

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4092-434: The teachings of the Torah . From the standpoint of Rabbinic Judaism , the book is considered to be heretical . For example, in 1 Enoch 40:1–10, the angel Phanuel presides over those who repent of sin and are granted eternal life. Some claim that this refers to Jesus Christ, as "Phanuel" translates to "the Face of God". Another reason for the exclusion of the texts might be the textual nature of several early sections of

4158-496: The treatise, God castrated Samael in order not to fill the world with their demonic offspring, this being the reason why Lilith seeks to fornicate with men. In the Zohar , one of Kabbalah's principal works, Samael is described as a leader of the divine forces of destruction, part of the qlippoth. He is mentioned again as the serpent's rider, and is described as having mated with Eisheth Zenunim , Na'amah , and Agrat bat Mahlat , all being "angels" of sacred prostitution . Notably,

4224-432: The writers of Qumran scrolls were descended. Margaret Barker argues, "Enoch is the writing of a very conservative group whose roots go right back to the time of the First Temple ". The main peculiar aspects of this Enochic Judaism include: Most Qumran fragments are relatively early, with none written from the last period of the Qumranic experience. Thus, it is probable that the Qumran community gradually lost interest in

4290-576: Was influential in molding New Testament doctrines about the Messiah , the Son of Man , the messianic kingdom , demonology , the resurrection , and eschatology . The limits of the influence of 1 Enoch are discussed at length by R.H. Charles, Ephraim Isaac, and G.W. Nickelsburg in their respective translations and commentaries. It is possible that the earlier sections of 1 Enoch had direct textual and content influence on many Biblical apocrypha , such as Jubilees , 2 Baruch , 2 Esdras , Apocalypse of Abraham and 2 Enoch , though even in these cases,

4356-407: Was written by two separate scribes and was previously misunderstood as containing errors. She suggests that the first scribe actually preserves a valuable text that is not erroneous. In fact the text preserves "a thoughtful composition, corresponding to the progression of Enoch's life and culminating in an ascent to heaven". The first scribe may have been working earlier, and was possibly unconnected to

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