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202-591: The River Kent is a short river in the county of Cumbria in England . It originates in hills surrounding Kentmere , and flows for around 20 miles (32 km) into the north of Morecambe Bay . The upper reaches and the western bank of the estuary are located within the boundaries of the Lake District National Park . The river flows in a generally north to south direction, passing through Kentmere, Staveley , Burneside , Kendal and Sedgwick . Near Sedgwick,

404-482: A Labour majority administration since the 2022 Cumberland Council election , and Westmorland and Furness has had a Liberal Democrat majority administration since the 2022 Westmorland and Furness Council election . Cumberland Council and Westmorland and Furness Council collaborate through a Joint Executive Committee and the Enterprising Cumbria Economic Growth Body. In September 2024,

606-463: A urea cycle , a feature that they share with animals , although this cycle is used to different metabolic ends in diatoms. The family Rhopalodiaceae also possess a cyanobacterial endosymbiont called a spheroid body. This endosymbiont has lost its photosynthetic properties, but has kept its ability to perform nitrogen fixation , allowing the diatom to fix atmospheric nitrogen . Other diatoms in symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are among

808-452: A better understanding of cell wall formation processes, establishing fundamental knowledge which can be used to create models that contextualise current findings and clarify how the process works. The process of building a mineral-based cell wall inside the cell, then exporting it outside, is a massive event that must involve large numbers of genes and their protein products. The act of building and exocytosing this large structural object in

1010-422: A bobbin mill, with a weir at the north end of the main building and a fall of 9 feet (2.7 m). By 1972 it was run by Staveley Wood Turning Co., and was still using water power. The site is now part of Staveley Mill Yard, a business park created in 1995 by David Brockbank, the owner of the mill, whose father installed a second-hand water turbine which generated 25 kW of power for some 50 years. On 1 July 2002,

1212-436: A brown jelly-like material called "brown snot" or "rock snot". This diatom is native to Europe and is an invasive species both in the antipodes and in parts of North America . The problem is most frequently recorded from Australia and New Zealand . When conditions turn unfavourable, usually upon depletion of nutrients, diatom cells typically increase in sinking rate and exit the upper mixed layer ("bust"). This sinking

1414-425: A brown, slippery coating on submerged stones and sticks, and may be seen to "stream" with river current. The surface mud of a pond, ditch, or lagoon will almost always yield some diatoms. Living diatoms are often found clinging in great numbers to filamentous algae, or forming gelatinous masses on various submerged plants. Cladophora is frequently covered with Cocconeis , an elliptically shaped diatom; Vaucheria

1616-402: A corn mill on the east bank and a woollen mill on the west bank. Barley Bridge was built of slate rubble, possibly in the 17th century. It was widened in the 20th century, when the north side was rebuilt in a sympathetic style. The two arches are supported by a central pier, with cutwaters at river level and a pedestrian refuge above the cutwater on the north side. Below the bridge on the west bank

1818-452: A disproportionately important role in the export of carbon from oceanic surface waters (see also the biological pump ). Significantly, they also play a key role in the regulation of the biogeochemical cycle of silicon in the modern ocean. Diatoms are ecologically successful, and occur in virtually every environment that contains water – not only oceans, seas, lakes, and streams, but also soil and wetlands. The use of silicon by diatoms

2020-426: A diverse background in order to identify residues that differentiate function in the silica deposition process. Additionally, the same study found that a number of the regions were conserved within species, likely the base structure of silica transport. These silica transport proteins are unique to diatoms, with no homologs found in other species, such as sponges or rice. The divergence of these silica transport genes

2222-516: A flood alleviation scheme. It acts as a gravel trap for gravel carried downstream when there are high flows in either river. Within the town, the river is crossed by a bridge carrying the Windermere branch line , three footbridges, and five bridges carrying major roads. Just upstream of the railway bridge is a suspension footbridge, erected in 1993 using parts of the Romney footbridge, which was removed from

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2424-404: A fulling mill and a sickle mill on the same side of the river, with a fleecing mill on the opposite side. The Wakefield family bought the corn mill and the sickle mill in the 1750s, and John Wakefield added a woollen mill in 1760, which proved to be very profitable. He built a cotton mill in 1770, but changes in the markets made it uneconomic, so it was leased to Hudson and Foster in 1828, who fitted

2626-454: A functioning urea cycle. This result was significant, since prior to this, the urea cycle was thought to have originated with the metazoans which appeared several hundreds of millions of years before the diatoms. Their study demonstrated that while diatoms and animals use the urea cycle for different ends, they are seen to be evolutionarily linked in such a way that animals and plants are not. While often overlooked in photosynthetic organisms,

2828-435: A large curved dam to the east of the point where Burneside Road crosses under the railway line. The leat, on the west side of the river, passed through the railway viaduct to reach the mill. It was producing dyewood and woollens in the 1700s, and a thick linen cloth called linsey in 1794. A sale notice from 1809 listed four separate mills, one for dying woods, two fulling mills and a friezing mill. The site burnt down in 1824, but

3030-535: A leat to the west of the river, which fed mills at Helsington Laithes. A local architect called Francis Webster rented the site from the Lord of the Manor in about 1800, and built a weir and two water mills. It was known as a marble works, but the largest mill was used to polish local limestone for ornamental use, and the smaller mill was a saw mill. The works employed three local people between 1841 and 1861. J Chaplow and Sons used

3232-451: A low pressure turbine. To aid transport between the three mills run by Croppers, a narrow gauge tramway was installed in 1879, which was converted to standard gauge in 1927. It linked to the Windermere to Oxenholme line , and ran until 1965. The site is still used to manufacture paper by James Cropper PLC in 2019. Within Kendal, the mills served the woollen industry. Dockray Hall Mill was fed by

3434-463: A meandering channel, running into a small wetland area. This slows the release of water at times of high flow into the main river system. The project, which was implemented by South Cumbria Rivers Trust, was the first urban daylighting scheme undertaken by the Trust, although they have previously implemented rural schemes. Most of the funding came from DEFRA 's Natural Flood Management programme. The river

3636-450: A more complete understanding of cell wall synthesis. Most centric and araphid pennate diatoms are nonmotile , and their relatively dense cell walls cause them to readily sink. Planktonic forms in open water usually rely on turbulent mixing of the upper layers of the oceanic waters by the wind to keep them suspended in sunlit surface waters. Many planktonic diatoms have also evolved features that slow their sinking rate, such as spines or

3838-428: A much larger cell, which then returns to size-diminishing divisions. The exact mechanism of transferring silica absorbed by the diatom to the cell wall is unknown. Much of the sequencing of diatom genes comes from the search for the mechanism of silica uptake and deposition in nano-scale patterns in the frustule . The most success in this area has come from two species, Thalassiosira pseudonana , which has become

4040-478: A new water wheel and a beam engine were installed, each rated at 30 hp (22 kW), while further expansion took place in 1872. It employed some 500 people, with water turbines providing power from 1899, but in 1933 the company failed, and was bought by Goodacres, who manufactured carpets there. The site ceased to use water power in 1940. Somewhere below the Castle Mills site was Kirkbarrow Spinning Mill, which

4242-520: A paper mill, which was taken over by James Ashburner and subsequently by the Wilson family. James Cropper rented the mill from the Wilsons in 1845 and bought it outright in 1854. A waterwheel powered the paper making process from 1750, and continued to do so until 1854, when a Thompson’s Patent Vortex Turbine replaced it. This was replaced by two turbines, of 110 hp (82 kW) and 200 hp (150 kW), in

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4444-419: A paper mill. There was a second paper mill at Bowston, with a corresponding weir which was removed in 2022. It was located a little above Bowston Bridge, which has two arches constructed of rough coursed stone. A central pier has cutwaters both upstream and downstream. There is a third paper mill at Burneside. Here the mill was fed by a channel which drove turbines to generate electricity. At the southern edge of

4646-473: A particle size of 10 to 200 μm. Diatomaceous earth is used for a variety of purposes including for water filtration, as a mild abrasive, in cat litter, and as a dynamite stabilizer. Diatoms are protists that form massive annual spring and fall blooms in aquatic environments and are estimated to be responsible for about half of photosynthesis in the global oceans. This predictable annual bloom dynamic fuels higher trophic levels and initiates delivery of carbon into

4848-407: A pipeline through the earth dam, with a controlling valve on the upstream slope of the dam, and when water levels are high, from a spillway at the western edge of the dam. As the river descends toward Kentmere, it is joined by Skeel Gill and Bryant's Gill, Ullstone Gill, Nunnery Beck, Kill Gill and a number of other unnamed tributaries. The river is crossed by Low Bridge, which carries a minor road to

5050-473: A population of 500,012; this makes it the third largest ceremonial county in England by area but the eighth-smallest by population. After Carlisle (74,281), the largest settlements are Barrow-in-Furness (56,745), Kendal (29,593), and Whitehaven (23,986). For local government purposes the county comprises two unitary authority areas, Westmorland and Furness and Cumberland . Cumbria was created in 1974 from

5252-494: A pumping station at Gooseholme. As a result of public consultation, plans for flood walls near Abbot Hall Art Gallery and Kendal Parish Church had been modified to be less intrusive. To complement these engineering solutions, some more natural flood management techniques are being trialled. In 2020 work began on a small demonstration project at Town View Fields, a park in central Kendal. The work involved replacing around 100 yards (90 m) of stone culvert carrying Dyers Beck with

5454-454: A replacement 100 kW turbine was commissioned, as part of a scheme accredited under the Government's Renewables Obligation . The next three mills were all connected with the production of paper. Cowan Head is known to have been the site of a fulling mill in 1735. In 1746 it was bought by a local publisher, Thomas Ashburner, who produced The Kendal Weekly Mercury . He converted it to become

5656-500: A scheme to build reservoirs to regulate the flow on the Kent and other rivers was promoted. A committee of ten mill owners plus the major of Kendal was formed, and asked the water engineer John Frederick Bateman to advise on the scheme. A bill was submitted to Parliament, and was signed by Queen Victoria on 21 July 1845. It authorised five reservoirs, but only that at Kentmere Head was built, with work completed in 1848. In order to pay for

5858-467: A second-hand paper making machine. James Cropper rented the mill from 1845, but in 1886 it burnt down, and he purchased the site to rebuild the mill. Water powered a 300 hp (220 kW) turbine until about 1970. A steam turbine was installed in 1919, which powered the mill lighting and supplied electricity to the village. It was upgraded several times, and by 1995 Croppers were using a 6.5 Mw gas turbine, with an extra 1 Mw recovered from exhaust gases and

6060-412: A series of low weirs were built through the town. Earth embankments were constructed to protect Mintsfeet and Helsington, where an automatic flood gate was also required, to prevent floodwater breaching the defences through the leat to Helsington Mill. During times of high flow, the river moves large volumes of gravel downstream, which is then deposited as the river slows. In order to prevent this clogging

6262-583: A shooting spree that spanned over 24 kilometres (15 mi) along the Cumbrian coastline. Local newspapers The Westmorland Gazette and Cumberland and Westmorland Herald continue to use the name of their historic counties. Other publications, such as local government promotional material, describe the area as "Cumbria", as does the Lake District National Park Authority. Cumbria is the most northwesterly ceremonial county of England and

River Kent - Misplaced Pages Continue

6464-480: A short time period, synched with cell cycle progression, necessitates substantial physical movements within the cell as well as dedication of a significant proportion of the cell's biosynthetic capacities. The first characterisations of the biochemical processes and components involved in diatom silicification were made in the late 1990s. These were followed by insights into how higher order assembly of silica structures might occur. More recent reports describe

6666-459: A source of power since at least the 13th century. In 1848, the construction of Kentmere Reservoir was completed, which was designed to ensure that millers had a more regular supply of water to enable their mills to operate throughout the year. There were corn mills and bobbin mills on the upper river, and the weir from the Staveley mill now supplies water to a turbine which generates electricity for

6868-470: A stretch of 8 miles (13 km) around Kendal is controlled by the Kent Angling Association, which was formed in 1848. In 1986 fish ladders were constructed alongside the dams of mill-ponds to allow migratory fish to reach the upper sections of the river. Salmon in particular were quick to utilise the breeding grounds that then became available and the river above Bowston has become important for

7070-518: A tarmacking business. The smaller of the two mills was sold to Gawith, Hoggarth & Co around 1880, who used it to manufacture snuff. From at least 1973 it was the last water-powered snuff mill in Britain. Apart from the addition of an electric hammer mill in 1980 to increase production, the process continued almost unchanged until 1991, when the mill was sold and converted into a house. There were two gunpowder mills at Sedgwick, both producing gunpowder for

7272-542: A traditional version of football, with its origins in medieval football or an even earlier form. Players from outside Workington also take part, especially fellow West Cumbrians from Whitehaven and Maryport . Cumbria formerly had minor American football clubs, the Furness Phantoms (the club is now defunct, its last name was Morecambe Bay Storm ) and the Carlisle Kestrels. Barrow and Carlisle United are

7474-422: A transitional stage between centric and raphid pennate diatoms, diatoms with a raphe. Certain species of bacteria in oceans and lakes can accelerate the rate of dissolution of silica in dead and living diatoms by using hydrolytic enzymes to break down the organic algal material. Diatoms are a widespread group and can be found in the oceans , in fresh water , in soils , and on damp surfaces. They are one of

7676-428: A unique silica cell wall known as a frustule made up of two valves called thecae , that typically overlap one another. The biogenic silica composing the cell wall is synthesised intracellularly by the polymerisation of silicic acid monomers . This material is then extruded to the cell exterior and added to the wall. In most species, when a diatom divides to produce two daughter cells, each cell keeps one of

7878-466: A valve and a girdle band that can easily slide underneath each other and expand to increase cell content over the diatoms progression. The cytoplasm of the centric diatom is located along the inner surface of the shell and provides a hollow lining around the large vacuole located in the center of the cell. This large, central vacuole is filled by a fluid known as "cell sap" which is similar to seawater but varies with specific ion content. The cytoplasmic layer

8080-466: A vast area of intertidal mudflats and sands . The tidal range at the mouth of the river and the shape of the estuary result in a tidal bore occurring near Arnside, which is known as the Arnside Bore . It is usually visible on spring tides, when the tidal range exceeds 31 feet (9.5 m), and is affected by wind direction and recent rainfall. South Lakeland District Council have installed a siren, which

8282-564: A water turbine, can still be found. The site is an ancient monument while some of the detached buildings are grade II listed . The final mill was Basin Ghyll or Basingill Mill, which was located below Force Bridge at Sedgwick. It was located on the east bank of the river, and was unusual, in that it was not a complete gunpowder works. It was built in 1790 to supplement the incorporating mills at Old Sedgwick gunpowder works. When that closed in 1850, and operation moved to Gatebeck, Basin Ghyll supplemented

River Kent - Misplaced Pages Continue

8484-465: Is remineralized through respiration. Thus, diatoms are one of the main players in this biological carbon pump, which is arguably the most important biological mechanism in the Earth System allowing CO 2 to be removed from the carbon cycle for very long period. A feature of diatoms is the urea cycle , which links them evolutionarily to animals. In 2011, Allen et al. established that diatoms have

8686-603: Is a ceremonial county in North West England . It borders the Scottish council areas of Dumfries and Galloway and Scottish Borders to the north, Northumberland and County Durham to the east, North Yorkshire to the south-east, Lancashire to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west. Its largest settlement is the city of Carlisle . Cumbria is predominantly rural, with an area of 6,769 km (2,614 sq mi) and

8888-404: Is a designated Special Area of Conservation , covering 269.6 acres (109.12 ha), primarily as an important habitat for the endangered White-clawed Crayfish ( Austropotamobius pallipes ). This species is prolific, particularly in some of the tributaries of the Kent, where it exists in densities higher than almost anywhere else in England. The river is also an important site for bullhead and

9090-459: Is a four-storey mill building dating from the early- to mid-19th century. Staveley Weir is a little further downstream, and powered a bobbin mill; it currently supplies hydroelectric power as part of Staveley Mill Yard . After the river is joined by the River Gowan, it turns to the east, where it leaves the national park, and then to the south-east, to reach Cowan Head , where a large weir supplied

9292-502: Is a scheduled monument. The river turns to the south-west, and is spanned by a much larger bridge carrying the A590 dual carriageway, before it enters Levens Park. As it leaves the park, the A6 road crosses the river on Levens Bridge, dating from the 17th century, although it has been widened subsequently and was rebuilt and repaired during the 18th and 19th centuries. The river from Kendal to Sedgwick

9494-522: Is a specimen of extant genus Hemiaulus in Late Jurassic aged amber from Thailand. Diatoms are used to monitor past and present environmental conditions, and are commonly used in studies of water quality. Diatomaceous earth (diatomite) is a collection of diatom shells found in the Earth's crust. They are soft, silica-containing sedimentary rocks which are easily crumbled into a fine powder and typically have

9696-756: Is a very popular sport in south and West Cumbria. Barrow , Whitehaven and Workington play in the Rugby League Championships . Amateur teams; Wath Brow Hornets, Askam , Egremont Rangers , Kells , Barrow Island, Hensingham and Millom play in the National Conference . Cumbria County Cricket Club is one of the cricket clubs that constitute the National Counties in the English domestic cricket structure. The club, based in Carlisle , competes in

9898-597: Is also indicative of the structure of the protein evolving from two repeated units composed of five membrane bound segments, which indicates either gene duplication or dimerization . The silica deposition that takes place from the membrane bound vesicle in diatoms has been hypothesized to be a result of the activity of silaffins and long chain polyamines. This Silica Deposition Vesicle (SDV) has been characterized as an acidic compartment fused with Golgi-derived vesicles. These two protein structures have been shown to create sheets of patterned silica in-vivo with irregular pores on

10100-401: Is asexual by binary fission , during which the diatom divides into two parts, producing two "new" diatoms with identical genes. Each new organism receives one of the two frustules – one larger, the other smaller – possessed by the parent, which is now called the epitheca ; and is used to construct a second, smaller frustule, the hypotheca . The diatom that received the larger frustule becomes

10302-518: Is at present the only university in Cumbria and has campuses across the county, together with Lancaster and London. The M6 is the only motorway that runs through Cumbria. Kendal and Penrith are amongst its primary destinations. Further north it becomes the A74(M) at the border with Scotland north of Carlisle . Major A roads within Cumbria include: Several bus companies run services in Cumbria serving

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10504-405: Is believed by many researchers to be the key to this ecological success. Raven (1983) noted that, relative to organic cell walls , silica frustules require less energy to synthesize (approximately 8% of a comparable organic wall), potentially a significant saving on the overall cell energy budget. In a now classic study, Egge and Aksnes (1992) found that diatom dominance of mesocosm communities

10706-405: Is crossed by the two-arched Hawes bridge, probably dating from the 18th century, and made of limestone rubble with cut limestone copings. Below the bridge, woodland on the west bank contains the remains of Sedgwick gunpowder works, fed by a long leat from a dam in the river. After passing under Force Bridge, Sedgwick, on the east bank of the river are the remains of Basingill gunpowder works, which

10908-419: Is home to several organelles, like the chloroplasts and mitochondria. Before the centric diatom begins to expand, its nucleus is at the center of one of the valves and begins to move towards the center of the cytoplasmic layer before division is complete. Centric diatoms have a variety of shapes and sizes, depending on from which axis the shell extends, and if spines are present. Diatom cells are contained within

11110-469: Is induced by either a loss of buoyancy control, the synthesis of mucilage that sticks diatoms cells together, or the production of heavy resting spores . Sinking out of the upper mixed layer removes diatoms from conditions unfavourable to growth, including grazer populations and higher temperatures (which would otherwise increase cell metabolism ). Cells reaching deeper water or the shallow seafloor can then rest until conditions become more favourable again. In

11312-641: Is joined by the River Gilpin , flowing southward, which forms the boundary of the Lake District National Park in its lower reaches, and the River Bela, flowing westward. The national park boundary then runs along the middle of the river channel. At Arnside, the final bridge is the Furness line railway viaduct. The River Winster flows into the estuary from the north, just before the Kent enters Morecambe Bay,

11514-622: Is located immediately downstream of the bridge. Gooseholme footbridge was destroyed by floods in 1898, and was rebuilt. It was damaged in December 2015 during flooding, and after an inspection was closed in January 2016 and demolished in September 2019 as it was in a dangerous condition. Plans for a replacement were delayed by uncertainties as to what the Environment Agency were planning to do to improve

11716-442: Is more readily assimilated). More generally, notwithstanding these possible advantages conferred by their use of silicon, diatoms typically have higher growth rates than other algae of the same corresponding size. Diatoms can be obtained from multiple sources. Marine diatoms can be collected by direct water sampling, and benthic forms can be secured by scraping barnacles , oyster and other shells. Diatoms are frequently present as

11918-466: Is mostly mountainous, with large upland areas to the south-west and east. The south-west contains the Lake District , a national park and UNESCO world heritage site which includes Scafell Pike , England's highest mountain at 978 metres (3,209 ft), and Windermere , its longest and largest lake. The Border Moors and North Pennines lie along the county's eastern border. The south-east contains

12120-560: Is not clear, but it is speculated that it may be related to communication, camouflage, thermal exchange and/or UV protection. Diatoms build intricate hard but porous cell walls called frustules composed primarily of silica . This siliceous wall can be highly patterned with a variety of pores, ribs, minute spines, marginal ridges and elevations; all of which can be used to delineate genera and species. The cell itself consists of two halves, each containing an essentially flat plate, or valve, and marginal connecting, or girdle band. One half,

12322-444: Is of modern construction, and replaced the Romney footbridge. It was built in 1993, and the suspension footbridge was moved to the north of the town at the same time. After passing Kendal sewage treatment works, on the west bank, the course follows a large meander to the north. The land it surrounds is a scheduled monument , as it was the location of Watercrook Roman fort and civil settlement. Archaeological excavation has revealed that

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12524-422: Is often covered with small forms. Since diatoms form an important part of the food of molluscs , tunicates , and fishes , the alimentary tracts of these animals often yield forms that are not easily secured in other ways. Diatoms can be made to emerge by filling a jar with water and mud, wrapping it in black paper and letting direct sunlight fall on the surface of the water. Within a day, the diatoms will come to

12726-489: Is popular with kayakers, as it contains a number of rapids and drops. It is not a river for beginners, offering whitewater rated at grade 3 with some grade 4 on the International Scale of River Difficulty, and it becomes more challenging as flow rates increase. The white water section ends at Force Falls, just above the A590 bridge at Sedgwick. The river becomes tidal shortly afterward, as it widens into an estuary. It

12928-498: Is rated good or fail. The water quality of the River Kent system was as follows in 2019. Like most rivers in the UK, the chemical status changed from good to fail in 2019, due to the presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and mercury compounds, none of which had previously been included in the assessment. Projects have been undertaken to improve

13130-460: Is sounded approximately 15 to 20 minutes before the bore is expected to reach Arnside, and again when it actually reaches Blackstone Point, a little further down the estuary. The river has been used to provide water power over a long period. Around 1800, farms around Kentmere, in the upper reaches of the river, were bought by wealthy outsiders, and efforts were made to improve the land for agriculture. Fields were drained by land drains, and around 1840

13332-541: Is that they have lost their cell wall of silica, making them the only known shell-less diatoms. The study of diatoms is a branch of phycology . Diatoms are classified as eukaryotes , organisms with a nuclear envelope -bound cell nucleus , that separates them from the prokaryotes archaea and bacteria . Diatoms are a type of plankton called phytoplankton , the most common of the plankton types. Diatoms also grow attached to benthic substrates, floating debris, and on macrophytes . They comprise an integral component of

13534-522: Is their restrictive and bipartite silica cell wall that causes them to progressively shrink during asexual cell division. At a critically small cell size and under certain conditions, auxosporulation restitutes cell size and prevents clonal death. The entire lifecycles of only a few diatoms have been described and rarely have sexual events been captured in the environment. Most eukaryotes are capable of sexual reproduction involving meiosis . Sexual reproduction appears to be an obligatory phase in

13736-510: Is tourism, with the county attracting over 47 million visitors annually. The Lake District National Park alone receives some 15.8 million visitors every year. Despite this, fewer than 50,000 people reside permanently within the Lake District: mostly in Ambleside , Bowness-on-Windermere , Coniston , Keswick , Gosforth , Grasmere and Windermere . Over 36,000 Cumbrians are employed in

13938-399: Is usually limited to a gliding motion. In centric diatoms, the small male gametes have one flagellum while the female gametes are large and non-motile ( oogamous ). Conversely, in pennate diatoms both gametes lack flagella ( isogamous ). Certain araphid species, that is pennate diatoms without a raphe (seam), have been documented as anisogamous and are, therefore, considered to represent

14140-789: The Conference North . Barrow were then promoted to the Conference Premier in 2007/08. In 2020, Barrow were promoted to the Football League as a result of winning the National League . Rugby union is popular in the county's north and east with teams such as Furness RUFC & Hawcoat Park RUFC (South Cumbria), Workington RUFC (Workington Zebras), Whitehaven RUFC, Carlisle RUFC, Creighton RUFC, Aspatria RUFC , Wigton RUFC, Kendal RUFC , Kirkby Lonsdale RUFC, Keswick RUFC, Cockermouth RUFC, Upper Eden RUFC and Penrith RUFC . Rugby league

14342-483: The Cornish and Gouren styles indicating that it may have developed out of a longer-standing Celtic tradition. Diatom A diatom ( Neo-Latin diatoma ) is any member of a large group comprising several genera of algae , specifically microalgae , found in the oceans, waterways and soils of the world. Living diatoms make up a significant portion of the Earth's biomass : they generate about 20 to 50 percent of

14544-642: The Cumberland coalfield and Barrow-in-Furness became a shipbuilding centre, but the county was not heavily industrialised and the Lake District became valued for its sublime and picturesque qualities, notably by the Lake Poets . The place names Cumbria and Cumberland both mean "land of the Cumbrians" and are names derived from the term that had been used by the inhabitants of the area to describe themselves. In

14746-626: The Furness Line and much of the Settle-Carlisle Railway . Cumbria's largest settlement and only city is Carlisle , in the north of the county. The largest town, Barrow-in-Furness , in the south, is slightly smaller. The county's population is largely rural: it has the second-lowest population density among English counties, and only five towns with over 20,000 people. Cumbria is one of the country's most ethnically homogeneous counties, with 95% categorised as White British (around 471,000 of

14948-473: The Lake District National Park as a series of streams to the north of the village of Kentmere, which flow rapidly downhill and into the Kentmere Reservoir . The reservoir was completed in 1848, to regulate the flow on the river for the benefit of the mills further downstream. Lingmell Gill rises from similar sources to the east, and flows into the reservoir. The river below the reservoir is supplied from

15150-538: The Lakes Aquarium and South Lakes Safari Zoo , the last of which would almost certainly rank within the top five). Cumbria is governed by two unitary authorities, Cumberland Council and Westmorland and Furness Council. The Cumberland unitary authority area covers the north and west of Cumbria, and Westmorland and Furness the south and east; they are named after the historic counties of Cumberland and Westmorland , but have different boundaries. Cumberland has had

15352-603: The Lancaster Canal extension to Kendal would be routed close to their works, and had a dedicated wharf on the canal at Sedgwick. The site was located on the east bank of the river, below the suspension footbridge, and a fall of 10 feet (3.0 m) in the river level provided the power for its mills. Wakefields moved to a new site at Gatebeck on the Peasey Beck in 1850, which had more fall, and where flows were augmented by compensation water from Killington Reservoir, which supplied

15554-780: The National Counties Cricket Championship and the NCCA Knockout Trophy . The club also play some home matches in Workington , as well as other locations. Cumbrian club cricket teams play in the North Lancashire and Cumbria League . Cumbria is home to the Cartmel Valley Lions , an amateur baseball team based in Cartmel. Cumberland and Westmorland wrestling is an ancient and well-practised tradition in

15756-631: The Orton Fells , Howgill Fells and part of the Yorkshire Dales , which are all within the Yorkshire Dales national park . The Vale of Eden , the valley of the River Eden , runs south-east to north-west between these upland areas, and broadens into the Solway Plain near Carlisle. The county has long coast to the west, which is bordered by a plain for most of its length. In the north-west it borders

15958-645: The Roman Empire had conquered in about AD 85. Based on inscriptional evidence from the area, the Roman civitas of the Carvetii seems to have covered portions of Cumbria. The names Cumbria , Cymru (the native Welsh name for Wales ), Cambria , and Cumberland are derived from the name these people gave themselves, * kombroges in Common Brittonic , which originally meant "compatriots". Although Cumbria

16160-565: The Romantic movement , such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge , lived among, and were inspired by, the lakes and mountains of the region. Later, the children's writer Beatrix Potter also wrote in the region and became a major landowner, granting much of her property to the National Trust on her death. In turn, the large amount of land owned by the National Trust assisted in

16362-713: The Solway Firth , a national landscape , and to the south are the Cartmel and Furness peninsulas. East of the peninsulas, the county contains part of Arnside and Silverdale , also a national landscape. The Lancaster Canal runs from Preston into southern Cumbria and is partly in use. The Ulverston Canal which once reached to Morecambe Bay is maintained although it was closed in 1945. The northernmost and southernmost points in Cumbria are just west of Deadwater, Northumberland and South Walney respectively. Kirkby Stephen (close to Tan Hill, North Yorkshire ) and St Bees Head are

16564-609: The administrative counties of Cumberland and Westmorland , to which parts of Lancashire (the area known as Lancashire North of the Sands ) and of the West Riding of Yorkshire were added. During the Neolithic period the area contained an important centre of stone axe production (the so-called Langdale axe factory ), products of which have been found across Great Britain. During this period, stone circles and henges were built across

16766-575: The biological carbon pump and influence the ocean carbon cycle . The anthropogenic CO 2 emission to the atmosphere (mainly generated by fossil fuel burning and deforestation) is nearly 11 gigatonne carbon (GtC) per year, of which almost 2.5 GtC is taken up by the surface ocean. In surface seawater ( pH 8.1–8.4), bicarbonate ( HCO 3 ) and carbonate ions ( CO 3 ) constitute nearly 90 and <10% of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) respectively, while dissolved CO 2 (CO 2 aqueous) contributes <1%. Despite this low level of CO 2 in

16968-399: The carotenoid fucoxanthin . Individuals usually lack flagella , but they are present in male gametes of the centric diatoms and have the usual heterokont structure, including the hairs ( mastigonemes ) characteristic in other groups. Diatoms are often referred as "jewels of the sea" or "living opals" due to their optical properties. The biological function of this structural coloration

17170-403: The hypotheca , is slightly smaller than the other half, the epitheca . Diatom morphology varies. Although the shape of the cell is typically circular, some cells may be triangular, square, or elliptical. Their distinguishing feature is a hard mineral shell or frustule composed of opal (hydrated, polymerized silicic acid). Diatoms are divided into two groups that are distinguished by the shape of

17372-443: The mitochondria also play critical roles in energy balance. Two nitrogen-related pathways are relevant and they may also change under ammonium ( NH 4 ) nutrition compared with nitrate ( NO 3 ) nutrition. First, in diatoms, and likely some other algae, there is a urea cycle. The long-known function of the urea cycle in animals is to excrete excess nitrogen produced by amino acid Catabolism ; like photorespiration ,

17574-440: The oxygen produced on the planet each year, take in over 6.7 billion tonnes of silicon each year from the waters in which they live, and constitute nearly half of the organic material found in the oceans. The shells of dead diatoms can reach as much as a half-mile (800 m) deep on the ocean floor, and the entire Amazon basin is fertilized annually by 27 million tons of diatom shell dust transported by transatlantic winds from

17776-406: The periphyton community. Another classification divides plankton into eight types based on size: in this scheme, diatoms are classed as microalgae. Several systems for classifying the individual diatom species exist. Fossil evidence suggests that diatoms originated during or before the early Jurassic period, which was about 150 to 200 million years ago. The oldest fossil evidence for diatoms

17978-458: The spring ), their competitive edge and rapid growth rate enables them to dominate phytoplankton communities ("boom" or "bloom"). As such they are often classed as opportunistic r-strategists (i.e. those organisms whose ecology is defined by a high growth rate, r ). The freshwater diatom Didymosphenia geminata , commonly known as Didymo, causes severe environmental degradation in water-courses where it blooms, producing large quantities of

18180-422: The zygote . The zygote sheds its silica theca and grows into a large sphere covered by an organic membrane, the auxospore. A new diatom cell of maximum size, the initial cell, forms within the auxospore thus beginning a new generation. Resting spores may also be formed as a response to unfavourable environmental conditions with germination occurring when conditions improve. A defining characteristic of all diatoms

18382-653: The "salt"). Unknowingly, the viewer's confusion captured the essence of diatoms—mineral utilizing plants. It is not clear when it was determined that diatom cell walls are made of silica, but in 1939 a seminal reference characterized the material as silicic acid in a "subcolloidal" state Identification of the main chemical component of the cell wall spurred investigations into how it was made. These investigations have involved, and been propelled by, diverse approaches including, microscopy, chemistry, biochemistry, material characterisation , molecular biology , 'omics , and transgenic approaches. The results from this work have given

18584-550: The "take-over" remains unclear, and different authors have conflicting interpretations of the fossil record. Some evidence, such as the displacement of siliceous sponges from the shelves, suggests that this takeover began in the Cretaceous (146 Ma to 66 Ma), while evidence from radiolarians suggests "take-over" did not begin until the Cenozoic (66 Ma to present). The diagram depicts some mechanisms by which marine diatoms contribute to

18786-413: The 1930s until 1971, diatomite was extracted from the former bed, resulting in the tarn returning, although somewhat smaller than it had once been. Below the tarn, the river is joined by Park Beck, flowing from the west. Ullthwaite Bridge carries a minor track over the river, while Scroggs Bridge carries the road to Kentmere. The next bridge is Barley Bridge, above which is Staveley (old) weir, which supplied

18988-462: The 1930s. The cost of water under the provisions of the Water Resources Act 1963 was prohibitive, and when the company failed to get a reduction in those costs at a public enquiry in the 1970s, they ceased to use water power. They had installed Lancashire boilers in 1899, which continued in use until 1977, when the mill closed. Bowston Mill was probably a fulling mill at one time, but in 1880 it

19190-484: The 500,000). The larger towns have ethnic makeups closer to the national average. The 2001 census indicated Christianity was the religion with the most adherents in the county. 2010 ONS estimates placed the number of foreign-born (non-United Kingdom) people living in Cumbria at around 14,000 and foreign nationals at 6,000. Population trends indicate a gradual decline in younger demographics, with an increasing proportion of elderly residents. The 2001 UK Census showed

19392-606: The African Sahara , much of it from the Bodélé Depression , which was once made up of a system of fresh-water lakes. Diatoms are unicellular organisms : they occur either as solitary cells or in colonies , which can take the shape of ribbons, fans, zigzags, or stars. Individual cells range in size from 2 to 2000 micrometers. In the presence of adequate nutrients and sunlight, an assemblage of living diatoms doubles approximately every 24 hours by asexual multiple fission ;

19594-592: The Cumbria coast. The busiest railway stations in Cumbria are Carlisle , Barrow-in-Furness , Penrith and Oxenholme Lake District . The 399 miles (642 km) West Coast Main Line runs through the Cumbria countryside, adjacent to the M6 motorway. The Cumbrian Coast Line connects Barrow-in-Furness to Carlisle and is a vital link in the west of the county. Other railways in Cumbria are the Windermere Branch Line , most of

19796-441: The Kent to provide hydro power. In 2009 the residents of Kentmere proposed the construction of a small system, utilising a section of the river just above Low Bridge, where it drops some 130 feet (40 m) over a distance of 1,150 feet (350 m) at Jumb Falls. The scheme would have generated 1,250 MWh of electricity per year, which would have been sold to the national grid, with the profits used to fund community projects once

19998-530: The Lancaster Canal. The buildings beside the Kent were demolished between 1850 and 1854. In 1857, Walter Charles Strickland set up a new company which built the New Sedgwick Works on the west bank of the river. It covered some 27 acres (11 ha), and was fed from a weir originally built straight across the river, but subsequently reconstructed in a triangular shape. A long stone-lined channel ran through

20200-539: The Liberal Democrats. The 2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies abolished Copeland, Workington, and Penrith and the Border, replacing them with the new constituencies of Penrith and Solway and Whitehaven and Workington . The three remaining constituencies underwent significant boundary changes, including some electoral wards being transferred from Westmorland and Lonsdale to Morecambe and Lunesdale , making

20402-661: The North Lonsdale or Furness part of Lancashire , usually referred to as "Lancashire North of the Sands", (including the county borough of Barrow-in-Furness ) and, from the West Riding of Yorkshire , the Sedbergh Rural District . Between 1974 and 2023 it was governed by Cumbria County Council but in 2023 the county council was abolished and replaced by two new unitary authorities Cumberland Council and Westmorland and Furness Council. On 2 June 2010, taxi driver Derrick Bird killed 12 people and injured 11 others in

20604-574: The Victoria Bridge gauging station. Peak flows downstream at Sedgwick were 18,600 cubic feet (526.8 m) per second. Nearly 2,150 properties in the town were flooded as a result of the highest river levels ever recorded. The areas most affected were Mintsfeet and Sandylands. At the southern end of the town, the sewage treatment works was inundated, and the water caused serious damage to its main outfall. Properties at Helsington Mills were also flooded, with water levels of up to 4 feet (1.2 m). Once

20806-418: The Wilsons, who lived at Kentmere Hall, drained Kentmere Tarn, in the hope that it would provide high quality farm land. This was not particularly successful, but had unexpected effects. The water-holding bogs which were drained had previously acted as a giant sponge, soaking up water and releasing it steadily into the river. The flows now fluctuated much more than before, to the detriment of the mills. In 1844,

21008-425: The ability to grow in colonial chains. These adaptations increase their surface area to volume ratio and drag , allowing them to stay suspended in the water column longer. Individual cells may regulate buoyancy via an ionic pump. Some pennate diatoms are capable of a type of locomotion called "gliding", which allows them to move across surfaces via adhesive mucilage secreted through a seamlike structure called

21210-547: The capital costs were repaid. A Trust was set up to manage the scheme, and a planning application was submitted to the Lake District National Park Authority in August 2009. Consent for the scheme was granted in July 2010. Because the scheme was a run-of-river scheme, the decision to sell the electricity rather than distribute it locally was taken because varying flows would have resulted in variable amounts of power being generated. Incidentally,

21412-409: The channel was also increased in places, and a total of 310 thousand cubic yards (240,000 m) of spoil was removed, which was reused to construct the base of a business park on the south side of Kendal. The deeper channel meant that the foundations of existing river walls and bridges had to be protected against erosion. Walls were protected by building concrete buttressing in front of them, which

21614-491: The civilian market rather than for the military. Old Sedgwick Mill was the first of seven gunpowder mills in South Cumbria, and was started by John Wakefield. The site covered 4.9 acres (2.0 ha), and although it is believed to have opened in 1764, research by English Heritage in 2002 suggested that it was not built before 1768 and probably did not start producing gunpowder until 1770. The Wakefields worked hard to ensure that

21816-529: The coasts via rivers, and from below via seafloor sediment recycling, weathering, and hydrothermal activity . Although diatoms may have existed since the Triassic , the timing of their ascendancy and "take-over" of the silicon cycle occurred more recently. Prior to the Phanerozoic (before 544 Ma), it is believed that microbial or inorganic processes weakly regulated the ocean's silicon cycle. Subsequently,

22018-400: The counter, and their direction of travel, but could not detect the species of individual fish. At that time, the Environment Agency were hoping to use underwater cameras to record the species of the fish. In 2013 DEFRA funding was announced for eel passes at Stramongate weir in Kendal and Basinghyll fish counter, where two eel passes were installed in July 2013. The Environment Agency measure

22220-606: The county with a strong resemblance to Scottish Backhold . In the 21st century Cumberland and Westmorland wrestling along with other aspects of Lakeland culture are practised at the Grasmere Sports and Show, an annual meeting held every year since 1852 on the August Bank Holiday . The origin of this form of wrestling is a matter of debate, with some describing it as having evolved from Norse wrestling brought over by Viking invaders, while other historians associate it with

22422-614: The county, and today, Cumbria has one of the largest number of preserved field monuments in England'. While not part of the region conquered in the Romans' initial conquest of Britain in AD 43, most of modern-day Cumbria was later conquered in response to a revolt deposing the Roman-aligned ruler of the Brigantes in AD 69. The Romans built a number of fortifications in the area during their occupation,

22624-417: The cycle appears dominated (and more strongly regulated) by the radiolarians and siliceous sponges , the former as zooplankton , the latter as sedentary filter-feeders primarily on the continental shelves . Within the last 100 My, it is thought that the silicon cycle has come under even tighter control, and that this derives from the ecological ascendancy of the diatoms. However, the precise timing of

22826-498: The deep ocean biome. Diatoms have complex life history strategies that are presumed to have contributed to their rapid genetic diversification into ~200,000 species  that are distributed between the two major diatom groups: centrics and pennates. Diatoms are generally 20 to 200 micrometers in size, with a few larger species. Their yellowish-brown chloroplasts , the site of photosynthesis, are typical of heterokonts , having four cell membranes and containing pigments such as

23028-765: The defences. Parts of Mintsfeet were affected by flooding from the river in February 2004 and January 2005. As well as houses being inundated, business properties on the Lake District Business Park and the Mintsfeet Industrial Estate were also flooded. Flood embankments had been built to protect the industrial areas from the two rivers in the 1980s, and these were improved after they failed to stop flooding in 2004 and 2005. In December 2015, much of Cumbria and north-west England experienced extreme levels of rainfall, caused by Storm Desmond . The Kent catchment

23230-559: The design flow of 9,900 cubic feet (280 m) per second for the river channel through Kendal. However, this was not an accurate measurement, since water which flowed over the bank in the Mintsfeet area was constrained by the Oxenhope to Windermere railway embankment, and combined with the flood waters of Stock Beck flowed back under the railway where it crosses the A6 road, thus rejoining the river below

23432-528: The diatom (spring) bloom is typically ended by a shortage of silicon. Unlike other minerals, the requirement for silicon is unique to diatoms and it is not regenerated in the plankton ecosystem as efficiently as, for instance, nitrogen or phosphorus nutrients. This can be seen in maps of surface nutrient concentrations – as nutrients decline along gradients, silicon is usually the first to be exhausted (followed normally by nitrogen then phosphorus). Because of this bloom-and-bust cycle, diatoms are believed to play

23634-450: The dominant components of phytoplankton in nutrient-rich coastal waters and during oceanic spring blooms, since they can divide more rapidly than other groups of phytoplankton. Most live pelagically in open water, although some live as surface films at the water-sediment interface ( benthic ), or even under damp atmospheric conditions. They are especially important in oceans, where a 2003 study found that they contribute an estimated 45% of

23836-572: The dynamic political situation of the region. There were at least three sieges of Carlisle fought between England and Scotland, and two further sieges during the Jacobite risings . After the Jacobite Risings of the 18th century, Cumbria became a more stable place and, as in the rest of Northern England , the Industrial Revolution caused a large growth in urban populations. In particular,

24038-586: The east part of the North Pennines ; the latter have been designated a national landscape . South of the vale are the Orton Fells , Howgill Fells , and part of the Yorkshire Dales , which are all within the Yorkshire Dales national park .  The south-west contains the Lake District , a large upland area which has been designated a national park and UNESCO world heritage site . It includes Scafell Pike , England's highest mountain, and Windermere , its longest and largest lake. The county has long coast to

24240-448: The endangered freshwater pearl mussel . It is a designated watercourse of plain to montane levels, which means that it is characterised by populations of water-crowfoot and water starwort , which can form floating mats of white flowers in the summer. These mats provide food and shelter for fish and invertebrates. There are significant quantities of three types of game fish in the river, salmon , brown trout and sea trout . Fishing on

24442-412: The extensive ruins of New Sedgwick gunpowder mill still lie within the confines of Low Wood caravan park, which is owned by the National Trust . The river flows through the town of Kendal, which consequently suffers from flooding from time to time. One of the most serious floods was in 1898, but there was also extensive flooding in 1954 and 1968. In the aftermath of the 1968 event, a flood defence scheme

24644-445: The fall at their mill being the second highest on the river at the time, they opposed the scheme, and as a consequence, the Act of Parliament which authorised its construction contained a clause limiting their contribution to £15 per year, in order to remove the opposition. Nearer the centre of Staveley was a third mill, known as Staveley Mill in 1844 but shown as Chadwick's Mill on maps. It was

24846-453: The flood defences in that area, but it will probably be replaced by a single-span cable stayed bridge, so that its piers will no longer obstruct the river bed. Miller Bridge carries the A65 road. There was originally a wooden bridge at this location, to connect the town to Castle corn mill, but it was regularly damaged by floods, and was replaced by a stone bridge in 1743. This was in turn replaced by

25048-478: The following most common countries of birth for residents of Cumbria that year: Fell running is a popular sport in Cumbria, with an active calendar of competitions taking place throughout the year. Cumbria is also home to several of the most active orienteering clubs in the UK as well as the Lakes 5 Days competition that takes place every four years. Workington is home to the ball game known as Uppies and Downies,

25250-557: The formation in 1951 of the Lake District National Park , which remains the largest National Park in England and has come to dominate the identity and economy of the county. The Windscale fire of 10 October 1957 was the worst nuclear accident in Great Britain's history. Cumbria was created in 1974 from the traditional counties of Cumberland and Westmorland , the Cumberland County Borough of Carlisle , along with

25452-496: The frustule: the centric diatoms and the pennate diatoms . Pennate diatoms are bilaterally symmetric. Each one of their valves have openings that are slits along the raphes and their shells are typically elongated parallel to these raphes. They generate cell movement through cytoplasm that streams along the raphes, always moving along solid surfaces. Centric diatoms are radially symmetric. They are composed of upper and lower valves – epitheca and hypotheca – each consisting of

25654-441: The genera Hemiaulus , Rhizosolenia and Chaetoceros . Dinotoms are diatoms that have become endosymbionts inside dinoflagellates . Research on the dinoflagellates Durinskia baltica and Glenodinium foliaceum has shown that the endosymbiont event happened so recently, evolutionarily speaking, that their organelles and genome are still intact with minimal to no gene loss. The main difference between these and free living diatoms

25856-521: The historic counties of Cumberland and Westmorland , the Furness area of Lancashire, and a small part of Yorkshire . The interior of Cumbria contains several upland areas which together fringe the Vale of Eden , the wide valley of the River Eden which runs south-east to north-west across the county and broadens into the Solway Plain near Carlisle. To the north-east are part of the Border Moors and to

26058-458: The identification of novel components involved in higher order processes, the dynamics documented through real-time imaging, and the genetic manipulation of silica structure. The approaches established in these recent works provide practical avenues to not only identify the components involved in silica cell wall formation but to elucidate their interactions and spatio-temporal dynamics. This type of holistic understanding will be necessary to achieve

26260-530: The incorporating mills at Gatebeck. It closed in 1935, after which all the wooden-framed mill buildings were burned to remove explosives, leaving the stone blast walls. There was a waterwheel at the north end of the site, and a tunnel which carried water downstream to further mills and a second waterwheel. Most of the basic structures and the water system survive. In addition to the Staveley Mill Yard hydro-electric scheme, there have been other proposals to use

26462-408: The larger building as a workshop after they bought it in 1895, and were described as "haulage contractors, threshing machine proprietors and furniture removers" in 1905. They maintained traction engines and other machinery in the mill building. THe water wheel remained in use, generating electricity until the 1940s, but was subsequently dismantled. Chaplows were still using the site in 2013 as a base for

26664-661: The largest private employer in Cumbria, BAE Systems in Barrow employs around 12,000 with further job growth associated with new contracts expected, the Sellafield nuclear processing site, has a workforce of 10,000. Below is a list of some of the county's largest companies and employers (excluding services such as Cumbria Constabulary , Cumbria Fire and Rescue and the NHS in Cumbria), categorised by district. The largest and most widespread industry

26866-707: The latter a cross-county constituency (it had previously been exclusively in Lancashire ). Michelle Scrogham Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats are strongest in rural areas, and Labour is strongest in the industrial towns. Although Cumbria has a comprehensive system almost fully, there is one state grammar school in Penrith. There are 42 state secondary schools and 10 independent schools. The more rural secondary schools tend to have sixth forms (although in Barrow-in-Furness district, no schools have sixth forms due to

27068-399: The life cycle of diatoms, particularly as cell size decreases with successive vegetative divisions. Sexual reproduction involves production of gametes and the fusion of gametes to form a zygote in which maximal cell size is restored. The signaling that triggers the sexual phase is favored when cells accumulate together, so that the distance between them is reduced and the contacts and/or

27270-493: The location plan, which was one of the documents submitted with the application, shows an old mill, which was presumably Low Bridge Mill, near the proposed location for the turbine house. For reasons that are not altogether clear, the scheme did not progress any further, and the Trust was disbanded in March 2011. Kendal's location on the banks of the River Kent has made it liable to flooding from high river levels. The highest known level

27472-557: The main towns and villages in the county, with some services running to neighbouring areas such as Lancaster . Stagecoach North West is the largest; it has depots in Barrow-in-Furness, Carlisle, Kendal and Workington. Stagecoach's flagship X6 route connects Barrow-in-Furness and Kendal in south Cumbria. There are only two airports in the county: Carlisle Lake District and Barrow/Walney Island . Both airports formerly served scheduled passenger flights and both are proposing expansions and renovations to handle domestic and European flights in

27674-453: The maximum life span of individual cells is about six days. Diatoms have two distinct shapes: a few ( centric diatoms ) are radially symmetric, while most ( pennate diatoms ) are broadly bilaterally symmetric. The unique feature of diatoms is that they are surrounded by a cell wall made of silica (hydrated silicon dioxide ), called a frustule . These frustules produce structural coloration , prompting them to be described as "jewels of

27876-463: The mill and used it to produce horse clothing and collar checks, while by 1848, parts of it were in use by Caleb Metcalf & Sons for producing woollens. Disaster struck in 1891, when it burnt down, but Richardson & Co rebuilt it, and it produced woollens from 1900 until it closed in 1924. Immediately after the long loop of the river that enclosed the Concangium Roman station, a long weir fed

28078-525: The mill, the river was crossed by Burneside Bridge, which was washed away in the floods of December 2015, and was being reconstructed in 2019. Below the bridge, the River Sprint flows over a weir to join the river on the north bank. On the outskirts of Kendal, the river turns to the south and is joined by the River Mint on its east bank. Below the junction, a large lagoon was constructed in the 1970s as part of

28280-479: The model species, as the whole genome was sequenced and methods for genetic control were established, and Cylindrotheca fusiformis , in which the important silica deposition proteins silaffins were first discovered. Silaffins, sets of polycationic peptides , were found in C. fusiformis cell walls and can generate intricate silica structures. These structures demonstrated pores of sizes characteristic to diatom patterns. When T. pseudonana underwent genome analysis it

28482-694: The most easterly and westerly points of the county. The boundaries are along the Irish Sea to Morecambe Bay in the west, and along the Pennines to the east. Cumbria's northern boundary stretches from the Solway Firth from the Solway Plain eastward along the border with Scotland . Cumbria is bordered by Northumberland , County Durham , North Yorkshire , Lancashire in England, and Dumfries and Roxburgh, Ettrick and Lauderdale in Scotland. Many large companies and organisations are based in Cumbria. The county council itself employs around 17,000 individuals, while

28684-458: The most famous being UNESCO World Heritage Site Hadrian's Wall which passes through northern Cumbria. At the end of the period of British history known as Roman Britain ( c.  AD 410 ) the inhabitants of Cumbria were Cumbric -speaking native Celtic Britons who were probably descendants of the Brigantes and Carvetii (sometimes considered to be a sub-tribe of the Brigantes) that

28886-628: The near future. The nearest international airports to south Cumbria are Blackpool , Manchester , Liverpool John Lennon and Teesside . North Cumbria is closer to Newcastle , Glasgow Prestwick and Glasgow International . Barrow-in-Furness is one of the country's largest shipbuilding centres, but the Port of Barrow is only minor, operated by Associated British Ports alongside the Port of Silloth in Allerdale. There are no ferry links from any port or harbour along

29088-474: The nearby industrial estate. Below Staveley there were three mills connected with the paper industry, the lower one of which is now the site of the paper manufacturer James Cropper PLC , although the current mill no longer uses water power. Within Kendal, there were mills serving the woollen industry, while the mill at Helsington was the last water-powered snuff mill in the country until its closure in 1991. Below Kendal, there were three mills making gunpowder, and

29290-470: The ocean and its slow diffusion rate in water, diatoms fix 10–20 GtC annually via photosynthesis thanks to their carbon dioxide concentrating mechanisms , allowing them to sustain marine food chains . In addition, 0.1–1% of this organic material produced in the euphotic layer sinks down as particles, thus transferring the surface carbon toward the deep ocean and sequestering atmospheric CO 2 for thousands of years or longer. The remaining organic matter

29492-503: The only professional football teams in Cumbria. Carlisle United attract support from across Cumbria and beyond, with many Cumbrian "ex-pats" travelling to see their games, both home and away. Workington —who are always known locally as "the reds"—are a well-supported non-league team, having been relegated from the Football League in the 1970s. Workington made a rapid rise up the non league ladder and in 2007/08 competed with Barrow in

29694-428: The only sixth form college in Cumbria being located in the town) and this is the same for three schools in Allerdale and South Lakeland, and one in the other districts. Chetwynde is also the only school in Barrow to educate children from nursery all the way to year 11. Colleges of further education in Cumbria include: The University of Cumbria is one of the UK's newest universities, having been established in 2007. It

29896-588: The open ocean, many sinking cells are lost to the deep, but refuge populations can persist near the thermocline . Ultimately, diatom cells in these resting populations re-enter the upper mixed layer when vertical mixing entrains them. In most circumstances, this mixing also replenishes nutrients in the upper mixed layer, setting the scene for the next round of diatom blooms. In the open ocean (away from areas of continuous upwelling ), this cycle of bloom, bust, then return to pre-bloom conditions typically occurs over an annual cycle, with diatoms only being prevalent during

30098-486: The parent company in 1926, but falling orders led to its closure in 1935. After closure, many of the buildings were burnt or demolished to ensure there were no traces of explosive left. The site was reused during the Second World War for the storage of ammunition, and ownership passed to the National Trust in 1950, when they acquired Sizergh Castle and its grounds. The site was altered in 1977, when Low Wood Caravan Park

30300-463: The perception of chemical cues is facilitated. An exploration of the genomes of five diatoms and one diatom transcriptome led to the identification of 42 genes potentially involved in meiosis. Thus a meiotic toolkit appears to be conserved in these six diatom species, indicating a central role of meiosis in diatoms as in other eukaryotes. Diatoms are mostly non-motile ; however, sperm found in some species can be flagellated , though motility

30502-510: The period c.  400  – c.  1100 , it is likely that any group of people living in Britain who identified as 'Britons' called themselves by a name similar to 'Cum-ri' which means "fellow countrymen" (and has also survived in the Welsh name for Wales which is Cymru ). The first datable record of the place name as Cumberland is from an entry in the Anglo Saxon Chronicle for

30704-535: The present bridge, which was designed by the architect Francis Webster to provide easy access to the terminus of the Lancaster Canal , then under construction. The bridge opened in November 1818, with the canal following in June 1819. Jennings Yard footbridge was another casualty of the 1898 floods, and was rebuilt afterward. It was replaced again between 1972 and 1978, as part of a flood alleviation scheme, which involved making

30906-423: The raphe. In order for a diatom cell to glide, it must have a solid substrate for the mucilage to adhere to. Cells are solitary or united into colonies of various kinds, which may be linked by siliceous structures; mucilage pads, stalks or tubes; amorphous masses of mucilage; or by threads of chitin (polysaccharide), which are secreted through strutted processes of the cell. Reproduction among these organisms

31108-467: The rating system, as was Barley Bridge Mill at Staveley. The first mill on the river was Low Bridge corn mill at Kentmere. Ullthwaite was another corn mill, located on the west bank of the river. It was fed by a weir running diagonally across the river with a sluice to control flow into a long leat. As roads in the area improved such remove mills became less economic; Low Bridge closed around 1854, and Unthwaite had closed by 1858. Goose Howe or Fell Foot mill

31310-425: The rearing of juvenile salmon. Notwithstanding the existence of fish ladders, the removal of some weirs would arguably be beneficial to the health of the river and fish stocks in particular. In 2022 approval was given for the removal of a 19th century weir at Bowston. Since 1989, there has been a fish counter at Basinghyll, which covers the whole width of the river. Until 2000, it could detect any fish passing through

31512-534: The rent to £35. The Staveley Co-operative Bobbin Manufacturing Company rented the mill from 1896, paying rent of £37.50, but their move from Gatefoot mill was not a success, with the Co-op closing in 1900, and the mill being demolished in 1902. Scroggs mill at Staveley was situated just below Scroggs bridge, as was the weir, which ran diagonally. The mill was on the east bank, had a fall of 12 feet (3.7 m), and

31714-408: The river almost twice as wide at this location. Parts of Nether Bridge date from the 17th century, but when built, it was quite narrow, and has been widened. The original bridge is on the downstream side. An extension added in 1772 now forms the middle of the bridge, and the upstream side was added in 1908. The three stages are clearly visible within the arches. The final bridge is Romney Bridge, which

31916-422: The river passes through a rock gorge which produces a number of low waterfalls. This section is popular with kayakers as it offers high quality whitewater for several days after rain. The village of Arnside is situated on the east bank of the Kent estuary, just above Morecambe Bay, and a tidal bore known as the Arnside Bore forms in the estuary at this point on high spring tides. The river has been used as

32118-526: The river, implemented a flood defence scheme. It was designed to cope with flows up to the maximum experienced in 1954 without the town flooding, and was constructed in six phases between 1972 and 1978 at a cost of £1 million. The scheme affected 3.5 miles (5.6 km) of the river, from Mintsfeet in the north to Watercrook in the south. The river channel was made wider, with the width of the section between Nether Bridge and Miller Bridge being increased from 66 feet (20 m) to 125 feet (38 m). The depth of

32320-614: The same size as its parent, but the diatom that received the smaller frustule remains smaller than its parent. This causes the average cell size of this diatom population to decrease. It has been observed, however, that certain taxa have the ability to divide without causing a reduction in cell size. Nonetheless, in order to restore the cell size of a diatom population for those that do endure size reduction, sexual reproduction and auxospore formation must occur. Vegetative cells of diatoms are diploid (2N) and so meiosis can take place, producing male and female gametes which then fuse to form

32522-567: The scale of diatom frustules . One hypothesis as to how these proteins work to create complex structure is that residues are conserved within the SDV's, which is unfortunately difficult to identify or observe due to the limited number of diverse sequences available. Though the exact mechanism of the highly uniform deposition of silica is as yet unknown, the Thalassiosira pseudonana genes linked to silaffins are being looked to as targets for genetic control of nanoscale silica deposition. The ability of diatoms to make silica-based cell walls has been

32724-468: The sea" and "living opals". Movement in diatoms primarily occurs passively as a result of both ocean currents and wind-induced water turbulence ; however, male gametes of centric diatoms have flagella , permitting active movement to seek female gametes. Similar to plants , diatoms convert light energy to chemical energy by photosynthesis , but their chloroplasts were acquired in different ways. Unusually for autotrophic organisms, diatoms possess

32926-411: The settlement of Kentmere, and in then joined by Hall Gill. It broadens out as it flows through Kentmere Tarn, which was drained in the early 1840s to provide agricultural land. The draining was a major factor leading to the building of Kentmere Reservoir. Prior to draining, it had provided habitat for algae called diatoms , which formed a layer of diatomite on the bottom of the tarn when they died. From

33128-407: The site was occupied from 90 CE to 369 CE, and the remains are fairly well preserved. Above ground, the site is marked by a number of low earthworks. As the river resumes its southward course, there is a large weir which supplied a snuff mill. The mill is Grade II listed and the snuff grinding equipment is still in situ. To the west of Natland , the river passes through a small limestone gorge, which

33330-495: The south end of the town and replaced by the Romney road bridge at that time. The first road bridge is Victoria Bridge, carrying the A6 road, which is made of iron and was built in 1887 to celebrate Queen Victoria's jubilee. Next is Stramongate Bridge, with four arches, which dates from 1794, although it includes parts of an earlier bridge dating from the 17th century. A bridge on this site was first documented in 1379, when records mentioned De ponte de Strowmondgate . Stramongate weir

33532-470: The sovereign, exercises some rights of the Crown in the County Palatine of Lancaster, which includes the Furness area of Cumbria. Until the 2024 general election , there were six parliamentary constituencies in Cumbria: Barrow and Furness , Carlisle , Copeland , Penrith and the Border , Westmorland and Lonsdale , and Workington . Five were won by the Conservative Party in the 2019 United Kingdom general election , with Westmorland and Lonsdale won by

33734-400: The spring and early summer. In some locations, however, an autumn bloom may occur, caused by the breakdown of summer stratification and the entrainment of nutrients while light levels are still sufficient for growth. Since vertical mixing is increasing, and light levels are falling as winter approaches, these blooms are smaller and shorter-lived than their spring equivalents. In the open ocean,

33936-465: The subject of fascination for centuries. It started with a microscopic observation by an anonymous English country nobleman in 1703, who observed an object that looked like a chain of regular parallelograms and debated whether it was just crystals of salt, or a plant. The viewer decided that it was a plant because the parallelograms didn't separate upon agitation, nor did they vary in appearance when dried or subjected to warm water (in an attempt to dissolve

34138-401: The top in a scum and can be isolated. The diagram shows the major fluxes of silicon in the current ocean. Most biogenic silica in the ocean ( silica produced by biological activity ) comes from diatoms. Diatoms extract dissolved silicic acid from surface waters as they grow, and return it to the water column when they die. Inputs of silicon arrive from above via aeolian dust , from

34340-461: The total oceanic primary production of organic material. However, a more recent 2016 study estimates that the number is closer to 20%. Spatial distribution of marine phytoplankton species is restricted both horizontally and vertically. Planktonic diatoms in freshwater and marine environments typically exhibit a " boom and bust " (or " bloom and bust") lifestyle. When conditions in the upper mixed layer (nutrients and light) are favourable (as at

34542-422: The tourism industry which adds £1.1 billion a year to the county's economy. The Lake District and county as a whole attract visitors from across the UK, Europe, North America and the Far East (particularly Japan). The tables below show the twenty most-visited attractions in Cumbria in 2009. (Not all visitor attractions provided data to Cumbria Tourism who collated the list. Notable examples are Furness Abbey ,

34744-413: The town section, a large lagoon was built just below the confluence of the River Kent and the River Mint. This acts as a gravel trap, enabling the gravel to be removed at regular intervals more easily than if it was spread throughout the town section. The effectiveness of the new defences were tested in 1985, when a flood of the same magnitude as that in 1954 passed through the town without overtopping any of

34946-451: The town to act as a gravel trap. Despite the work, Kendal was again inundated in 2015, when flows in the river far exceeded the design flow of the channel. The Environment Agency published plans for a new set of defences to protect the town in 2018. The river is a Special Area of Conservation , particularly because it supports populations of the endangered white-clawed crayfish . It also supports populations of three types of game fish, and

35148-419: The two councils submitted an expression of interest to form a combined authority . Between 1974 and 2023 Cumbria was administered by Cumbria County Council and six district councils : Allerdale , Barrow-in-Furness , Carlisle , Copeland , Eden , and South Lakeland . These were abolished on 1 April 2023, when the two unitary authorities were established. The Duchy of Lancaster , the private estate of

35350-400: The two-halves and grows a smaller half within it. As a result, after each division cycle, the average size of diatom cells in the population gets smaller. Once such cells reach a certain minimum size, rather than simply divide, they reverse this decline by forming an auxospore , usually through meiosis and sexual reproduction, but exceptions exist. The auxospore expands in size to give rise to

35552-400: The upper reaches have become important for the rearing of juvenile salmon since fish passes were constructed to allow fish to negotiate the weirs on the river in 1986. The origins of the name of the River Kent are uncertain. The name is thought not to belong to the Germanic languages , and therefore to be Brittonic ; but a precise etymology has not been identified. The River Kent rises in

35754-436: The urea cycle had long been considered a waste pathway. However, in diatoms the urea cycle appears to play a role in exchange of nutrients between the mitochondria and the cytoplasm , and potentially the plastid   and may help to regulate ammonium metabolism. Because of this cycle, marine diatoms, in contrast to chlorophytes , also have acquired a mitochondrial urea transporter and, in fact, based on bioinformatics ,

35956-429: The water had subsided, 7,000 tonnes of gravel were removed from the gravel trap, a further 7,000 tonnes from Gooseholme and 3,000 tonnes from near Romney Bridge. Smaller amounts were removed from other locations in the summer. In November 2018, the Environment Agency submitted plans for the first phase of a £30 million scheme to improve flood defences in Kendal. This involves the construction of flood gates, flood walls and

36158-447: The water quality of the river systems in England. Each is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates , angiosperms and fish. Chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations,

36360-445: The water quality, for example on the River Gowan , a tributary which has been reconnected to its flood-plain. Some of these projects are also intended to help control flooding by natural means. [REDACTED] Media related to River Kent at Wikimedia Commons 54°15′N 2°47′W  /  54.250°N 2.783°W  / 54.250; -2.783 Cumbria Cumbria ( / ˈ k ʌ m b r i ə / KUM -bree-ə )

36562-412: The west coast towns of Workington , Millom and Barrow-in-Furness saw large iron and steel mills develop, with Barrow also developing a significant shipbuilding industry. Kendal , Keswick and Carlisle all became mill towns , with textiles, pencils and biscuits among the products manufactured in the region. The early 19th century saw the county gain fame when the Lake Poets and other artists of

36764-399: The west, which is bordered by a plain for most of its length. In the north-west it borders the Solway Firth , a national landscape, and the southern coast includes the Cartmel and Furness peninsulas. East of the peninsulas, the county contains part of Arnside and Silverdale another national landscape The county contains several Neolithic monuments, such as Mayburgh Henge . The region

36966-430: The woods to power water wheels and turbines at the main works. Strickland's company failed in 1864, but it was reconstructed as the Sedgwick Gunpowder Company. From 1886, Henry Swinglehurst was the director of the company, which became a private limited company in 1896, when he died and his son Addison took over. Explosive Trades Ltd bought the business in 1917, and they became part of Nobel Industries Ltd in 1920. ICI became

37168-475: The work, and ongoing maintenance, mill owners who benefitted from the scheme were charged a rate, which was based on the amount of fall in levels through the mill site. The amount of power which could be extracted from a given flow is directly proportional to the fall, and this method of charging was agreed to be fair. Only those mills with an annual value of £50 or more were required to pay rates, while corn mills having less than six pairs of stones were excluded from

37370-412: The year AD 945. This record refers to a kingdom known to the Anglo Saxons as Cumberland (often also known as Strathclyde) which in the 10th century may have stretched from Loch Lomond to Leeds. The first king to be unequivocally described as king of the Cumbrians is Owain ap Dyfnwal , who ruled from c.  915  – c.  937 . Cumbria was created in April 1974 through an amalgamation of

37572-425: Was a bobbin mill in 1844. Ordnance Surveys maps show that it was making pick and hammer shafts in 1898, and was disused in 1914, but did not finally close until 1936. At Barley Bridge, Staveley, there were two mills, one on either side of the river, with a common weir above the bridge and a fall of 16 feet (4.9 m). On the east bank there was a corn mill, while the mill on the west bank was a woollen mill in 1844. It

37774-488: Was a bobbin mill, with a fall of 14 feet (4.3 m). The weir ran straight across the river and a sluice-controlled flow in a leat on the west bank. In 1875 the tenant was William Philipson, who rented the mill for £135.90, paid a water rate of £99.20 and employed 56 men and boys. The mill was taken over by his son James in 1876, and in 1881 had only 13 employees. The lease ended in 1894 and the owner, Edward Johnson, could not find another tenant, even though he offered to reduce

37976-422: Was a principality in the Kingdom of Scotland at the time of the Norman conquest of England in 1066 and thus was excluded from the Domesday Book survey of 1086. In 1092 the region was invaded by William II and incorporated into England. Nevertheless, the region was dominated by the many Anglo-Scottish Wars of the latter Middle Ages and early modern period and the associated Border Reivers who exploited

38178-424: Was already saturated, and so the rain quickly made its way into the river systems. In Kendal, the Kent and the River Mint both overtopped their east banks. Flows on the River Kent are measured by gauging stations at Bowston, Victoria Bridge in Kendal, and Sedgwick. The peak flow recorded at Victoria Bridge during the flood event of 5 December and 6 December was 14,220 cubic feet (403 m) per second, far in excess of

38380-402: Was bought by James Cropper, who constructed a new building. This was used to process rags and ropes, with the resultant pulp supplied to Cowan Head Mill and Burneside Mill. This continued in use until the 1960s, when rags and ropes were replaced by waste paper in the manufacturing process. At Burneside, records show that there was a corn mill on the river in the 13th century. Later there was also

38582-412: Was bought by the Gandys, who rebuilt the mills. Carpets were made there from 1850, and the site continued in use until 1940, when parts of it were demolished. Castle Mills was fed from a weir just below Stramongate Bridge, running almost at right angles to the modern weir. The leat curved round to the east, and there was a second weir, parallel to the modern river bank, below Gooseholme foot bridge. The mill

38784-485: Was described as the first in the district in 1798. Low Mills were fred from a weir located where the modern Romney Bridge has been built. The leat ran alongside Natland Road, on the east bank, and the mill buildings were just to the north-east of the sewage treatment works. The mill was quite extensive, as in 1805 it was advertised as having three water wheels, six subsidiary mills, two fulling stocks, one carding engine, and eight friezing engines. John and Thomas Ireland bought

38986-403: Was designed by the Lancashire River Authority , and implemented in six stages between 1972 and 1978. A major component of the scheme was the widening and deepening of the river between Nether Bridge and Miller Bridge, requiring the removal of 310 thousand cubic yards (240,000 m) of spoil, which was reused as the base for a business park. A large lagoon was also constructed to the north of

39188-399: Was directly related to the availability of silicic acid – when concentrations were greater than 2 μmol m , they found that diatoms typically represented more than 70% of the phytoplankton community. Other researchers have suggested that the biogenic silica in diatom cell walls acts as an effective pH buffering agent , facilitating the conversion of bicarbonate to dissolved CO 2 (which

39390-399: Was established, but it remains one of the best-preserved gunpowder works in the north. Among the caravans, the remains of nine incorporating mills, some corning mills, an engine house, a dusting house, glaze houses, stove houses, a press house, a pump house, a boiler station, a saltpetre refinery, stables and a joiner's shop, and much of the water management system which supplied waterwheels and

39592-505: Was found that it encoded a urea cycle , including a higher number of polyamines than most genomes, as well as three distinct silica transport genes. In a phylogenetic study on silica transport genes from 8 diverse groups of diatoms, silica transport was found to generally group with species. This study also found structural differences between the silica transporters of pennate (bilateral symmetry) and centric (radial symmetry) diatoms. The sequences compared in this study were used to create

39794-455: Was labelled as a Worsted mill in 1898, and by 1914 was shown as Letterpress Printing. It then became Kentmere Mills, while the 1978 map additionally marked it as producing printed cartons and boxes. Both continued to use water power until 1971. The woollen mill had been bought by Simpson and Ireland in 1834, and they had initially supported the Kentmere Reservoir scheme, but when they realised that they would be paying more than most in rates, due to

39996-414: Was on the border of Roman Britain , and Hadrian's Wall runs through the north of the county. In the Early Middle Ages parts of the region successively belonged to Rheged , Northumbria , and Strathclyde , and there was also a Viking presence. It became the border between England and Scotland, and was unsettled until the Union of the Crowns in 1603. During the Industrial Revolution mining took place on

40198-408: Was previously believed to have formed the core of the Early Middle Ages Brittonic kingdom of Rheged , more recent discoveries near Galloway appear to contradict this. For the rest of the first millennium, Cumbria was contested by several entities who warred over the area, including the Brythonic Celtic Kingdom of Strathclyde and the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria . Most of modern-day Cumbria

40400-422: Was recorded in 1898, but on 2 December 1954, the highest level of flood water since that time was recorded. Some 39 acres (15.8 ha) of land in and around the town were under water, with nearly 300 houses inundated. At its peak, 9,900 cubic feet (280 m) of water per second were flowing down the river. Kendal again suffered from flooding in 1968, and the Lancashire River Authority , who had responsibility for

40602-410: Was then faced with stone. Some of the widened sections needed new walls, and some of the banks were protected by limestone blocks. 1.24 miles (2 km) of buttressing and 1.05 miles (1.7 km) of new walls were required to complete the scheme. Jennings Yard footbridge had to be replaced because the river was so much wider at that point, and in order to prevent the river drying out when flows were low,

40804-403: Was to the south of Bridge Street, and a long tail race rejoined the river below Parr Street. It was built in 1805–06, just to the north of a corn mill and fulling mill, by William Braithwaite and Isaac Wilson. From 1840 it was owned by J J and W Wilson, who introduced steam power in 1850. The mill manufactured travelling rugs, blankers, tweeds, linings and collar checks. It was extended in 1855 when

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