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114-565: The exact origin of the present town of Saky is unknown. At the time of the Crimean Khanate , Saky was a small village. In 1805, Saky had less than 400 people, more than 95 percent of whom were Crimean Tatars . In 1827, the first bathhouse was built and ten years later an office of the military hospital of Simferopol . During the Crimean War , the allied forces landed near Saky between Saky Lake and Kyzyl-Yar Lake and besieged Sevastopol . At

228-543: A Muslim surname with a Polish ending: Ryzwanowicz ; other surnames adopted by more assimilated Tatars are Tatara or Tataranowicz or Taterczyński , which literally mean "son of a Tatar". The Tatars played a relatively prominent role for such a small community in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth military as well as in Polish and Lithuanian political and intellectual life. In modern-day Poland, their presence

342-478: A bey was called a beylik . Beys in the khanate were as important as the Polish Magnats . Directly to the khan belonged Cufut-Qale , Bakhchisaray , and Staryi Krym (Eski Qirim). The khan also possessed all the salt lakes and the villages around them, as well as the woods around the rivers Alma , Kacha, and Salgir . Part of his own estate included the wastelands with their newly created settlements. Part of

456-670: A claim to be the successor to the Golden Horde, which entailed asserting the right of rule over the Tatar khanates of the Caspian-Volga region, particularly the Kazan Khanate and Astrakhan Khanate . This claim pitted it against Muscovy for dominance in the region. A successful campaign by Devlet I Giray upon the Russian capital in 1571 culminated in the burning of Moscow , and he thereby gained

570-583: A complex relationship with Zaporozhian Cossacks who lived to the north of the khanate in modern Ukraine. The Cossacks provided a measure of protection against Tatar raids for Poland–Lithuania and received subsidies for their service. They also raided Crimean and Ottoman possessions in the region. At times Crimean Khanate made alliances with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Zaporizhian Sich . The assistance of İslâm III Giray during

684-603: A little later by the Greeks of Constantinople . In February 1945, the British and American delegations at the Yalta conference landed at Saky Airport . Saky city council member Oleg Kolodyazhny ( Our Ukraine ) was shot dead in Saky on June 29, 2010. A series of explosions occurred at the nearby Saky air base on August 9, 2022. Crimean Khanate The Crimean Khanate , self-defined as

798-460: A mosque that remained in use as of 2017 . Crimean Tatars are an indigenous people of Crimea. Their formation occurred during the 13th–17th centuries, primarily from Cumans that appeared in Crimea in the 10th century, with strong contributions from all the peoples who ever inhabited Crimea (Greeks, Scythians, and Goths). At the beginning of the 13th century, Crimea, where the majority of the population

912-568: A name for populations of the former Golden Horde in Europe, such as those of the former Kazan , Crimean , Astrakhan , Qasim , and Siberian Khanates. The form Tartar has its origins in either Latin or French , coming to Western European languages from Turkish and the Persian language ( tātār , "mounted messenger"). From the beginning, the extra r was present in the Western forms and according to

1026-643: A reward, according to local folklore, for historic services rendered to an uluhane (first wife of a Khan). The capitation tax on Jews in Crimea was levied by the office of the uluhane in Bahçeseray. Much like the Christian population of Crimea, the Jews were actively involved in the slave trade. Both Christians and Jews also often redeemed Christian and Jewish captives of Tatar raids in Eastern Europe. The nomadic part of

1140-590: A self-designation, others do not. The term is originally not just an exonym , since the Polovtsians of Golden Horde called themselves Tatar . It is also an endonym to a number of peoples of Siberia and Russian Far East , namely the Khakas people (тадар, tadar). Eleventh-century Kara-khanid scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari noted that the historical Tatars were bilingual, speaking other Turkic languages besides their own. The modern Tatar language , together with

1254-441: A single society formed a special people. — Carl Wilhelm Müller . "Description of all the peoples living in the Russian state,.." Part Two. About the peoples of the Tatar tribe. S-P, 1776, Translated from German. — Johann Gottlieb Georgi . Description of all the peoples living in the Russian state : their everyday rituals, customs, clothes, dwellings, exercises, amusements, faiths and other memorabilia. Part 2 : About

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1368-747: A substantial amount of Russian and Arabic loanwords. Before 1917, polygamy was practiced only by the wealthier classes and was a waning institution. The Astrakhan Tatars (around 80,000) are a group of Tatars, descendants of the Astrakhan Khanate 's population, who live mostly in Astrakhan Oblast . In the Russian census of 2010 most Astrakhan Tatars declared themselves simply as "Tatars" and few declared themselves as "Astrakhan Tatars". Many Volga Tatars live in Astrakhan Oblast, and differences between

1482-885: Is a conditional territory, the possessions of which are controlled by the Nogai Horde, they were run by foremen beki: The Tatar Queen Syuyumbike , who was the daughter of the Nogai biya, also testifies to the Nogai roots of the Kazan Tatars. And this is also confirmed by the Khans of the Kazan Khanate: The large coat of arms of Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible testifies that the Tatars of the Kazan Khanate and

1596-500: Is also widely known, due in part to their noticeable role in the historical novels of Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846–1916), which are universally recognized in Poland. A number of Polish intellectual figures have also been Tatars, e.g. the prominent historian Jerzy Łojek . A small community of Polish-speaking Tatars settled in Brooklyn , New York City , in the early 20th century. They established

1710-515: Is an umbrella term for different Turkic ethnic groups bearing the name "Tatar" across Eastern Europe and Asia. Initially, the ethnonym Tatar possibly referred to the Tatar confederation . That confederation was eventually incorporated into the Mongol Empire when Genghis Khan unified the various steppe tribes. Historically, the term Tatars (or Tartars ) was applied to anyone originating from

1824-517: Is independent of Volga–Ural Tatar. The dialects are quite remote from Standard Tatar and from each other, often preventing mutual comprehension . The claim that Siberian Tatar is part of the modern Tatar language is typically supported by linguists in Kazan and denounced by Siberian Tatars. Crimean Tatar is the indigenous language of the Crimean Tatar people . Because of its common name, Crimean Tatar

1938-595: Is sometimes mistakenly seen in Russia as a dialect of Kazan Tatar . Although these languages are related (as both are Turkic), the Kypchak languages closest to Crimean Tatar are (as mentioned above) Kumyk and Karachay-Balkar , not Kazan Tatar. Still, there exists an opinion ( E. R. Tenishev ), according to which the Kazan Tatar language is included in the same Kipchak-Cuman group as Crimean Tatar. The largest Tatar populations are

2052-559: Is the oldest memorial in the Crimean Tatar language and of great importance for the history of Kypchak and Oghuz dialects – as directly related to the Kipchaks of the Black Sea steppes and Crimea . There are legends that, in the 14th century, the Crimea was repeatedly ravaged by the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Grand Duke of Lithuania Algirdas broke the Tatar army in 1363 near

2166-628: The Bashkir language , forms the Kypchak-Volga-Ural group within the Kipchak languages (also known as Northwestern Turkic). There are two Tatar dialects—Central and Western. The Western dialect (Misher) is spoken mostly by Mishärs , the Central dialect is spoken by Kazan and Astrakhan Tatars . Both dialects have subdialects. Central Tatar furnishes the base of literary Tatar. The Siberian Tatar language

2280-711: The Black Sea were nominally subject to the Crimean Khan. They were divided into the following groups: Budjak (from the Danube to the Dniester), Yedisan (from the Dniester to the Bug), Cemboylıq  [ crh ] (Bug to Crimea), Yedickul (north of Crimea) and Kuban . Internally, the khanate territory was divided among the beys, and beneath the beys were mirzas from noble families. The relationship of peasants or herdsmen to their mirzas

2394-730: The Desht-i Kipchak (Kypchak Steppes of today's Ukraine and southern Russia) and decided to make Crimea their yurt (homeland). At that time, the Golden Horde of the Mongol empire had governed the Crimean peninsula as an ulus since 1239, with its capital at Qirim ( Staryi Krym ). The local separatists invited a Genghisid contender for the Golden Horde throne, Hacı Giray , to become their khan . Hacı Giray accepted their invitation and travelled from exile in Lithuania . He warred for independence against

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2508-510: The Giray clan, which traced its right to rule to its descent from Genghis Khan . According to the tradition of the steppes, the ruler was legitimate only if he was of Genghisid royal descent (i.e. "ak süyek"). Although the Giray dynasty was the symbol of government, the khan actually governed with the participation of Qaraçı Beys , the leaders of the noble clans such as Şirin, Barın, Arğın, Qıpçaq, and in

2622-716: The Golden Horde and Desht-i Kipchak , called themselves khans of "the Great Horde, the Great State and the Throne of the Crimea". The full title of the Crimean khans, used in official documents and correspondence with foreign rulers, varying slightly from document to document during the three centuries of the Khanate's existence, was as follows: "By the Grace and help of the blessed and highest Lord,

2736-718: The Golden Horde . During the reign of Meñli I Giray , Hacı's son, the army of the Great Horde that still existed then invaded Crimea from the north, Crimean Khan won the general battle, overtaking the army of the Horde Khan in Takht-Lia, where he was killed, the Horde ceased to exist, and the Crimean Khan became the Great Khan and the successor of this state. Since then, the Crimean Khanate

2850-630: The Khmelnytsky Uprising in 1648 contributed greatly to the initial momentum of military successes for the Cossacks. The relationship with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was also exclusive, as it was the home dynasty of the Girays, who sought sanctuary in Lithuania in the 15th century before establishing themselves on the Crimean peninsula. In the middle of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanate asserted

2964-639: The Lipka Tatars (13th–14th centuries) as well as Crimean and Nogay Tatars (15th–16th centuries), all of which were notable in Polish military history, as well as Volga Tatars (16th–17th centuries). They all mostly settled in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Various estimates of the Tatars in the Commonwealth in the 17th century place their numbers at about 15,000 persons and 60 villages with mosques. Numerous royal privileges, as well as internal autonomy granted by

3078-595: The Oxford English Dictionary this was most likely due to an association with Tartarus . The Persian word is first recorded in the 13th century in reference to the hordes of Genghis Khan and is of unknown origin; according to the Oxford English Dictionary it is "said to be" ultimately from tata . The Arabic word for Tatars is تتار . Tatars themselves wrote their name as تاتار or طاطار . Ochir (2016) states that Siberian Tatars and

3192-477: The Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) took place during the reign of Peter I (1682–1725). The Selim II Giray fountain, built in 1747, is considered one of the masterpieces of Crimean Khanate's hydraulic engineering designs and is still marveled in modern times. It consists of small ceramic pipes, boxed in an underground stone tunnel, stretching back to the spring source more than 20 metres (66 feet) away. It

3306-508: The Soviet Union . It is estimated that about 3,000 Tatars live in present-day Poland, of which about 500 declared Tatar (rather than Polish) nationality in the 2002 census. There are two Tatar villages ( Bohoniki and Kruszyniany ) in the north-east of present-day Poland, as well as urban Tatar communities in Warsaw , Gdańsk , Białystok , and Gorzów Wielkopolski . Tatars in Poland sometimes have

3420-677: The Tatar language . Accordingly, they form distinct groups such as the Mişär group and the Qasim group: A minority of Christianized Volga Tatars are known as Keräşens . The Volga Tatars used the Turkic Old Tatar language for their literature between the 15th and 19th centuries. It was written in the İske imlâ variant of the Arabic script , but actual spelling varied regionally. The older literary language included many Arabic and Persian loanwords. However,

3534-506: The Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak , and in old European historiography and geography known as Little Tartary , was a Crimean Tatar state existing from 1441–1783, the longest-lived of the Turkic khanates that succeeded the empire of the Golden Horde . Established by Hacı I Giray in 1441, it was regarded as the direct heir to the Golden Horde and to Desht-i-Kipchak . In 1783, violating

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3648-832: The Volga Tatars , native to the Idel-Ural (Volga-Ural) region of European Russia, and the Crimean Tatars of Crimea . Smaller groups of Lipka Tatars and Astrakhan Tatars also live in Europe and the Siberian Tatars in Asia. In the 7th century AD, the Volga Bulgars settled on the territory of the Volga-Kama region, where Finno-Ugrians lived compactly at that time. Bulgars inhabited part of

3762-428: The Volga-Ural region ( Tatarstan and Bashkortostan ) of European Russia, who for this reason are often also known as "Tatars" in Russian. They compose 53% of the population in Tatarstan. Their language is known as the Tatar language . As of 2010 , there were an estimated 5.3 million ethnic Tatars in Russia. While also speaking languages belonging to different Kipchak sub-groups, genetic studies have shown that

3876-405: The vakif lands and their enormous revenues. Another Muslim official, appointed not by the clergy but the Ottoman sultan, was the kadıasker , the overseer of the khanate's judicial districts, each under jurisdiction of a kadi . In theory, kadis answered to the kadiaskers, but in practice they answered to the clan leaders and the khan. The kadis determined the day to day legal behavior of Muslims in

3990-418: The 13th to 17th centuries various groups of Tatars settled and/or found refuge within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Grand Dukes of Lithuania especially promoted the migrations because of the Tatars' reputation as skilled warriors. The Tatar settlers were all granted szlachta (nobility) status, a tradition that survived until the end of the Commonwealth in the late 18th century. Such migrants included

4104-415: The 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (which had guaranteed non-interference of both Russia and the Ottoman Empire in the affairs of the Crimean Khanate), the Russian Empire annexed the khanate . Among the European powers, only France came out with an open protest against this act, due to the longstanding Franco-Ottoman alliance . The Crimean Khans, considering their state as the heir and legal successor of

4218-616: The 1910s the Volga Tatars numbered about half a million in the Kazan Governorate in Tatarstan , their historical homeland, about 400,000 in each of the governments of Ufa , 100,000 in Samara and Simbirsk , and about 30,000 in Vyatka , Saratov , Tambov , Penza , Nizhny Novgorod , Perm and Orenburg . An additional 15,000 had migrated to Ryazan or were settled as prisoners in the 16th and 17th centuries in Lithuania ( Vilnius , Grodno and Podolia ). An additional 2,000 resided in St. Petersburg. Most Kazan Tatars practice Islam. The Kazan Tatars speak Kazan (normal) Tatar language, with

4332-416: The August Roman Emperor Leopold to the Tsar and Grand Duke Alexei Mikhailovich in 1661, described by Baron Mayerberg himself Kazan Tatars are descendants of the Tatars of the Kazan Kingdom of the Kipchak Horde. — "Alphabetical list of peoples living in the Russian Empire in 1895" [1] Kazan Tatars got their name from the main city of Kazan — and it is so called from the Tatar word Kazan, the cauldron, which

4446-473: The Bulgarian and Cheremis land, and there were very few of them on the territory of the future Kazan Khanate. But during the events of 1438–1445, associated with the formation of the Kazan Khanate, together with Khan Uluk-Muhammad, about 40 thousand Tatars arrived here at once. Subsequently, Tatars from Astrakhan , Azov , Crimea , Akhtubinsk and other places moved to the Kazan Khanate . The Arab historian Al-Omari (Shihabuddin al-Umari) wrote that, having joined

4560-442: The Bulgars of the Volga Bulgarian land are different peoples and territories with different coats of arms. Forming The formation of the Kazan Tatars occurred only in the Golden Horde in the 14th - first half of the 15th century. from the Central Asian Turkic-Tatar tribes that arrived with the Mongols and appeared in the Lower Volga region in the 11th century. Kipchaks (Polovtsians). There were only minor groups of Kipchak tribes on

4674-427: The Crimea and probably saw him as her heir to the Crimean throne. In the sources of the 16th–18th centuries, the opinion according to which the separation of the Crimean Tatar state was raised to Tokhtamysh, and Canike was the most important figure in this process, completely prevailed. The Crimean Khanate originated in the early 15th century when certain clans of the Golden Horde Empire ceased their nomadic life in

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4788-433: The Crimea is considered Aran-Timur , the nephew of Batu Khan of the Golden Horde, who received this area from Mengu-Timur , and the first center of the Crimea was the ancient city Qırım (Solhat). This name then gradually spread to the entire Peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent to Qırq Yer and Bağçasaray . The multi-ethnic population of Crimea then consisted mainly of those who lived in

4902-447: The Crimea when the local population refused to pay tribute. An example is the well-known campaign of the Nogai Khan in 1299, which resulted in a number of Crimean cities suffering. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to manifest themselves in Crimea. In 1303, in Crimea, the most famous written monument of the Kypchak or Cuman language was created (named in Kypchak "tatar tili") – " Codex Cumanicus ", which

5016-463: The Crimea, inhabited mainly by Turkic peoples ( Cumans ), became the possession of Ulus Juchi , known as the Golden Horde or Ulu Ulus. In this era, the role of Turkic peoples increased. Around this time, the local Kipchaks took the name of Tatars ( tatarlar ). In the Horde period, the khans of the Golden Horde were the Supreme rulers of the Crimea, but their governors – Emirs – exercised direct control. The first formally recognized ruler in

5130-409: The Crimean Khanate did not decrease. These politico-economic losses led in turn to erosion of the khan's support among noble clans, and internal conflicts for power ensued. The Nogays, who provided a significant portion of the Crimean military forces, also took back their support from the khans towards the end of the empire. In the first half of the 17th century, Kalmyks formed the Kalmyk Khanate in

5244-428: The Crimean Khanate during the Chigirin Campaigns and the Crimean Campaigns . It was during the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739) that the Russians, under the command of Field-Marshal Münnich , penetrated the Crimean Peninsula itself, burning and destroying everything in it. More warfare ensued during the reign of Catherine II . The Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) resulted in the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji , which made

5358-428: The Crimean Khanate independent from the Ottoman Empire and aligned it with the Russian Empire . The rule of the last Crimean khan Şahin Giray was marked with increasing Russian influence and outbursts of violence from the khan administration towards internal opposition. On 8 April 1783, in violation of the treaty (after some parts of treaty had been already violated by Crimeans and Ottomans), Catherine II intervened in

5472-407: The Crimean Khanate shifted throughout its existence due to the constant incursions by the Cossacks , who had lived along the Don since the disintegration of the Golden Horde in the 15th century. The London-based cartographer Herman Moll in a map of c. 1729 shows "Little Tartary" as including the Crimean peninsula and the steppe between Dnieper and Mius River as far north as the Dnieper bend and

5586-412: The Crimean Khanate were destroyed or left in ruins after the Russian invasion. Mosques, in particular were demolished or remade into Orthodox churches. The settled Crimean Tatars were engaged in trade, agriculture, and artisanry. Crimea was a center of wine, tobacco, and fruit cultivation. Bahçeseray kilims ( oriental rugs ) were exported to Poland , and knives made by Crimean Tatar artisans were deemed

5700-465: The Crimean Tatars and all the Nogays were cattle breeders. Crimea had important trading ports where the goods arrived via the Silk Road were exported to the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Crimean Khanate had many large cities such as the capital Bahçeseray, Kezlev (Yevpatoria), Qarasu Bazar (Market on black water) and Aqmescit (White-mosque) having numerous hans ( caravansarais and merchant quarters), tanners, and mills. Many monuments constructed under

5814-409: The Crimean Tatars and the Ottomans was comparable to the Polish–Lithuanian union in its importance and durability. The Crimean cavalry became indispensable for the Ottomans' campaigns against Poland , Hungary , and Persia . In 1502, Meñli I Giray defeated the last khan of the Great Horde , which put an end to the Horde's claims on Crimea. The Khanate initially chose as its capital Salaçıq near

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5928-599: The Crimean Tatars in the course of their raids: It seems that the position and everyday conditions of a slave depended largely on his/her owner. Some slaves indeed could spend the rest of their days doing exhausting labor: as the Crimean vizir (minister) Sefer Gazi Aga mentions in one of his letters, the slaves were often "a plough and a scythe" of their owners. Most terrible, perhaps, was the fate of those who became galley -slaves, whose sufferings were poeticized in many Ukrainian dumas (songs). ... Both female and male slaves were often used for sexual purposes. The Crimeans had

6042-401: The Crimean Tatars were forced to immigrate to the Ottoman Empire. In total, from 1783 till the beginning of the 20th century, at least 800 thousand Tatars left Crimea. In 1917, the Crimean Tatars, in an effort to recreate their statehood, announced the Crimean People's Republic —the first democratic republic in the Muslim world, where all peoples were equal in rights. The head of the republic was

6156-453: The Genoese colonies at Cembalo , Soldaia , and Caffa (modern Feodosiya). Thenceforth the khanate was a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan enjoyed veto power over the selection of new Crimean khans. The Empire annexed the Crimean coast but recognized the legitimacy of the khanate rule of the steppes, as the khans were descendants of Genghis Khan . In 1475, the Ottomans imprisoned Meñli I Giray for three years for resisting

6270-445: The Golden Horde, the Cumans moved to the position of subjects. The Tatar-Mongols who settled on the territory of the Polovtsian steppe gradually mixed with the Polovtsians. Al-Omari concludes that after several generations, the Tatars began to look like Polovtsy: "as if from the same (with them) kind," because they began to live on their lands. Finally in the end of the 19th century; although the name Nogailars persisted in some places;

6384-413: The Grand Duchy. These Tatars first settled in Lithuania proper around Vilnius , Trakai , Hrodna and Kaunas and spread to other parts of the Grand Duchy that later became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569. These areas comprise parts of present-day Lithuania , Belarus and Poland . From the very beginning of their settlement in Lithuania they were known as the Lipka Tatars. From

6498-416: The Horde from 1420 to 1441, in the end achieving success. But Hacı Giray then had to fight off internal rivals before he could ascend the throne of the khanate in 1449, after which he moved its capital to Qırq Yer (today part of Bahçeseray ). The khanate included the Crimean Peninsula (except the south and southwest coast and ports, controlled by the Republic of Genoa & Trebizond Empire ) as well as

6612-438: The Lower Volga and under Ayuka Khan conducted many military expeditions against the Crimean Khanate and Nogays . By becoming an important ally and later part of the Russian Empire and taking an oath to protect its southeastern borders, the Kalmyk Khanate took an active part in all Russian war campaigns in the 17th and 18th centuries, providing up to 40,000 fully equipped horsemen. The united Russian and Ukrainian forces attacked

6726-421: The Ottoman Empire; instead the Ottomans paid them in return for their services of providing skilled outriders and frontline cavalry in their campaigns. Later on, Crimea lost power in this relationship as the result of a crisis in 1523, during the reign of Meñli's successor, Mehmed I Giray . He died that year and beginning with his successor, from 1524 on, Crimean khans were appointed by the Sultan. The alliance of

6840-460: The Qırq Yer fortress. Later, the capital was moved a short distance to Bahçeseray , founded in 1532 by Sahib I Giray . Both Salaçıq and the Qırq Yer fortress today are part of the expanded city of Bahçeseray. The slave trade was the backbone of the economy of the Crimean Khanate. The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into the Danubian principalities , Poland–Lithuania , and Muscovy to enslave people whom they could capture; for each captive,

6954-516: The Russian army invaded Crimea, led by Münnich , devastated the peninsula, killed civilians and destroyed all major cities, occupied the capital, Bakhchisaray , and burnt the Khan's palace with all the archives and documents, and then left Crimea because of the epidemic that had begun in it. One year later the same was done by another Russian general— Peter Lacy . Since then, the Crimean Khanate had not been able to recover, and its slow decline began. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768 to 1774 resulted in

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7068-403: The Tatar cavalry suffered a significant loss against European and Russian armies with modern equipment. By the late 17th century, Russia became too strong for Crimean Khan to pillage and the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) outlawed further raids. The era of great slave raids in Russia and Ukraine was over, although brigands and Nogay raiders continued their attacks, and consequently Russian hatred of

7182-428: The Tatars living in the territories between Asia and Europe are of Turkic origin, acquired the appellation Tatar later, and do not possess ancestral connection to the Mongolic Nine Tatars , whose ethnogenesis involved Mongolic people as well as Mongolized Turks who had been ruling over them during the 6–8th centuries. Pow (2019) proposes that Turkic-speaking peoples of Cumania , as a sign of political allegiance, adopted

7296-422: The Tatars seldom cultivated the soil themselves, with most of their land tilled by the Polish, Ruthenian, Russian, and Walachian (Moldavian) slaves." The Jewish population was concentrated in Çufut Kale ('Jewish Fortress'), a separate town near Bahçeseray that was the Khan's original capital. As with other minorities, they spoke a Turkic language. Crimean law granted them special financial and political rights as

7410-482: The Turkish pattern: the nobles' landholdings were proclaimed the domain of the khan and reorganized into qadılıqs (provinces governed by representatives of the khan). Crimean law was based on Tatar law, Islamic law, and, in limited matters, Ottoman law . The leader of the Muslim establishment was the mufti , who was selected from among the local Muslim clergy. His major duty was neither judicial nor theological, but financial. The mufti's administration controlled all of

7524-405: The adjacent steppe. The sons of Hacı I Giray contended against each other to succeed him. The Ottomans intervened and installed one of the sons, Meñli I Giray , on the throne. Menli I Giray, took the imperial title "Sovereign of Two Continents and Khan of Khans of Two Seas." In 1475 the Ottoman forces, under the command of Gedik Ahmet Pasha , conquered the Greek Principality of Theodoro and

7638-443: The aid of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh , was defeated on the banks of the Vorskla River by Tokhtamysh's rival Timur-Kutluk , on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by the Emir Edigei , and made peace. During the reign of Canike Hanım, Tokhtamysh's daughter, in Qırq-Or, she supported Hacı I Giray in the struggle against the descendants of Tokhtamysh , Kichi-Muhammada and Sayid Ahmad , who as well as Hacı Giray claimed full power in

7752-502: The area from (Great) Tartary – those areas of central and northern Asia inhabited by Turkic peoples or Tatars . The Khanate included the Crimean peninsula and the adjacent steppes, mostly corresponding to parts of South Ukraine between the Dnieper and the Donets rivers (i.e. including most of present-day Zaporizhzhia Oblast , left-Dnipro parts of Kherson Oblast , besides minor parts of southeastern Dnipropetrovsk Oblast and western Donetsk Oblast ). The territory controlled by

7866-413: The army of the Crimean Khan Devlet II Giray , finding himself in a hopeless situation. And only the betrayal of the Ottoman vizier Baltacı Mehmet Pasha allowed Peter to get out of the encirclement of the Crimean Tatars. When Devlet II Giray protested against the vizier's decision, his response was: "You might know your Tatar affairs. The affairs of the Sublime Porte are entrusted to me. You do not have

7980-445: The art of warfare. Several conflicts occurred between Circassians and Crimean Tatars in the 18th century, with the former defeating an army of Khan Kaplan Giray and Ottoman auxiliaries in the battle of Kanzhal . The Turkish traveler writer Evliya Çelebi mentions the impact of Cossack raids from Azak upon the territories of the Crimean Khanate. These raids ruined trade routes and severely depopulated many important regions. By

8094-426: The beginning of February 1855, the troops of General Stepan Aleksandrovich Khroulev focused on Saky before attacking the enemy in the fortifications of Evpatoria . The village was completely destroyed by bombing. After the Crimean War, during the second wave of emigration of Crimean Tatars, the Tatar population of Saky abandoned the ruined village. In 1858, migrants from the region of Poltava settled there, followed

8208-592: The beginning of princess (khanum) Canike's, the daughter of the powerful Khan of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh and the wife of the founder of the Nogai Horde Edigey , reign in the peninsula. During her reign she strongly supported Hacı Giray in the struggle for the Crimean throne until her death in 1437. Following the death of Сanike, the situation of Hacı Giray in Crimea weakened and he was forced to leave Crimea for Lithuania. In 1441, an embassy from

8322-478: The best by the Caucasian tribes. Crimea was also renowned for manufacture of silk and honey. The slave trade (15th–17th century) of captured Ukrainians and Russians was one of the major sources of income for Crimean Tartar and Nogai nobility. In this process, known as harvesting the steppe , raiding parties would go out and capture, and then enslave the local Christian peasants living in the countryside. In spite of

8436-432: The capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves. Author and historian Brian Glyn Williams writes: Fisher estimates that in the sixteenth century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost around 20,000 individuals a year and that from 1474 to 1694, as many as a million Commonwealth citizens were carried off into Crimean slavery. Early modern sources are full of descriptions of sufferings of Christian slaves captured by

8550-727: The civil war, de facto annexing the whole peninsula as the Taurida Oblast . In 1787, Şahin Giray took refuge in the Ottoman Empire and was eventually executed, on Rhodes , by the Ottoman authorities for betrayal. The royal Giray family survives to this day. Through the 1792 Treaty of Jassy (Iaşi), the Russian frontier was extended to the Dniester River and the takeover of Yedisan was complete. The 1812 Treaty of Bucharest transferred Bessarabia to Russian control. All Khans were from

8664-481: The dangers, Polish and Russian serfs were attracted to the freedom offered by the empty steppes of Ukraine . The slave raids entered Russian and Cossack folklore and many dumy were written elegising the victims' fates. This contributed to a hatred for the Khanate that transcended political or military concerns. But in fact, there were always small raids committed by both Tatars and Cossacks , in both directions. The last recorded major Crimean raid , before those in

8778-559: The defeat of the Ottomans by the Russians, and according to the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) signed after the war, Crimea became independent and the Ottomans renounced their political right to protect the Crimean Khanate. After a period of political unrest in Crimea, Imperial Russia violated the treaty and annexed the Crimean Khanate in 1783. Due to the oppression by the Russian administration,

8892-540: The endonym Tatar of their Mongol conquerors, before ultimately subsuming the latter culturally and linguistically. Some Turkic peoples living within the Russian Empire were named Tatar , although not all Turkic peoples of Russian Empire were referred to as Tatars (for instance, this name was never used in relation to the Yakuts , Chuvashes , Sarts and some others). Some of these populations used and keep using Tatar as

9006-720: The great padishah of the Great Horde, and the Great State, and the Throne of the Crimea, and all the Nogai, and the mountain Circassians, and the tats and tavgachs, and The Kipchak steppe and all the Tatars" ( Crimean Tatar : Tañrı Tebareke ve Ta'alânıñ rahimi ve inayeti milen Uluğ Orda ve Uluğ Yurtnıñ ve taht-ı Qırım ve barça Noğaynıñ ve tağ ara Çerkaçnıñ ve Tat imilen Tavğaçnıñ ve Deşt-i Qıpçaqnıñ ve barça Tatarnıñ uluğ padişahı , تنكرى تبرك و تعالينيڭ رحمى و عنايتى ميلان اولوغ اوردا و اولوغ يورتنيڭ و تخت قريم و بارچا نوغاينيڭ و طاغ ارا چركاچنيڭ و تاد يميلان طوگاچنيڭ و دشت قپچاقنيڭ و بارچا تاتارنيڭ يولوغ پادشاهى ). According to Oleksa Hayvoronsky,

9120-627: The inhabitants of the Crimean Khanate in Crimean Tatar usually referred to their state as "Qırım yurtu, Crimean Yurt", which can be translated into English as "the country of Crimea" or "Crimean country". English-speaking writers during the 18th and early 19th centuries often called the territory of the Crimean Khanate and of the Lesser Nogai Horde Little Tartary (or subdivided it as Crim Tartary (also Krim Tartary ) and Kuban Tartary ). The name "Little Tartary" distinguished

9234-465: The inter-war boundaries of Poland (1920–1939), and a Tatar cavalry unit had fought for the country's independence. The Tatars had preserved their cultural identity and sustained a number of Tatar organisations, including Tatar archives and a museum in Vilnius. The Tatars suffered serious losses during World War II and furthermore, after the border change in 1945 , a large part of them found themselves in

9348-549: The invasion. After returning from captivity in Constantinople , he accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, Ottoman sultans treated the khans more as allies than subjects. The khans continued to have a foreign policy independent from the Ottomans in the steppes of Little Tartary . The khans continued to mint coins and use their names in Friday prayers, two important signs of sovereignty. They did not pay tribute to

9462-415: The khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. These campaigns by Crimean forces were either sefers ("sojourns"), officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, or çapuls ("despoiling"), raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century,

9576-521: The khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland–Lithuania over the period 1500–1700, mainly into Ottoman Empire, Caffa , an Ottoman city on Crimean peninsula (and thus not part of the Khanate), was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets. In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in

9690-608: The khanate. Substantial non-Muslim minorities – Greeks , Armenians , Crimean Goths , Adyghe (Circassians), Venetians , Genoese , Crimean Karaites and Qırımçaq Jews – lived principally in the cities, mostly in separate districts or suburbs. Under the millet system, they had their own religious and judicial institutions. They were subject to extra taxes in exchange for exemption from military service, living like Crimean Tatars and speaking dialects of Crimean Tatar. Mikhail Kizilov writes: "According to Marcin Broniewski (1578),

9804-464: The later period, Mansuroğlu and Sicavut. After the collapse of the Astrakhan Khanate in 1556, an important element of the Crimean Khanate were the Nogays , most of whom transferred their allegiance from Astrakhan to Crimea. Circassians (Atteghei) and Cossacks also occasionally played roles in Crimean politics, alternating their allegiance between the khan and the beys. The Nogay pastoral nomads north of

9918-566: The main khan's estates were the lands of the Kalga who was next in the line of succession of the khan's family. He usually administered the eastern portion of the peninsula. The Kalga was also Chief Commander of the Crimean Army in the absence of the Khan. The next administrative position, called Nureddin, was also assigned to the khan's family. He administered the western region of the peninsula. There also

10032-449: The majority identified themselves simply as the Muslims ) and the language of the Kipchaks; on the other hand, the invaders eventually converted to Sunni Islam ( c. 14th century). As the Golden Horde disintegrated in the 15th century, the area became the territory of the Kazan khanate, which Russia ultimately conquered in the 16th century. Some Volga Tatars speak different dialects of

10146-464: The modern literary language (generally written using a Cyrillic alphabet ), often has Russian- and other European-derived words instead. Outside of Tatarstan, urban Tatars usually speak Russian as their first language (in cities such as Moscow, Saint Petersburg , Nizhniy Novgorod , Tashkent , Almaty , and in cities of the Ural region and western Siberia) and other languages in a worldwide diaspora. In

10260-576: The modern territory of Tatarstan, Udmurtia , Ulyanovsk region , Samara region and Chuvashia . After the invasion of Batu Khan in 1223–1236, the Golden Horde annexed Volga Bulgaria. Most of the population of the Bulgars survived and crossed to the right bank of the Volga, displacing the mountain Mari ( cheremis ) from the inhabited territories to the meadow side. Sources of Russian chronicles report: "Tatares took

10374-531: The monarchs, allowed the Tatars to preserve their religion, traditions, and culture over the centuries. The Tatars were allowed to intermarry with Christians,a practice uncommon in Europe at the time. The May Constitution of 1791 gave the Tatars representation in the Polish Sejm (parliament). Although by the 18th century the Tatars had adopted the local language, the Islamic religion and many Tatar traditions (e.g.

10488-539: The mouth of the Dnieper, and then invaded the Crimea, devastated Chersonesos and seized valuable church objects there. There is a similar legend about his successor Vytautas , who in 1397 went on a Crimean campaign to Caffa and again destroyed Chersonesos. Vytautas is also known in Crimean history for giving refuge in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live in Lithuania and Belarus . In 1399 Vytautas, who came to

10602-533: The peoples of the Tatar tribe and other undecided origin of the Northern Siberian. — 1799. page 8 Also in Kazan there is a famous " Kaban Lake " similar to the name of the " Kuban River ", which translates from Nogai as "overflowing". The main now central Bauman Street that leads to the Kremlin is one of the oldest streets in Kazan. In the era of the Kazan Khanate, it was called the Nogai district. Nogai daruga

10716-483: The representatives of several strongest clans of Crimea, including the Golden Horde clans Shırın and Barın and the Cumanic clan—Kıpçak, went to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to invite Hacı Giray to rule in Crimea. He became the founder of the Giray dynasty , which ruled until the annexation of the Crimean Khanate by Russia in 1783. Hacı I Giray was a Jochid descendant of Genghis Khan and of his grandson Batu Khan of

10830-655: The right to interfere in them." Treaty of the Pruth was signed, and 10 years later, Russia declared itself an empire. In 1736, the Crimean Khan Qaplan I Giray was summoned by the Turkish Sultan Ahmed III to Persia . Understanding that Russia could take advantage of the lack of troops in Crimea, Qaplan Giray wrote to the Sultan to think twice, but the Sultan was persistent. As it was expected by Qaplan Giray, in 1736

10944-486: The sacrifice of bulls in their mosques during the main religious festivals) survived. This led to the formation of a distinctive Muslim culture , in which the elements of Muslim orthodoxy mixed with religious tolerance formed a relatively liberal society. For instance, the women in Lipka Tatar society traditionally had the same rights and status as men, and could attend non-segregated schools. About 5,500 Tatars lived within

11058-525: The sobriquet, That Alğan (seizer of the throne). The following year, however, the Crimean Khanate lost access to the Volga once and for all due to its catastrophic defeat in the Battle of Molodi . Don Cossacks reached lower Don, Donets and Azov by the 1580s and thus became the north-eastern neighbours of the khanate. They attracted peasants, serfs and gentry fleeing internal conflicts, over-population and intensifying exploitation. Just as Zaporozhians protected

11172-575: The southern borders of the Commonwealth, Don Cossacks protected Muscovy and themselves attacked the khanate and Ottoman fortresses. Under the influence of the Crimean Tatars and of the Ottoman Empire , large numbers of Circassians converted to Islam . Circassian mercenaries and recruits played an important role in the khan's armies, khans often married Circassian women and it was a custom for young Crimean princes to spend time in Circassia training in

11286-530: The steppe and foothills of the Peninsula: Kipchaks (Cumans), Crimean Greeks , Crimean Goths , Alans , and Armenians , who lived mainly in cities and mountain villages. The Crimean nobility was mostly of both Kipchak and Horden origin. Horde rule for the peoples who inhabited the Crimean Peninsula was, in general, painful. The rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly organized punitive campaigns in

11400-448: The three main groups of Tatars (Volga, Crimean , Siberian ) do not have common ancestors and, thus, their formation occurred independently of one another. However, it is possible that all Tatar groups have at least partially the same origin, mainly from the times of the Golden Horde . Many noble families in the Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire had Tatar origins. Tatar became

11514-643: The time Evliya Çelebi had arrived almost all the towns he visited were affected by the Cossack raids. In fact, the only place Evliya Çelebi considered safe from the Cossacks was the Ottoman fortress at Arabat . The decline of the Crimean Khanate was a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and a change in Eastern Europe's balance of power favouring its neighbours. Crimean Tatars often returned from Ottoman campaigns without loot, and Ottoman subsidies were less likely for unsuccessful campaigns. Without sufficient guns,

11628-519: The two groups have been disappearing. The Lipka Tatars are a group of Turkic-speaking Tatars who originally settled in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the beginning of the 14th century. The first settlers tried to preserve their shamanistic religion and sought asylum amongst the non-Christian Lithuanians. Towards the end of the 14th century Grand Duke Vytautas the Great of Lithuania (ruled 1392–1430) invited another wave of Tatars—Muslims, this time—into

11742-462: The upper Tor River (a tributary of the Donets ). The first known Turkic peoples appeared in Crimea in the 6th century, during the conquest of the Crimea by The Turkic Kaganate . In the 11th century, Cumans (Kipchaks) appeared in Crimea; they later became the ruling and state-forming people of the Golden Horde and the Crimean Khanate. In the middle of the 13th century, the northern steppe lands of

11856-463: The vast Northern and Central Asian landmass then known as Tartary , a term which was also conflated with the Mongol Empire itself. More recently, however, the term has come to refer more narrowly to related ethnic groups who refer to themselves as Tatars or who speak languages that are commonly referred to as Tatar . The largest group amongst the Tatars by far are the Volga Tatars , native to

11970-453: The viceroy of God on earth. At the same time, the Nogai hordes, not having their own khan, were vassals of the Crimean one, the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth paid annual tribute to the khan (until 1700 and 1699 , respectively). In 1711, when Peter I of Russia went on a campaign with all his troops (80,000) to gain access to the Black Sea, he was surrounded by

12084-532: The whole Bulgarian land captive and killed part of it" After a while, Tatars from all the outskirts of the Golden Horde began to arrive in the Kazan Khanate , and consisted mainly of Kipchak peoples: Nogais and Crimean Tatars . Kazan was built by the Perekop fugitives from Taurida during the reign of Vasily Vasilyevich in Moscow . Vasily Ivanovich forced her to take tsars from him for herself. And then, when she

12198-548: Was a specifically assigned position for the khan's mother or sister — Ana-beim — which was similar to the Ottomans' valide sultan . The senior wife of the Khan carried a rank of Ulu-beim and was next in importance to the Nureddin. By the end of the khanate regional offices of the kaimakans , who administered smaller regions of the Crimean Khanate, were created. Tatars The Tatars ( / ˈ t ɑː t ər z / TAH -tərz ), formerly also spelled Tartars ,

12312-464: Was already composed of a Turkic people —Cumans, became a part of the Golden Horde . The Crimean Tatars mostly adopted Islam in the 14th century and thereafter Crimea became one of the centers of Islamic civilization in Eastern Europe. In the same century, trends towards separatism appeared in the Crimean Ulus of the Golden Horde. De facto independence of Crimea from the Golden Horde may be counted since

12426-405: Was among the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the beginning of the 18th century. The Khanate officially operated as a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire , with great autonomy after 1580, because of being a Muslim state, the Crimean Khanate just could not be separate from the Ottoman caliphate, and therefore the Crimean khans had to recognize the Ottoman caliph as the supreme ruler, in fact,

12540-502: Was indignant, he embarrassed her with the hardships of a dangerous war, but he did not conquer her. But in 7061 ( 1552 ), his son Ivan IV took the city of Kazan after a six-month siege together with the Cheremis . However, in the form of a reward for the offense, he subdued neighboring Bulgaria , which he could not stand for frequent rebellions. — The journey to Muscovy of Baron Augustine Mayerberg and Horace Wilhelm Calvucci, ambassadors of

12654-461: Was not feudal . They were free and the Islamic law protected them from losing their rights. Apportioned by village, the land was worked in common and taxes were assigned to the whole village. The tax was one tenth of an agricultural product, one twentieth of a herd animal, and a variable amount of unpaid labor. During the reforms by the last khan Şahin Giray , the internal structure was changed following

12768-507: Was omitted by the servant of the founder of this city, Khan Altyn Bek, not on purpose, when he scooped water for his master to wash, in the river now called Kazanka. In other respects, according to their own legends, they were not of a special tribe, but descended from the fighters who remained here [in Kazan] on the settlement of different generations and from foreigners attracted to Kazan, but especially Nogai Tatars , who all through their union into

12882-664: Was one of the finest sources of water in Bakhchisaray . One of the notable constructors of Crimean art and architecture was Qırım Giray , who in 1764 commissioned the fountain master Omer the Persian to construct the Bakhchisaray Fountain. The Bakhchisaray Fountain or Fountain of Tears is a real case of life imitating art. The fountain is known as the embodiment of love of one of the last Crimean Khans, Khan Qırım Giray for his young wife, and his grief after her early death. The Khan

12996-443: Was said to have fallen in love with a Polish girl in his harem . Despite his battle-hardened harshness, he was grievous and wept when she died, astonishing all those who knew him. He commissioned a marble fountain to be made, so that the rock would weep, like him, forever. The nine regions outside of Qirim yurt (the peninsula) were: The peninsula itself was divided by the khan's family and several beys . An estate controlled by

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