Misplaced Pages

#168831

174-541: The Richmond Vale Railway was a 4 ft  8 + 1 ⁄ 2  in ( 1,435 mm ) colliery railway line in the Hunter Valley of New South Wales , Australia, servicing coal mines at Minmi , Stockrington , Pelaw Main and Richmond Main . It was over 26 km (16 mi) long and passed through three tunnels, and was the last commercially operated railway in Australia to use steam locomotives. The line

348-579: A Unit Train Loading System at the Hexham Coal Preparation Plant and load all of the company's export coal through this system. The PTC would still work non-air wagons from East Greta Junction to Hexham, but from Hexham onwards the trains had to consist of air braked wagons. The work consisted of a new set of sidings and dump hoppers between the coal preparation plant and the PTC main line to allow

522-683: A coal preparation plant . Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on the following: regional geological conditions; overburden characteristics; coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth; strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions; topography, especially altitude and slope; climate; land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access; surface drainage patterns; groundwater conditions; availability of labor and materials; coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination; and capital investment requirements. Surface mining and deep underground mining are

696-697: A 70% increase over the 20 years since 1999. In 2018, the world production of brown coal (lignite) was 803.2 Mt, with Germany the world's largest producer at 166.3 Mt. China is most likely the second largest producer and consumer of lignite globally although specific lignite production data is not made available. Coal production has grown fastest in Asia, while Europe has declined. Since 2011, world coal production has been stable, with decreases in Europe and US offset by increases from China, Indonesia and Australia. The top coal mining nations are: Energy production from coal mining

870-442: A branch line is a dead end with a simple shuttle train service, then a single token is sufficient. The driver of any train entering the branch line (or occupying any part of it) must be in possession of the token, and no collision with another train is possible. For convenience in passing it from hand to hand, the token was often in the form of a staff, typically 800 mm (31 in) long and 40 mm (1.6 in) diameter, and

1044-458: A central control computer by internet. The central computer conducts a "census" of keys before releasing a solenoid and freeing a key for the required section of track—an engraved tag identifying the respective section of track is securely attached to the relevant key. The system is in use on the Isle of Man Railway between Castletown and Port Erin. In certain circumstances it was convenient to shorten

1218-440: A coal mine and its structures are a colliery , a coal mine is called a "pit", and above-ground mining structures are referred to as a " pit head ". In Australia , "colliery" generally refers to an underground coal mine. Coal mining has had many developments in recent years, from the early days of men tunneling, digging, and manually extracting the coal on carts to large open-cut and longwall mines. Mining at this scale requires

1392-467: A coal seam occurring near the top of a ridge or hill, the entire top is removed in a series of parallel cuts. Overburden is deposited in nearby valleys and hollows. This method usually leaves the ridge and hilltops as flattened plateaus. The process is highly controversial for the drastic changes in topography, the practice of creating head-of-hollow-fills , or filling in valleys with mining debris, and for covering streams and disrupting ecosystems. Spoil

1566-573: A crossing point. Staff instruments were installed at Minmi Junction, Six Mile Loop, Richmond Main Junction (Later renamed Richmond Vale Junction) and Pelaw Main. When Richmond Main Colliery started producing coal instruments were also installed for the Richmond Main – Richmond Vale Junction Section. The Minmi Junction staff instruments were moved to Stockrington in 1914 with the completion of the duplication of

1740-427: A dilapidated state in the former Stockrington sidings, though this is yet to be confirmed. The Richmond Vale Railway and Mining Museum currently occupies the former Richmond Main Colliery, and operates trains on the former passenger line from Richmond Main to Pelaw Main. The Museum is custodian of a number of historic locomotives and items of rolling stock. There was a proposal for a new freight and coal line to bypass

1914-518: A driver may enter the single line section only if in physical possession of that object. Existing in a variety of physical forms, such as a staff, tablet, key, or ball, the object is marked to indicate to which single track section it belongs. The token system was developed in Britain in the 19th century, to enable safe working of single-line railways. For the very first time this system was proposed by Mr. Henry Woodhouse for Standedge Tunnels in 1849. If

SECTION 10

#1732859109169

2088-432: A dump station for unloading the unwashed coal and a loading point for loading the washed coal into coal wagons. The connection to government main remained in use until 1962, when following the construction of a stacking and reclaim system the plant was then serviced via the exchange sidings and the connection was removed in 1973. A dramatic slump in the coal industry from the mid-1950s on saw many colliery closures. Following

2262-403: A greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. This equipment can include the following: Draglines which operate by removing the overburden, power shovels, large trucks in which transport overburden and coal, bucket wheel excavators, and conveyors. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through

2436-472: A higher amount of energy per unit mass, specific energy or massic energy, and can often be obtained in areas where wood is not readily available. Though it was used historically as a domestic fuel, coal is now used mostly in industry, especially in smelting and alloy production, as well as electricity generation . Large-scale coal mining developed during the Industrial Revolution , and coal provided

2610-440: A land use condition is not equal to the original use. Existing land uses (such as livestock grazing, crop and timber production) are temporarily eliminated in mining areas. High-value, intensive-land-use areas like urban and transportation systems are not usually affected by mining operations. If mineral values are sufficient, these improvements may be removed to an adjacent area. Strip mining eliminates existing vegetation, destroys

2784-440: A large dining-room table, but with hydraulic jacks for legs. After the large pillars of coal have been mined away, the mobile roof support's legs shorten and it is withdrawn to a safe area. The mine roof typically collapses once the mobile roof supports leave an area. There are six principal methods of underground mining: Coal is mined commercially in over 50 countries. 7,921 million metric tons (Mt) of coal were produced in 2019,

2958-487: A leather pouch attached to a hoop, and the fireman could put their arm through the hoop held up by the signalman, and vice versa as the locomotive ran past. In UK practice the permitted speed for this was 15 mph (24 km/h) in daylight, but there are stories of drivers anxious to make up lost time when running late, and passing the exchange point at much higher speeds; bruised upper arms were common among signalmen and firemen on such lines. Fixed token exchange apparatus

3132-413: A loco crew and management, coal haulage ceased and only empty wagons were to be worked to Hexham for storage. The last coal was dumped at the coal preparation plant on 21 September and on 22 September No.25 cleared the empty wagons from the preparation plant and then made two trips to Stockrington to work the remaining empty wagons to Hexham. However, on 24 September as part of the vigorous protest efforts by

3306-447: A method that currently accounts for about 60 percent of world coal production. In deep mining, the room and pillar or bord and pillar method progresses along the seam, while pillars and timber are left standing to support the mine roof. Once room and pillar mines have been developed to a stopping point limited by geology, ventilation, or economics, a supplementary version of room and pillar mining, termed second mining or retreat mining ,

3480-514: A mining access road, where the cutting has been filled. Some track is still in place across Hexham Swamp and at the former Stockrington Colliery site, though unusable. There are still some physical remnants along the route, the aforementioned bridges and tunnels being the most recognisable. There are two dilapidated buildings remaining at the Hexham site, though not much else remains there. It has been suggested that one or some non-air wagons are sitting in

3654-438: A new coal mine. Token (railway signalling) The operation of a bidirectional single track line has the hazard of two trains colliding. The simplest way to prevent such collisions is to have only one train in the section at any given time. Such a system is known as "one-engine-in-steam” (OES) or “one-train working" (OTW). This system is used on some branches of rail networks, and on heritage railways. The main disadvantage

SECTION 20

#1732859109169

3828-529: A new pit named 'C' pit, they also established a workshops at this pit. In 1874 a new tunnel colliery named Duckenfield Colliery was sunk to the North of 'C' pit and a branch railway was laid to this colliery. This was soon followed in 1876 by another new colliery sunk to the East of 'C' pit named Brown's Colliery (also known as Back Creek Colliery), a new branch line was also laid to this mine. The fastest recorded journey on

4002-631: A period of storage No. 5 was transferred to the JABAS Abermain Colliery railway system where it remained until 1939 it was then placed in storage. In 1941 after being overhauled it was used on the Hexham to Stockrington trains until suffering boiler defects in July 1942 when it was withdrawn. No. 5 is now preserved at the NSW Rail Museum , Thirlmere . The Driving wheelset from No.8 also survives at Richmond Main. In 1908 Kitson & Company of Leeds

4176-574: A result of occupational exposures is coined occupational hearing loss . To protect miners' hearing, the US Mine Safety and Health Administration 's (MSHA) guidelines for noise place a Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for noise at 90 dBA time-weighted over 8 hours. A lower cutoff, 85 dBA, is set for a worker to fall into the MSHA Action Level which dictates that workers be placed into hearing conservation programs. Noise exposures vary depending on

4350-518: A separate route and connection to the Main Northern line at Hexham and was used as an alternate route when the South Maitland lines were flooded during the 1949–1952 and 1955 floods. To cater for the increased demand for small coal a central coal preparation plant was built by JABAS adjacent to the exchange sidings at Hexham. Construction of this plant and associated sidings began during 1953 and

4524-408: A short single track section). Three staffs were provided for the 100 km length, one each for the sections Pakenham— Warragul , Warragul—Moe, and Moe—Traralgon. The first two of these are partly or totally double-track sections, but the staffs in this case were applicable to both tracks, the effect being that only one of the tracks could be used at a time. The token system is still regularly used on

4698-476: A short section of the line towards Stockrington (Richmond Main-Leggetts Drive) remains, used for tourist trains by the Richmond Vale Railway Museum . The vast majority of the alignment is in situ, and all three tunnels (in impressive condition) and two bridges (dilapidated) are intact. The alignment has been encroached just opposite Leggetts Drive by a private landing strip, and near No. 2 Tunnel by

4872-433: A single token does not provide convenient operation when consecutive trains are to be worked in the same direction. The simple token system was therefore extended: if one train was to be followed by another in the same direction, the driver of the first train was required to be shown the token, but not take possession of it (in theory he was supposed to physically touch the token, but this was not strictly followed). The driver

5046-485: A surface (also called an open cast) mine. Additionally, coal seam thickness and geology are factors in the selection of a mining method. The most economical method of coal extraction for surface mines is the electric shovel or drag line. The most economical form of underground mining is the long wall, which involves using two spinning drums with carbide bits that runs along sections of the coal seam. Many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in

5220-633: A third 10 class was transferred to Hexham. After the replacing of steam on the SMR by State Rail Authority diesels in June 1983 a fourth 10 class was allocated to Hexham to work the Richmond Vale Railway. All 14 worked on the surviving section of the RVR between Hexham and Stockrington at various times. All fourteen survive. Of the once extensive system, only the relaid former passenger line (Richmond Main-Pelaw Main) and

5394-467: Is a hybrid between conventional token working and internet technology. Conventional "trapped key" pin tumbler locks (held in fixed position by solenoids ) are mounted in key-release units set up at each end of controlled single line. The number of locks in each unit is determined by the expected traffic frequency; optionally at times short sections may be combined to reduce the number of stops ( see Long section working, below ). The units are connected to

Richmond Vale railway line - Misplaced Pages Continue

5568-575: Is accomplished by drilling holes into the overburden, filling the holes with explosives, and detonating the explosive. The overburden is then removed, using large earth-moving equipment, such as draglines , shovel and trucks, excavator and trucks, or bucket-wheels and conveyors. This overburden is put into the previously mined (and now empty) strip. When all the overburden is removed, the underlying coal seam will be exposed (a 'block' of coal). This block of coal may be drilled and blasted (if hard) or otherwise loaded onto trucks or conveyors for transport to

5742-410: Is blocked and traffic is to be worked in both directions over the remaining line. The pilotman (identified by a red armband with "PILOTMAN" in white letters) rides in the cab with the driver, or if another train is due to follow, the pilotman must issue the driver with a single line working ticket and authorise him to enter the section. The signalman must not clear the starting signal until instructed by

5916-427: Is commonly started. Miners remove the coal in the pillars, thereby recovering as much coal from the coal seam as possible. A work area involved in pillar extraction is called a pillar section. Modern pillar sections use remote-controlled equipment, including large hydraulic mobile roof-supports, which can prevent cave-ins until the miners and their equipment have left a work area. The mobile roof supports are similar to

6090-418: Is dedicated to mining activities until it can be reshaped and reclaimed. If mining is allowed, resident human populations must be resettled off the mine site; economic activities, such as agriculture or hunting and gathering food and medicinal plants are interrupted. What becomes of the land surface after mining is determined by the manner in which the mining is conducted. Usually reclamation of disturbed lands to

6264-516: Is highly concentrated in certain jurisdictions, which also concentrates much of the social and economic impacts of the industry to these regions. The industry directly employs over seven million workers worldwide, which, in turn, creates millions of indirect jobs. In several parts of the world, producers have reached peak coal as some economies shift away from fossil fuels to address climate change. A 2020 study found that renewables jobs could feasibly be created in these geographies to replace many of

6438-427: Is mostly used to generate electricity, and 75% of annual coal production is exported, mostly to eastern Asia. In 2007, 428 million tonnes of coal was mined in Australia. In 2007, coal provided about 85% of Australia's electricity production. In the fiscal year 2008/09, 487 million tonnes of coal was mined, and 261 million tonnes was exported. In the fiscal year 2013/14, 430.9 million tonnes of coal

6612-417: Is partially economically recoverable. Coal refuse is distinct from the byproducts of burning coal, such as fly ash . Piles of coal refuse can have significant negative environmental consequences, including the leaching of iron, manganese, and aluminum residues into waterways and acid mine drainage . The runoff can create both surface and groundwater contamination. The piles also create a fire hazard, with

6786-593: Is placed at the head of a narrow, steep-sided valley or hollow. In preparation for filling this area, vegetation and soil are removed and a rock drain constructed down the middle of the area to be filled, where a natural drainage course previously existed. When the fill is completed, this underdrain will form a continuous water runoff system from the upper end of the valley to the lower end of the fill. Typical head-of-hollow fills are graded and terraced to create permanently stable slopes. Most coal seams are too deep underground for opencast mining and require underground mining,

6960-413: Is provided on the single line section, and the token itself, or a key fixed to the end of it, unlocks the points for shunting there. The token is locked in the apparatus there, and the driver cannot retrieve the token until the points have been set to the through running position and locked again. In special situations where the sidings at the intermediate location are extensive, the equipment is arranged for

7134-436: Is referred to as 'overburden' and is removed in long strips. The overburden from the first strip is deposited in an area outside the planned mining area and referred to as out-of-pit dumping. Overburden from subsequent strips is deposited in the void left from mining the coal and overburden from the previous strip. This is referred to as in-pit dumping. It is often necessary to fragment the overburden by use of explosives. This

Richmond Vale railway line - Misplaced Pages Continue

7308-504: Is referred to as a train staff . Such a staff is usually literally a wooden staff with a brass plate stating the two signal boxes between which it is valid. In UK terminology, this method of working on simple branch lines was originally referred to as One Engine in Steam (OES) , and later One-Train Working (OTW) . However the system was used on long through lines as well; R H Dutton, Chairman of

7482-515: Is removed and overburden dumped to the side. Dust, vibration, and diesel exhaust odors are created (affecting sight, sound, and smell). Residents of local communities often find such impacts disturbing or unpleasant. In case of mountaintop removal , tops are removed from mountains or hills to expose thick coal seams underneath. The soil and rock removed is deposited in nearby valleys, hollows and depressions, resulting in blocked (and contaminated) waterways. Removal of soil and rock overburden covering

7656-701: Is still common, with 4,000 new cases of black lung every year in the US (4 percent of workers annually) and 10,000 new cases every year in China (0.2 percent of workers). The use of water sprays in mining equipment reduces the risk to miners' lungs. Build-ups of a hazardous gas are known as damps, possibly from the German word Dampf which means steam or vapor: Noise is also a contributing factor to potential adverse effects on coal miners' health. Exposure to excessive noise can lead to noise-induced hearing loss . Hearing loss developed as

7830-433: Is that it restricts the number of train movements that can be made. For a larger railway system, it becomes exceptionally limiting in the level of operations that it allows, with the increased risk of mistakes being made, possibly leading to a collision. Instead, reliance is placed not on employing only one train but on having a single physical object, known as a "token", available for the single track section, and ruling that

8004-435: Is used for both thermal and metallurgical coals . In New South Wales open casting for steam coal and anthracite is practiced. Surface mining accounts for around 80 percent of production in Australia, while in the US it is used for about 67 percent of production. Globally, about 40 percent of coal production involves surface mining. Strip mining exposes coal by removing earth above each coal seam. This earth to be removed

8178-610: The SS ; Boorara in February 1926. They were unloaded in Sydney and hauled to Hexham. In late 1927 the rest arrived in crates on Brown's new ship the SS  Minmi on its maiden voyage to Hexham. The dismantled locomotives were gradually reassembled with the last not being reassembled until 1931. All 13 were never in service at the one time with the maximum in service at the one time being ten in 1954. The class lasted until 28 June 1973 when

8352-405: The 5 class . No. 5 was originally Mersey Railway No. 1 and was built in 1885 (builder's No. 2601) and was named The Major , No. 6 was Mersey Railway No. 7 and was built in 1886 (builder's No. 2607) and was named Liverpool , No. 7 was Mersey Railway No. 9 and was built in 1886 (builder's No.2782) and was named Connaught , No. 8 was Mersey Railway No. 4 and was built in 1885 (builder's No. 2604) and

8526-688: The Derwent Valley Line in Derbyshire and the Liskeard to Looe line in Cornwall . On the latter, the train guard not only operates the Tyer's No.9 electric token instrument controlling the upper section of the branch, but operates the points as well. The lower section is operated on the "One Engine in Steam" principle with a simple wooden staff. Possession of the staff is required to unlock the ground frame controlling

8700-499: The London and South Western Railway explained in 1876 the slow journey time between Exeter and Plymouth by saying, "the cause of the delay is the stopping at every station on the staff system. That really does cause a great delay because if the staff is not there, the train must stop while a man is sent on a horse to get it [from the other end of the section]"; quoted in Williams. Using only

8874-679: The New South Wales Government Railways to Newcastle. With the opening of the coal preparation plant at Hexham the traffic over the line increased as the small coal that was to be washed also travelled over the link line. The line fell out of use after the closure of rail operations at Abermain No.2 Colliery in December 1963 and the connection with the SMR was lifted in August 1964, the line was lifted during 1973. The Richmond Vale railway provided

SECTION 50

#1732859109169

9048-731: The North Island Main Trunk and on other lines like the Wairarapa Line , the Tyer’s Electric Train Tablet with the No. 7 instrument was used. Tablet exchangers were developed by Wynne after trials of the Australian design by Quirke. The tablet system allowed for banking engines used for steep sections with a separate bank engine key. Advances in technology led to the development of electronic token systems. Trains are able to run over consecutive single-track sections, with

9222-537: The ROD locomotives , when they were relegated to secondary duties. By the 1940s the three were being used on the Stockrington to Hexham workings. No.11 was withdrawn in 1949 and was scrapped in 1966. By 1954 Nos. 9 and 10 were standby locomotives and were only used intermittently. However, from 1969 both were used regularly in shunting the sidings at Hexham. In October 1972 both returned to main line traffic being regularly used on

9396-495: The Richmond Vale Railway Museum . Download coordinates as: Coal mining Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground or from a mine. Coal is valued for its energy content and since the 1880s has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore and for cement production. In the United Kingdom and South Africa ,

9570-496: The global energy economy . The major coal producing countries, though, such as China , Indonesia, India and Australia , have not reached peak production, with production increases replacing falls in Europe and the United States and proposed mines under development. The coal mining industry employs almost 2.7 million workers. The History of coal mining goes back thousands of years, with early mines documented in ancient China,

9744-400: The 1860s onward. By the late 20th century, coal was, for the most part, replaced in domestic as well as industrial and transportation usage by oil , natural gas or electricity produced from oil, gas, nuclear power or renewable energy sources. By 2010, coal produced over a fourth of the world's energy. Coal extraction methods vary depending on whether the mine is an underground mine or

9918-757: The Abermain Coal Company No. 1 in 1911 (builder's No. 1606) and No. 2 in 1922 (builder's No. 1916) for use on the Abermain Collieries rail system between Abermain Nos. 2 and 3 Collieries and the exchange sidings with the SMR at Abermain No. 1 Colliery. Upon the formation of JABAS in 1931 these two kept their original road numbers and were known as "Abermain No. 1 and 2". The two remained on the Abermain system other than when being transferred to Hexham Workshops for overhaul, and their return to Abermain. In 1955 No. 1 loco

10092-659: The Electric Train Service, it still receive tokens from trains arriving from Bahau Station on the East Coast Line. Similarly, the Gemas Station Master needs to pass a key token for trains bound for the East Coast. The final token exchange normally happens at Tumpat and Gemas but this also happens at Kuala Lipis and Dabong as these two stations are the terminus of some Eastern Shuttle (SH) train services. This system

10266-590: The Emerald temporary staff to be activated, the Menzies Creek to Lakeside staff is required to be locked away at Menzies Creek. A similar situation occurs with Cockatoo station, whereby for it to be enacted as a Temporary Staff Station, the Lakeside to Gembrook staff is required to be locked away at Lakeside. The token method of working is sometimes still used for temporary situations such as through engineering works or where

10440-673: The Newcastle urban area. The line would branch off the Main Northern railway line at Cockle Creek to join the Richmond Vale line near Seahampton , then use the northern (Stockrington-Minmi Junction-Hexham) part of the old Richmond Vale railway to connect to the main government line at Hexham . The line is now being developed to form the Richmond Vale Rail Trail which will provide over 32 km (20 mi) of cycle/pedestrian paths linking Hexham to Kurri Kurri and beyond. After

10614-563: The Pelaw Main to Richmond Vale Junction section a 'Direct Passenger Line' was built from the compressor house at Pelaw Main to Richmond Main. This line was used for the miner's passenger trains from Pelaw Main to Richmond Main. After the centralisation of locomotive facilities at Pelaw Main in 1925 this line was also used for the transferring of locomotives and rolling stock between the two collieries. The miners' trains over this line ceased in April 1959,

SECTION 60

#1732859109169

10788-739: The Richmond Vale Railway nearing completion there was a need for larger locomotives to haul the trains over the line, John Brown purchased four large 0-6-4T side-tanks locomotives from England. These had been built by Beyer, Peacock & Company in 1885–86 for the Mersey Railway in Liverpool . The first three were purchased in 1905, with the fourth loco purchased in 1908. Before these were shipped to Australia they had their vacuum operated brakes and condensing apparatus removed, they then had enclosed cabs and steam brakes fitted. Upon arrival in Australia they were given J & A Brown Nos. 5–8 and were known as

10962-573: The Roman Empire and other early historical economies. It became important in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th and 20th centuries, when it was primarily used to power steam engines, heat buildings and generate electricity. Coal mining continues as an important economic activity today, but has begun to decline due to the strong contribution coal plays in global warming and environmental issues, which result in decreasing demand and in some geographies, peak coal . Compared to wood fuels , coal yields

11136-557: The SMR and the two Seaham Collieries served by a private line that branched off the main Northern Railway at Cockle Creek, to the collieries controlled by the company. Soon afterwards in April 1931 JABAS purchased the East Greta Coal Mining Company Limited, which was in financial trouble due to the recent miner's lockout. This added Stanford Merthyr No.1 at Stanford Merthyr, Stanford Merthyr No.2 at Paxton, and

11310-583: The Somerset & Dorset Joint Railway at Foxcote, near Radstock, in the Foxcote collision of 1876 . This occurred before the S&;DJR was equipped for token working and was relying on block instruments only – a catalogue of errors led to two passenger trains entering the same section from opposite ends. In double line working, at times when traffic is light it is convenient to "switch out" an intermediate signal box, allowing

11484-432: The South Maitland system between the various collieries at Cessnock and the transfer point with the government railways at East Greta Junction at Maitland. In 1973 with the remaining ROD locomotives at Hexham due for withdrawal from service and with South Maitland Railways being a fully owned subsidiary of Coal & Allied since 1967, two 10 class were transferred to Hexham. After the withdrawal of No. 9 Pelaw Main in 1980

11658-467: The South Maitland system dated from 1936 when a "Link Line" was constructed from Pelaw Main Colliery to the SMR at Weston. This line was used by JABAS for any gas coal from its 3 Abermain collieries and Stanford Main No.2 Colliery at Paxton that was for shipment at the company's coal loader at Hexham, any coal that was to be shipped at the Dyke at Newcastle still had to travel over the SMR to East Greta Junction and

11832-585: The Stockrington to Hexham trains. No. 9 worked until November 1980 and No. 10 worked until December 1976 and both are preserved at Richmond Main. These 13 locomotives were part of a class of 521 2-8-0 tender engines that were built by several locomotive builders for the Railway Operating Division (ROD) of the Royal Engineers for use in France during World War One . These locomotives were based on

12006-787: The U.S., Examples include the Sago Mine disaster of 2006, and the 2007 mine accident in Utah 's Crandall Canyon Mine , where nine miners were killed and six entombed. In the decade 2005–2014, US coal mining fatalities averaged 28 per year. The most fatalities during the 2005–2014 decade were 48 in 2010, the year of the Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in West Virginia, which killed 29 miners. Chronic lung diseases, such as pneumoconiosis (black lung) were once common in miners, leading to reduced life expectancy . In some mining countries black lung

12180-608: The US Department of Labor's Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) show that between 1990 and 2004, the industry cut the rate of injuries by more than half and fatalities by two-thirds. But according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics , even in 2006, mining remained the second most dangerous occupation in America, when measured by fatality rate . These numbers, however, include all mining activities, and oil and gas mining contribute to

12354-719: The Whitaker system on the Somerset & Dorset Joint Railway and the Manson system on the Midland & Great Northern Joint Railway and the Great North of Scotland Railway . When the Aberdeen to Inverness passenger service was converted to diesel multiple unit operation in the late 1950s, the train-borne equipment was fixed adjacent to the train guard's compartment. A special buzzer code confirmed to

12528-484: The adjoining Stanford Greta Colliery which was renamed Pelaw Main in April 1901. Until the RVR was completed to Pelaw Main its production was hauled over a connecting railway to the East Greta Coal Mining Company's Stanford Merthyr Colliery and then onwards to East Greta Junction. Construction of the RVR did not commence until early 1904, with construction of the line to Pelaw Main completed June 1905, with

12702-641: The arrival of the second SMR Ten class loco in May 1973, when it was used mainly on standby duties until being stored in 1976. In 1981 the loco was sold to the Lachlan Valley Railway , where it was dismantled for overhaul. In October 2009 the dismantled loco was transferred to the Canberra Railway Museum . These two 0-6-0T saddle tank locomotives were built by the Avonside Engine Company for

12876-557: The bank of the on the Hunter River to allow the loading of coal onto ships . In March 1859 J & A Brown purchased the railway & mine from John Eales. By June 1859 they had constructed a connection and exchange siding with the Great Northern Railway at Hexham to allow the coal to be railed to the shipping port at Newcastle. In 1861 J & A Brown extended the railway line at Minmi a further 300 yards (274 m) and sunk

13050-436: The branch line to Richmond Vale Colliery being completed in August 1905. Richmond Vale Colliery although founded in 1890, was not fully developed until 1910 when the colliery was renamed Richmond Main in 1911, however the mine did not reach full production until 1918. In 1909–10 the line across Hexham Swamps was duplicated between the exchange sidings and Richmond Vale Junction (latter renamed Minmi Junction). During 1913–14 with

13224-636: The closure of Richmond Main Power Station in 1976, Cessnock City Council acquired the abandoned Richmond Main Colliery site. In 1979 the Richmond Vale Preservation Co-operative Society was formed with the aim of preserving the industrial railway heritage of the Hunter Valley. Based at the Richmond Main site they commenced relaying the rails at the colliery along with the former passenger line to Pelaw Main Colliery and trade as

13398-509: The closure of Stockrington No.2 Colliery in June 1988. Demolition of Stockrington No.2 soon followed and this was completed by December 1988. Dismantling of the coal preparation plant at Hexham started in March 1989 with demolition taking place over the following 18 months. With the downturn in the underground coalmining industry the engineering workshops at Hexham also closed in November 1989, this marked

13572-581: The coal mining jobs as part of a just transition ; however, renewable energy was not suitable in some of the geographies with high concentrations of miners, such as in China, which is far and away the leading coal-mining nation. Coal refuse (also described as coal waste, rock, slag, coal tailings, waste material, rock bank, culm, boney, or gob ) is the material left over from coal mining, usually as tailings piles or spoil tips . For every tonne of hard coal generated by mining, 400 kg (880 lb) of waste material remains, which includes some lost coal that

13746-497: The coal preparation (or wash) plant. Once this strip is empty of coal, the process is repeated with a new strip being created next to it. This method is most suitable for areas with flat terrain. Equipment to be used depends on geological conditions. For example, to remove overburden that is loose or unconsolidated, a bucket wheel excavator might be the most productive. The life of some area mines may be more than 50 years. The contour mining method consists of removing overburden from

13920-857: The coal resource may cause burial and loss of topsoil, exposes parent material, and creates large infertile wastelands. Soil disturbance and associated compaction result in conditions conducive to erosion. Soil removal from the area to be surface-mined alters or destroys many natural soil characteristics, and reduces its biodiversity and productivity for agriculture. Soil structure may be disturbed by pulverization or aggregate breakdown. Top 10 hard and brown coal producers in 2012 were (in million metric tons): China 3,621, United States 922, India 629, Australia 432, Indonesia 410, Russia 351, South Africa 261, Germany 196, Poland 144, and Kazakhstan 122. Coal has been mined in every state of Australia, but mainly in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria. It

14094-411: The collieries to allow loading to take place on the following Monday. By late October sufficient BCH trains had been made available to eliminate the need for Saturday workings. By early 1978 it was planned to end the use on non-airs on the main line and the last train ran on 8 February 1978. From this date onwards the remaining 1,000 wagons were used on the RVR between Stockrington and Hexham only. Due to

14268-478: The completed plant came into operation in June 1953. The preparation plant was served by a series of new sidings with connections to the RVR at the Stockrington end entry to the exchange sidings and to the NSW Department of Railways coal roads. The connection to the government mainlines was at the southern end of the plant and these sidings were known as J & A Brown's Coal Plant Sidings, Hexham . The sidings had

14442-436: The condition of the locomotive it underwent a major overhaul at Hexham Workshops and when this was completed in 1949 it was transferred to Abermain instead of its intended use on Minmi Open Cut trains. It was fitted with a replacement second hand boiler obtained from Hebburn Limited in 1954. It remained at Abermain until the closure of the Abermain Collieries railway system in 1963 and was then stored at Hexham. In February 1967 it

14616-419: The crew's work on a branch line, and surrendered at the end of their work there. Where the single line section is part of a through route, then it is likely that each passing train would require to surrender and collect a token at each token station. Where the trains stop at every station this is a convenient arrangement, but where some trains run through without requiring to make a call (i.e. express trains), it

14790-429: The developed world. Modern coal mining in the US has an average 23 deaths per year due to mine accidents (2001–2020). However, in lesser developed countries and some developing countries, many miners continue to die annually, either through direct accidents in coal mines or through adverse health consequences from working under poor conditions. China , in particular, has the highest number of coal mining related deaths in

14964-413: The development of Duckenfield No.2 colliery at Stockrington taking place, the main line was duplicated between Minmi Junction and Stockrington. A cabin to house the electric staff instrument for the section to Six Mile Loop was constructed at Stockrington. In 1942 with the re-arrangement of the main lines at Stockrington to cater for the new Stockrington No.2 Colliery a new staff cabin was built adjacent to

15138-455: The disruptive activities of blasting, ripping, and excavating coal. Stripping of overburden eliminates and destroys archeological and historic features, unless they are removed beforehand. The removal of vegetative cover and activities associated with the construction of haul roads, stockpiling of topsoil, displacement of overburden and hauling of soil and coal increase the quantity of dust around mining operations. Dust degrades air quality in

15312-427: The emptying of non-air wagons of washed coal, these sidings were known as Coal & Allied Siding. Unwashed coal ran via the existing exchange sidings. The new loading point was constructed at the Newcastle end of the preparation plant and was served by a balloon loop and a 1200T loading bin. The rails for both balloon loop and Coal & Allied Siding came from the section of the RVR beyond Stockrington. The balloon loop

15486-449: The end of Coal & Allied operations in the lower Hunter Valley. The first locomotives, No. 1 and 2, used on the original Minmi to Hexham railway were 0-4-2T side tank locomotives built by R&W Hawthorn of Newcastle upon Tyne in 1856 (builders Nos. 947 and 948). In 1922 they were both rebuilt into saddle tanks. No.1 was scrapped in 1942 and No. 2 was sold to Stewarts & Lloyds in 1941. In 1878 No. 3, an 0-6-0T saddle-tank,

15660-571: The fatalities occurring in the first half of the 20th century. 3,242 died in 1907, the worst year ever; in 2020 there were five. Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions; underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse, rock burst , outbursts , and gas explosions. Firedamp explosions can trigger the far more dangerous coal dust explosions, which can engulf an entire mine. Most of these risks are greatly reduced in modern mines, and multiple fatality incidents are now rare in most parts of

15834-499: The first signalman. An alternative system employs special long-section token systems; when long section working is to be instituted, all the short section tokens must be in their respective instruments; by switching to the long-section method, tokens for the long section can then be obtained in the ordinary way. Obviously all the long-section tokens must be restored before the normal working can be resumed. Token instruments can be arranged for unattended operation, when they are operated by

16008-457: The genetic soil profile, displaces or destroys wildlife and habitat, alters current land uses, and to some extent permanently changes the general topography of the area mined. Adverse impacts on geological features of human interest may occur in a coal strip mine. Geomorphic and geophysical features and outstanding scenic resources may be sacrificed by indiscriminate mining. Paleontological, cultural, and other historic values may be endangered due to

16182-596: The guard that the correct token had been successfully received. Mechanical staff exchangers were also used where trains did not stop on the single line sections of the Main South , Main North and North Coast lines of the New South Wales Government Railways in Australia. On the Victorian Railways automatic staff exchangers survived on the North Eastern , Western , and Geelong-Ballarat lines until as recently as

16356-450: The immediate area, has an adverse impact on vegetative life, and constitutes health and safety hazards for mine workers and nearby residents. Surface mining disrupts virtually all aesthetic elements of the landscape. Alteration of land forms often imposes unfamiliar and discontinuous configurations. New linear patterns appear as material is extracted and waste piles are developed. Different colors and textures are exposed as vegetative cover

16530-581: The issue of two tokens at the same time. In the Abermule train collision of 1921, also on the Cambrian Railways, lax working procedures allowed the safeguards provided by the electric token system to be circumvented; a driver was handed a token for the wrong section, and proceeded on the mistaken belief that the token was correct. To try to prevent this, the UK Board of Trade Railway Inspectorate recommended that

16704-676: The last ROD in service No. 24 was withdrawn. Nos. 20 and 24 are preserved by the Dorrigo Steam Railway & Museum and No. 23 is preserved by the Richmond Vale Railway Museum. Purchased second hand from the Sydney & Suburban Blue Metal Company's gravel quarry at Widermere in 1948 to serve the recently opened open cut at Minmi, this locomotive was former NSWGR 2-6-4T side tank loco 2013 built by Beyer, Peacock & Company , Manchester in 1885 (builder's No. 2567). Due to

16878-610: The late 1980s. On the South Australian Railways , auto staff exchangers were used on the former broad-gauge line between Adelaide and Port Pirie . In all these Australian states, both steam and later diesel electric locomotives were fitted with auto exchangers. On the New Zealand Railways , where most lines are single track, multiple systems were used like the Winter’s block system and Sykes’ lock and block working. On

17052-518: The level crossing at Doghole and the staff instruments were relocated to this new cabin. The original safeworking the line after the opening of the RVR was a "Ticket and Telephone System." Tickets were issued to the train driver at the start of the section, and the information was telephoned to the officer in charge at the other end of the section. The section at the time was Pelaw Main to Richmond Vale Junction (later renamed Minmi Junction). Trains were not allowed to travel in opposite directions on

17226-624: The line between Girvan and Stranraer in south west Scotland . Traditional token systems are also in use on heritage railways in Britain, for example on the Mid Hants Railway and the West Somerset Railway which is fitted throughout with Tyer's electric token instruments. The Bluebell Railway has short section token working between adjacent boxes and long section working available between Sheffield Park and Kingscote. The token system

17400-499: The line from Minmi Junction. After the construction of the direct passenger line was constructed between Richmond Main and Pelaw main Collieries in 1922, electric staff instruments were also installed on this line. The double track section of the RVR was worked by "Telephone Block" controlled by the traffic officers at both Hexham and Stockrington. During 1912 development work started for a new mine named Duckenfield No.2 Colliery, which

17574-499: The line remained open for locomotive movements until the closure of Richmond Main. On 5 March 1930, the last major Brown family member John Brown, aged 78, died, and the J & A Brown firm was amalgamated with Abermain Seaham Collieries with the new company being known as J & A Brown & Abermain-Seaham Collieries (commonly abbreviated to JABAS). This merger added the three Abermain Collieries served by their own railway and

17748-587: The line was a late passenger train from Minmi to Hexham at 60 mph (97 km/h). The New South Wales Legislative Assembly passed the Richmond Vale Coal-mine Railway Act in 1900 which allowed the construction of line from the Minmi line (at a location later known as Minmi Junction) to serve Richmond Vale Colliery. In October 1900 before construction of the line had commenced the Browns had purchased

17922-512: The line was relaid up to a point near where the Duckenfield Colliery branch left the main line to serve a new open cut mine being developed. This open cut opened in 1949 and mined the borehole seam outcrop around the Minmi area; this open cut removed any remains of both Duckenfield and Brown's Collieries. The open cut remained open until July 1954, the Minmi branch remained until being lifted for scrap in 1974. In 1922 to increase capacity on

18096-492: The longer distance coal trains with the changeover to occur during Easter 1977. Because of this planned changeover large numbers of non-air wagons were scrapped, however by August 1977 with many non-air wagons scrapped and the promised BCH wagons yet to appear on the East Greta to Hexham trains, it became necessary for the SMR, RVR and coal preparation plant at Hexham to work Saturdays to ensure that sufficient wagons were returned to

18270-449: The main line and dead end head shunt intact. The rails were also lifted from the RVR served dump hoppers at the coal preparation plant. In January 1988 scrapping commenced of the many stored coal wagons, this scrapping was completed in August 1988. A selection of 40 wagons was kept for preservation by the RVRM. In May 1988 the coal preparation plant at Hexham was also closed, this was followed by

18444-552: The main source of primary energy for industry and transportation in industrial areas from the 18th century to the 1950s. Coal remains an important energy source. Coal is also mined today on a large scale by open pit methods wherever the coal strata strike the surface or are relatively shallow. Britain developed the main techniques of underground coal mining from the late 18th century onward, with further progress being driven by 19th-century and early 20th-century progress. However, oil and gas were increasingly used as alternatives from

18618-404: The majority of fatalities. Coal mining resulted in 47 fatalities that year. One study, though, has suggested that hazards of modern mining are now more accretive with workers facing long-term health impacts, such as sleep deprivation, that build up over time. Strip mining severely alters the landscape, which reduces the value of the natural environment in the surrounding land. The land surface

18792-482: The manager of Pelaw Main Colliery collided with the rear of a coal train in No.2 Tunnel, killing him and seriously injuring his passenger. After the coroner's inquest into this accident, electric staff instruments were installed by the New South Wales Government Railways for J & A Brown. As part of the installation of electric staff instruments, the loop at six-mile loop was brought into use as

18966-461: The method of extraction. For example, a study has found that among surface coal mine operations, dragline equipment produced the loudest sound at a range of 88–112 dBA. Within longwall sections, stageloaders used to transport coal from the mining face and shearers used for extraction represent some of the highest noise exposures. Auxiliary fans (up to 120 dBA), continuous mining machines (up to 109 dBA), and roof bolters (up to 103 dBA) represent some of

19140-465: The mining workforce. in 2015 US coal mines had 65,971 employees, the lowest figure since EIA began collecting data in 1978. However, a 2016 study reported that a relatively minor investment would allow most coal workers to retrain for the solar energy industry. Coal mining has been a very dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is long. In the U.S., 104,895 coal miners were killed in mine accidents since 1900, 90 percent of

19314-413: The nearby privately owned South Maitland Railway lines at Pelaw Main. The first being the original connection to Stanford Merthyr Colliery, which fell out of use after the completion of the RVR in 1905, this connection was rebuilt in 1934 after the 1931 purchase of the East Greta Coal Mining Company by JABAS to allow the haulage of coal from Stanford Main No.1 Colliery over the RVR. The second connection to

19488-469: The noisiest equipment within continuous mining sections. Exposures to noise exceeding 90 dBA can lead to adverse effects on workers' hearing. The use of administrative controls and engineering controls can be used to reduce noise exposures. Improvements in mining methods (e.g. longwall mining), hazardous gas monitoring (such as safety-lamps or more modern electronic gas monitors), gas drainage, electrical equipment , and ventilation have reduced many of

19662-422: The normal token instruments and provided at intermediate places where the trolley might be off-tracked (or stored overnight). A variation of the token system is working by pilotman , where the place of the token is taken by a person who is designated the pilotman . This system is instituted if there is a failure of the token apparatus, a signal failure within a single line section, or on double lines when one line

19836-409: The number 9 and with the loco being successful and with Richmond Main Colliery undergoing development that two similar locomotives were ordered. These two were built in 1911 (builder's Nos. 4798 and 4834) and were numbered 10–11, they were also fitted with brass nameplates No. 10 carrying the name Richmond Main and No. 11 Hexham . These three were the mainstay of traffic on the RVR until the arrival of

20010-585: The open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam 20–25 metres (60–90 feet). Coals occurring below 90 m (300 ft) are usually deep mined. However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to 300–460 metres (1,000–1,500 feet) below ground level, for instance Tagebau Hambach in Germany. When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open-cut , also referred to as open-cast, open-pit, mountaintop removal or strip, mining methods. Opencast coal mining recovers

20184-435: The opening of Stockrington No.2 Colliery No.3 Tunnel in 1954, Duckenfield no.5 Colliery closed in 1955, followed by Stockrington Colliery in 1956 and Stockrington No.2 Colliery in 1957. Stanford Main No.1 Colliery closed in 1957; in February 1961 Pelaw Main Colliery closed, although the railway line to this mine remained open to serve the locomotive sheds at this colliery. On 14 July 1967 Richmond Main Colliery, that had once held

20358-570: The operation being controlled by radio from a central control room. Every train carries an electronic unit that receives and sends an encrypted block of data which represents the token. The system is designed so that the control centre cannot issue a new token for a section of line until the current one is 'returned'. Trains cannot send tokens to each other. This system allows the whole line to operate without any additional signalling personnel, and has functioned without major incident. The Ternkey System (" T oken E xchange using R andom N umbers" system)

20532-421: The operation reaches a predetermined stripping ratio (tons of overburden/tons of coal), it is not profitable to continue. Depending on the equipment available, it may not be technically feasible to exceed a certain height of highwall. At this point, it is possible to produce more coal with the augering method in which spiral drills bore tunnels into a highwall laterally from the bench to extract coal without removing

20706-408: The overburden. Mountaintop coal mining is a surface mining practice involving removal of mountaintops to expose coal seams, and disposing of associated mining overburden in adjacent "valley fills." Valley fills occur in steep terrain where there are limited disposal alternatives. Mountaintop removal mining combines area and contour strip mining methods. In areas with rolling or steep terrain with

20880-629: The picture above are in use on the Buenos Aires (Constitución Station) to Mar del Plata line (Ferrocarril Roca) in Argentina, as of 2019. The token system is also used on the Seaton tramway between Seaton and Riverside and on the running lines of some tram museums. In Malaysia, signaling token signs are still used on the KTM East Coast Line between Gemas and Tumpat. Although Gemas Station mainly serves

21054-409: The pilotman to do so. The pilotman must ride with the driver if it is the last train to run in that direction. Thus pilotman working is analogous to the "staff and ticket" system, described above, where the pilotman himself becomes the token and his verbal instruction is the equivalent of the ticket. It is sometimes necessary to provide the pilotman with a personal locomotive to cater for disruptions to

21228-430: The points at Coombe Junction , where the two sections meet. There is no other signalling on the branch except to control entry and exit to and from the main line. After early experience with token systems, it became customary for the starting signal at token stations to be interlinked with the token instrument; on withdrawal of a token, the starting signal lever was released for one pull. Sometimes an intermediate siding

21402-425: The potential to spontaneously ignite. Because most coal refuse harbors toxic components, it is not easily reclaimed by replanting with plants like beach grasses. The use of sophisticated sensing equipment to monitor air quality is common and has replaced the use of small animals such as canaries, often referred to as " miner's canaries ". In the United States, the increase in technology has significantly decreased

21576-517: The practice was deprecated in the UK, although some examples did exist for example at Beddington Lane on the Wimbledon – West Croydon line before resignalling. Usually in such cases special interlocking was provided between the two instruments at the intermediate signal box to ensure that trains could not be accepted from opposing directions at the same time. A disaster at such an intermediate location occurred on

21750-590: The pre war Great Central Railway Class 8K 2-8-0 locomotives design by John Robinson After the armistice these locomotives were surplus and J & A Brown bought 13 of these locomotives, these were built by the North British Locomotive Company (9), Kitson & Company (1) and the Great Central Railway's Gorton Works (3). These 13 were shipped to Australia over a period from March 1925 to March 1927. The first three arrived complete on

21924-573: The present-day State Railway of Thailand system. Although most use occurs in regional areas, some use appears in the capital city, Bangkok, such as the Makkasan to Khlong Tan section etc. Sri Lanka Railways uses a tablet exchanging system on the up-country railway line. Russian Railways uses Electric Token Block on some lines, most notably the Yanisyarvi – Lodeynoe Pole railway. The electric staff instruments manufactured by Webb and Thompson shown in

22098-495: The rails towards Richmond Main beyond the site of the former Stockrington No.1 Colliery were lifted for use at other Coal & Allied (as J & A Brown etc., had now become) operations. In October 1973 the line serving the engineering workshops at Hexham was closed and the right angled crossing across the Government Railway mainline was removed. The engineering workshops remained open constructing and overhauling equipment for

22272-413: The railway employees, No.25 was hijacked and after spending a day at Doghole the loco was moved to Lenaghans Drive road bridge and a protest camp set up. However, due to a lack of support from their fellow unionists at the other Coal & Allied operations the protest ended with no effect on 15 October 1987. Within weeks after the railways closure the sidings were lifted from Stockrington area leaving only

22446-440: The railway line remained open to serve the workshops. Following a need for Borehole seam coal for use in the new water tube boilers at Richmond Main Power Station, both mines were reopened on a smaller scale in 1930. Both collieries remained open until 1932, and in 1934 both mines were sealed, the remaining workshop equipment moved to the workshops at Hexham and the line to Minmi was then closed and used for wagon storage. In late 1948

22620-599: The recently closed East Greta Nos.1 and 2 Collieries at East Greta, all of which were served by the SMR under the company's control. This also gave JABAS a 50% interest in South Maitland Railways . Soon after this JABAS replaced the Merthyr with Main in the two Stanford Merthyr collieries names so they could market their Greta seam coals under a common "Main" name. In 1960 JABAS merged with Caledonian Collieries to form Coal & Allied . After this merger JABAS became

22794-573: The record for the largest daily production in the State, was also closed, except for its power station which lasted until 1976. After the closure of Richmond Main Colliery, J & A Brown, Abermain Seaham Collieries, ceased operations beyond Stockrington No.2 Colliery on the Richmond Vale Railway. All serviceable locomotives were transferred from Pelaw Main to the Hexham Exchange Sidings and others transferred to Pelaw Main sheds. Loading also ceased at

22968-400: The release. Once a token has been removed, another cannot be removed until the token which is "out" is replaced in either instrument. (There are variations on this sequence of events.) By this means, it can be ensured that at any one time, only one token is available to be issued to a driver. Tokens belonging to adjacent sections have different configurations to prevent them being inserted into

23142-399: The risks of rock falls, explosions, and unhealthy air quality. Gases released during the mining process can be recovered to generate electricity and improve worker safety with gas engines . Another innovation in recent years is the use of closed circuit escape respirators , respirators that contain oxygen for situations where mine ventilation is compromised. Statistical analyses performed by

23316-565: The seam in a pattern following the contours along a ridge or around the hillside. This method is most commonly used in areas with rolling to steep terrain. It was once common to deposit the spoil on the downslope side of the bench thus created, but this method of spoil disposal consumed much additional land and created severe landslide and erosion problems. To alleviate these problems, a variety of methods were devised to use freshly cut overburden to refill mined-out areas. These haul-back or lateral movement methods generally consist of an initial cut with

23490-406: The section at the same time, and before a train could enter the section the section had to be cleared by phone communication with the other end of the section. There was a 30-minute delay between trains proceeding in the same direction, and if the preceding train was still in the section "Caution" was written on the ticket issued. This system worked well until November 1910, when a railmotor carrying

23664-423: The service. In such a case the pilotman's locomotive is usually coupled to the front of the actual train, but practice may vary depending on local track layout, types of trains etc. The use of a pilotman for such purposes pre-dates the use of tokens. Until the late 20th century, the token system was standard on British single-track lines and it still remains on a number of lines there as well as elsewhere, such as

23838-493: The shunting train to be put wholly inside the sidings, clear of the main line; in this situation an intermediate token instrument can be provided, enabling the driver to surrender the token so that normal through working can take place on the single line while their train is at the sidings. A corresponding arrangement sometimes applied where permanent way maintenance was carried out by motorised trolley. Usually this used special "occupation key" instruments which were interlocked with

24012-454: The signal boxes on either side to communicate directly for train control. On single lines this is more complicated because of the train tokens being identified with single line sections, but the difficulty can be overcome by some form of long section working. A simple system used separable train staffs which fit together when intermediate block posts are closed, so that a driver receives the train staff for two or more consecutive sections from

24186-464: The signalling system has yet to be provided. In December 1981, a new underground line was opened in Melbourne, which provided a circular service around the city's central business district. Although normal services were not to begin for some time, for two months special services operated on Sundays to allow people to try the new line, and for this period the line operated with a train staff, although there

24360-400: The signals controlling entry to the single line section ( starting or section signals) were locked at danger unless a token had been released from the relevant token instrument. This was not universally adopted and many single line sections continued without such safeguards well into the 1960s. In a basic railway situation, the token can be collected personally by the driver at the start of

24534-427: The single line sections by providing an intermediate signal box equipped with token instruments without providing a passing loop there. This was done if there was, for example, an important siding connection at the intermediate location. It also enabled following through trains to run at closer headways, but did not facilitate opposing movements. Because of the greater risk of collision in the event of irregular working,

24708-432: The spoil deposited downslope or at some other site and spoil from the second cut refilling the first. A ridge of undisturbed natural material 15 to 20 ft (5 to 6 m) wide is often intentionally left at the outer edge of the mined area. This barrier adds stability to the reclaimed slope by preventing spoil from slumping or sliding downhill. The limitations of contour strip mining are both economic and technical. When

24882-460: The staithes at Hexham with the Sixty-miler collier MV Stephen Brown loading for the last time on 1 November 1967. The railway line to the staithes remained in use serving the adjacent engineering workshops. Despite Stockrington No.2 Colliery continuing to work at full capacity, following the closure of the line beyond Stockrington the railway began single line working only. Initially the "up" line

25056-461: The state of their loco fleet at the time, JABAS purchased 4-6-4T 3013 from the NSWGR. This locomotive was built by Beyer, Peacock & Company in 1903 (builder's No. 4456). It was delivered to Hebburn Colliery at Weston on 15 May 1967, where it remained until the closure of Hebburn No. 2 Colliery in June 1972 when it was transferred to Hexham on 12 July 1972. It was regularly used on duties at Hexham until

25230-445: The subsidiary company that carried out the mining operations of Coal & Allied until being renamed Coal & Allied Operations Pty Ltd in 1980. In April 1967 Coal & Allied purchased Hebburn Limited which added Hebburn No.2 and its associated railway to the company's assets. The purchase of Hebburn Limited also gave Coal & Allied full ownership of South Maitland Railways Pty Ltd. The Richmond Vale railway had two connections to

25404-476: The surface or overburden, of the mining area. The overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured and thoroughly mined in strips. The coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used. Most open cast mines in the United States extract bituminous coal . In Canada, Australia, and South Africa, open cast mining

25578-460: The ticket was not issued incorrectly, a book of numbered tickets was kept in a locked box, the key to which was permanently fastened to the token, or was the token. In addition, the lock prevented the token from being removed until the ticket box was closed, and it could not be closed unless the book of tickets was in the box. Once a ticket was issued, its number was recorded in a Train Register book, and

25752-450: The tight economic conditions facing the NSW coal mining industry at the time and the need to rationalise some of its operations, Coal & Allied decided it was more economical to ship the coal to port by road and on 28 August 1987 announced the planned closure of the Stockrington to Hexham line from 25 September 1987. The railway operated normally until 18 September when following a dispute between

25926-417: The token was locked in a secure place. The system is known as staff and ticket. In a variation on that principle, called divisible train staff , a section of the token or staff, referred to as the ticket portion , was designed to be removed and handed to the driver, instead of a paper ticket. The staff and ticket system was still too inflexible for busy lines, as it did not allow for the situation where

26100-507: The train crew at intermediate crossing loops or at the terminus of the line. This system is widely found in Australia, where traffic density on many lines is low. In the UK it is known as the "No-signalman key token system". Examples on the UK national network are the North Devon Line , where the system was brought into use on 1 December 1987, the Heart of Wales Line (commissioned in 1986 ),

26274-447: The train intended to carry the actual token was cancelled or running very late. To provide for this, the electric train token system was developed. Each single-line section is provided with a pair of token instruments, one at the signal box at each end. A supply of identical tokens is stored in the instruments, which are connected by telegraph lines. A token can be removed from one instrument only if both signalmen co-operate in agreeing to

26448-524: The two basic methods of mining. The choice of mining method depends primarily on depth, density, overburden, and thickness of the coal seam; seams relatively close to the surface, at depths less than approximately 55 m (180 ft), are usually surface mined. Coal that occurs at depths of 55 to 90 m (180 to 300 ft) are usually deep mined, but in some cases surface mining techniques can be used. For example, some western U.S. coal that occur at depths in excess of 60 m (200 ft) are mined by

26622-487: The underground coal mining industry. During 1972 the Public Transport Commission advised the users of non-air coal wagons that they planned to ban the operation of these wagons to Port Waratah in the near future. Due to the number of loading points at the various Coal & Allied operations that would have needed converting as they were designed to accept non-air type wagons only, the company decided to build

26796-452: The use of draglines , trucks, conveyors , hydraulic jacks , and shearers. The coal mining industry has a long history of significant negative environmental impacts on local ecosystems, health impacts on local communities and workers, and contributes heavily to the global environmental crises, such as poor air quality and climate change . For these reasons, coal has been one of the first fossil fuels to be phased out of various parts of

26970-441: The world, with official statistics claiming that 6,027 deaths occurred in 2004. To compare, 28 deaths were reported in the U.S. in the same year. Coal production in China is twice that in the US, while the number of coal miners is around 50 times that of the US, making deaths in coal mines in China 4 times as common per worker (108 times as common per unit output) as in the US. Mine disasters have still occurred in recent years in

27144-502: The wrong instrument. Nevertheless, a head-on collision occurred on a section of single track on the Cambrian Railways on 18 January 1918. The drivers of both engines held the correct token, issued from Tyer's token machines as they started their respective journeys, but the electrical circuits linking the machines at either end were also used for telephones and, together with a possible line fault caused by bad weather, this allowed

27318-415: Was abolished on 22 March 2013. The Puffing Billy Railway in Melbourne, Victoria, has used a staff and ticket system since it was originally opened from Upper Ferntree Gully to Gembrook. The current line from Belgrave to Gembrook has permanent staff stations at Belgrave, Menzies Creek, Lakeside and Gembrook. A temporary staff station exists at Emerald town to allow trains to pass at Emerald on busy days. For

27492-512: Was asked by J & A Brown to supply a large 2-8-2T side-tank engine. This new loco was designed for Browns and was based on the Great Central Railway class 8A 0-8-0 tender engines dating from 1902 that Kitsons had built for the GCR. This loco was built in 1908 (builder's No. 4567) and was fitted with cast brass nameplates by Kitsons with the name Pelaw Main . Upon arrival this was given

27666-438: Was brought into use in June 1973, Coal & Allied siding was also ready for use in June 1973 but due to industrial problems it was not used until 17 August 1973. The last non-air train from Hexham to Port Waratah ran on 15 August 1973. The non-air wagons continued to be used between East Greta Junction and Hexham, but by 1977 the PTC was planning to change over this traffic to the older BCH type wagons that had been released from

27840-509: Was finally bought from the NSWGR in 1891 and renumbered No. 4 on Browns' roster. From the early 1920s both locomotives were being used on shunting the staithes at Hexham. No.3 remained in service until 1966 and No. 4 lasted until November 1967. Both survive, No. 3 at the Dorrigo Steam Railway & Museum and No.4 by the NSW Rail Museum and is now on display at the Newcastle Museum at the former Honeysuckle Point Railway Workshops . With

28014-508: Was given a written authority to enter the single line section, referred to as the ticket . The train could then proceed, and a second train could follow. In the earliest days, the second train could proceed after a designated time interval, as on double lines at the time. However, after the Armagh rail disaster of 1889, block working became mandatory. Seeing the train staff provided assurance that there could be no head-on collision. To ensure that

28188-587: Was in use on the Hurstbridge railway line , Melbourne, Australia between Greensborough and Eltham (Miniature Electric Staff) and Eltham and Hurstbridge (Train Staff and Ticket) until replaced by electronic signalling in early 2013. The Greensborough to Eltham section was abolished on 31 January 2013, along with half of the Eltham to Hurstbridge section, as far as Diamond Creek . The final Diamond Creek to Hurstbridge section

28362-643: Was located at Stockrington (near Minmi) on the RVR, but work ceased on this work in 1914. In 1922 development of Duckenfield No.2 recommenced and by the time this colliery was ready to produce coal in 1935 it had been renamed Stockrington Colliery. Further Collieries were developed in the Stockrington Valley: Duckenfield No.5 Colliery (in 1931), Stockrington No.2 Colliery (in 1940) and Stockrington No.2 Colliery No.3 Tunnel (in 1954). Duckenfield Colliery at Minmi closed in 1916 and Brown's Colliery closed in 1924, both mines were, however, maintained, and

28536-531: Was mined, and 375.1 million tonnes was exported. In 2013/14, coal provided about 69% of Australia's electricity production. In 2013, Australia was the world's fifth-largest coal producer, after China, the United States, India, and Indonesia. However, in terms of proportion of production exported, Australia is the world's second largest coal exporter, as it exports roughly 73% of its coal production. Indonesia exports about 87% of its coal production. A court in Australia has cited climate change in ruling against

28710-521: Was named Gladstone . Initially Nos. 5–7 still carried their Mersey Railway nameplates whilst in J & A Brown ownership, no photographic evidence has been found of No. 8 with its nameplates intact whilst in J & A Brown service. After the introduction of the ROD locomotives the 5 class were set aside when major repairs were required. Nos. 7 and 8 had been withdrawn by 1934 and No. 6 was sold to Cessnock Collieries in 1934 for use at Kalingo Colliery. In 1936 after

28884-475: Was necessary for the signalman to exchange tokens with the fireman (in the case of steam trains) as the train passed at slow speed. In the case of driver-only operated trains, a dead-mans hold over button was provided, so the driver could exchange the token without the emergency brake being applied. A large staff could be handed over without any special apparatus, but if the system in use employed miniature staffs, tablets or key tokens, these were usually placed in

29058-454: Was no provision for tickets to be used. A very unusual token working was instituted on the line between Pakenham and Traralgon in Victoria , Australia for several months in 2006 whilst the line was being upgraded. During this period, the line was closed during the day, but opened each night to allow a few goods trains through. The line is double track between Pakenham and Moe (except for

29232-537: Was privately owned, by the private firm of J & A Brown and its successor companies, J & A Brown and Abermain Seaham Collieries (JABAS) and Coal & Allied . It was constructed in sections, the earliest section being from Hexham to Minmi , built by John Eales in 1856 to service his colliery at Minmi. At Hexham the railway crossed the then Hunter River Railway Company's line to Maitland (the current Main Northern line ) and several coal loading staiths were built on

29406-515: Was purchased by J & A Brown from Kitson & Company in Leeds , England (builders No. 2236), this was similar to an engine no. 20, named "The Buck" which was also built by Kitsons (builder No. 1620), that Browns wanted to buy from the New South Wales Government Railways (NSWGR). 'The Buck', was built in 1870 and was used to haul coal on the Government Railways from Hexham to Newcastle. No. 20

29580-546: Was sold to the Hunter Valley Steam Railway and Museum. The first of the fourteen 10 class was supplied to the East Greta Coal Mining Company in 1912 by Beyer, Peacock & Company . In the following years the remaining locomotives were supplied to both the East Greta Coal Mining Co. and its successor South Maitland Railways Pty Ltd with the last arriving in 1926. They were used on coal haulage over

29754-477: Was transferred to Hebburn to replace that system's failed Robert Stephenson & Hawthorns loco. No. 26 was used intermittently on the Hebburn system until December 1967 when it was put aside, it was cut up in March 1970 at Hebburn No. 1 Colliery. Due to problems experienced with No. 26 whilst at Hebburn that required the hiring of a South Maitland Railways locomotive and since that SMR was short of locomotives due to

29928-425: Was transferred to Hexham mainly for use in servicing the new coal preparation plant. It was withdrawn in 1961 after a suffering a burnt boiler and was scrapped in 1966. No. 2 loco was transferred to Hexham in December 1963 after the closure of the rail line servicing Abermain No. 2 Colliery. At Hexham it was used to service the coal preparation plant and the coal staithes until 1969 when it was withdrawn, in June 1973 it

30102-513: Was used on some railways. Trackside equipment was fitted near each signal box to hold the pouch containing the token and to receive the token pouch that was being given up. Certain railways developed mechanical systems that enabled faster handover using catcher devices. These could be extended from the locomotive cabside just before the train passed the exchange point and then automatically retracted afterwards. These enabled handover speeds of 40 mph (64 km/h). Examples of such systems include

30276-521: Was used with the "down" line being used for the storage of surplus coal hopper wagons. However over the remaining life of the railway both lines saw long periods of single line working. This meant a logjam developed from time to time which necessitated week-end workings on the railway in order to reduce colliery stockpiles. The oil crisis of the early 1970s revived Stockrington No.2 Colliery's life and by mid 1973 some six to eight trains each carrying 500 Tons ran between Stockrington and Hexham. In 1973 all of

#168831