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44-621: Umbria is named after an Italic people , the Umbri , who were gradually subjugated by the Romans in the 4th through the 2nd centuries BC. Although it passed the name on to the modern region of Umbria , the two coincide only partially. Roman Umbria extended from Narni in the South, northeastward to the neighborhood of Ravenna on the Adriatic coast, thus including a large part of central Italy that now belongs to

88-562: A dominant position among the Italic tribes. Frequent conflict between various Italic tribes followed. The best documented of these are the wars between the Latins and the Samnites . The Latins eventually succeeded in unifying the Italic elements in the country. Many non-Latin Italic tribes adopted Latin culture and acquired Roman citizenship. During this time Italic colonies were established throughout

132-609: A massive migration of Proto-Indo-Europeans from the Yamnaya culture took place into the Danube Valley . Thousands of kurgans are attributed to this event. These migrations probably split off Pre-Italic , Pre-Celtic and Pre-Germanic from Proto-Indo-European . By this time the Anatolian peoples and the Tocharians had already split off from other Indo-Europeans. Hydronymy shows that

176-500: A mythological tradition of a deluge independent of that of the Old Testament .) Some of his further statements appear to be equivocal, leading to some historical misidentification of Gallia Togata. He declares: "The largest part of this district was occupied by Sicilians and Liburnians especially the territories of Palma, Praetutia and Adria." This Adria ( Hadrianus ) is Atri, Italy on the coast of Abruzzi south of Ancona. Praetutia

220-460: A small modern section (or borgo ) served by the rail line from Rome to Florence via Perugia. Populated in ancient times by the Umbri , it became a Roman colony in the 1st century BC. Under the reign of Constantine the Great it was called Flavia Constans , as attested by a document preserved in the local Communal Palace. The densely inhabited town, built with stone, retains its medieval aspect;

264-914: A synonym for all Gallia Cisalpina . However, Veneto is not "this side of Rimini." Pliny states his belief that the Umbrians once held the north Adriatic coast, displacing Sicilians and Liburnians, and were in turn displaced by the Etruscans. The Gauls expelled them. Romans colonized the Gallic coast to control it, hence "togata." For Umbria proper Pliny simply lists the settlements: Spello , Todi , Amelia , Attiglio, Assisi , Arna, Iesi , Camerino , Casuentillum, Carsulae , Dolates Sallentini, Foligno , Market of Flaminius, Market of Julius, Market Brenta, Fossombrone , Gubbio , Terni , etc. Ptolemy, 2nd century geographer, does not lump Gallia Togata together with Umbria, but describes them as separate regions. In Ptolemy, Ancona

308-655: Is Interamnia Praetutia , capital city of the Petrutii. From Interamnea comes Teramo and from Praetutia comes Aprutium , later Abruzzo . The coast of Abruzzo was in Augustus' Region IV; however, Pliny does not say that the Abruzzo was the largest part of Gallia Togata, only that it was the largest part of the region settled by Sicilians and Liburnians. Similarly if Hadrianus is taken to be Adria in Veneto then Gallia Togata would appear to be

352-477: Is 6 km (4 mi) NNW of Foligno and 10 km (6 mi) SSE of Assisi . It is one of I Borghi più belli d'Italia ("The most beautiful villages of Italy"). The old walled town lies on a regularly NW-SE sloping ridge that eventually meets the plain. From the top of the ridge, Spello commands a good view of the Umbrian plain towards Perugia ; at the bottom of the ridge, the town spills out of its walls into

396-603: Is Ancona. He mentions the Aesis River ( Esino ) north of there, Senagallia (Sinigaglia), Pisaurum ( Pesaro ) and then Fanum ( Fano ) at the mouth of the Metaurus ( Metauro ) River. There follows a folk-etymologic statement concerning the name of the Umbri. People believe, he says, that they are named from the thunderstorms ( imbres ) of the deluge and therefore that they are the oldest people on Earth. (The ancient Greeks and Romans inherited

440-562: Is in Picenum . The strip of country "above" the Apennines, "extending as far as Ravenna ," is Gallia Togata. Thirteen towns are listed for it, which are south of the Po River , but are as far inland as Piacenza . This region is somewhat larger than the one of the same name in Augustus' time, comprising almost all of Emilia-Romagna . The towns are: Piacenza , Fidenza , Brescello , Parma , etc. For

484-594: Is in some sources ascribed to the Beakers. A migration across the Alps from East-Central Europe by early Indo-Europeans is thought to have occurred around 1800 BC. According to Barfield the appearance of Polada culture is connected to the movement of new populations coming from southern Germany and from Switzerland . According to Bernard Sergent , the origin of the Ligurian linguistic family (in his opinion distantly related to

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528-543: Is one of the richer archeological sites of Northern Italy . In the early Iron Age, the relatively homogeneous Proto-Villanovan culture (1200-900 BC), closely associated with the Celtic Hallstatt culture of Alpine Austria, characterised by the introduction of iron-working and the practice of cremation coupled with the burial of ashes in distinctive pottery, shows a process of fragmentation and regionalisation. In Tuscany and in part of Emilia-Romagna, Latium and Campania ,

572-608: Is widely used in linguistics and historiography of ancient Italy. In a strict sense, commonly used in linguistics, it refers to the Osco-Umbrians and Latino-Faliscans , speakers of the Italic languages , a subgroup of the Indo-European language family. In a broader sense, commonly used in historiography, all the ancient peoples of Italy are referred to as Italic peoples, including those who did not speak Indo-European languages such

616-1101: The Atellan Farce comedies, and some architectural testimonies such as the theater of Pietrabbondante in Molise , and that of Nocera Superiore on which the Romans built their own. The construction of the Samnite theaters of Pietrabbondante and Nocera make the architectural filiation of the Greek theater understood. Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European A genetic study published in Science in November 2019 examined

660-662: The Bronze Age . In particular, using Bayesian phylogenetic methods, Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson argued that Proto-Italic speakers separated from Proto-Germanics 5500 years before present, i.e. roughly at the start of the Bronze Age. This is further confirmed by the fact that the Germanic language family shares more vocabulary with the Italic family than with the Celtic language family. From

704-565: The Marche ; at the same time, it excluded the Sabine country (generally speaking, the area around modern Norcia ) and the right bank of the Tiber , which – being inhabited by Etruscans – formed part of Regio VII Etruria : for example Perusia (the modern Perugia ) and Orvieto (its ancient name is unknown), two Etruscan cities – were not part of Roman Umbria; on the contrary Sarsina , Plautus birthplace,

748-672: The Osco - Umbrians began to emigrate in various waves, through the process of Ver sacrum , the ritualized extension of colonies, in southern Latium, Molise and the whole southern half of the peninsula, replacing the previous tribes, such as the Opici and the Oenotrians . This corresponds with the emergence of the Terni culture, which had strong similarities with the Celtic cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène . The Umbrian necropolis of Terni , which dates back to

792-658: The Remedello culture and Rinaldone culture in Northern and Central Italy , and the Gaudo culture of Southern Italy . These cultures were led by a warrior-aristocracy and are considered intrusive. Their Indo-European character is suggested by the presence of weapons in burials, the appearance of the horse in Italy at this time and material similarities with cultures of Central Europe . According to David W. Anthony , between 3100 and 3000 BC,

836-592: The Rhaetians , Ligures and Etruscans . As the Latins achieved a dominant position among these tribes, by virtue of the expansion of the Roman civilization , the other Italic tribes adopted Latin language and culture as part of the process of Romanization . The Italics were an ethnolinguistic group who are identified by their use of the Italic languages , which form one of the branches of Indo-European languages . Outside of

880-535: The 10th century BC, was identical in every aspect to the Celtic necropolis of the Golasecca culture. By the mid-first millennium BC, the Latins of Rome were growing in power and influence. This led to the establishment of ancient Roman civilization . In order to combat the non-Italic Etruscans, several Italic tribes united in the Latin League . After the Latins had liberated themselves from Etruscan rule they acquired

924-692: The Celtic and Italic ones) would have to be found in the Polada and Rhone cultures, southern branches of the Unetice culture . These individuals settled in the foothills of the Eastern Alps and present a material culture similar to contemporary cultures of Switzerland, Southern Germany, and Austria. In the mid-second millennium BCE, the Terramare culture developed in the Po Valley. The Terramare culture takes its name from

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968-652: The Church, the Lombards and the Byzantines, and suffered consequently, becoming partitioned among them and disappearing from history. The modern use of "Umbria" is due to a renaissance of local identity in the 17th century. Before its defeat by and assimilation to the Romans, Umbria was an independent region organized al a loose confederation of towns whose inhabitants spoke the Umbrian language . This circumstance prevailed in history during

1012-564: The Greek theater before contacts with Magna Graecia and its theatrical traditions. There are no architectural and artistic testimonies of the Etruscan theater. A very late source, such as the historian Varro , mentions the name of a certain Volnio who wrote tragedies in the Etruscan language . Even the Samnites had original representational forms that had a lot of influence on Roman dramaturgy such as

1056-617: The Proto-Germanic homeland was in Central Germany , which would be very close to the homeland of Italic and Celtic languages as well. The origin of a hypothetical ancestral "Italo-Celtic" people is to be found in today's eastern Hungary , settled around 3100 BC by the Yamnaya culture . This hypothesis is to some extent supported by the observation that Italic shares a large number of isoglosses and lexical terms with Celtic and Germanic , some of which are more likely to be attributed to

1100-689: The Proto-Villanovan culture was followed by the Villanovan culture . The earliest remains of Villanovan culture date back to circa 900 BC. In the region south of the Tiber ( Latium Vetus ), the Latial culture of the Latins emerged, while in the north-east of the peninsula the Este culture of the Veneti appeared. Roughly in the same period, from their core area in central Italy (modern-day Umbria and Sabina region),

1144-551: The Roman conquest, yet its most ancient peoples remain anchored in the names of the regions of Roman Italy — Latium , Campania , Apulia , Bruttium , Lucania , Emilia Romagna , Samnium , Picenum , Umbria , Etruria , Venetia , and Liguria ». During the Copper Age , at the same time that metalworking appeared, Indo-European speaking peoples are believed to have migrated to Italy in several waves. Associated with this migration are

1188-649: The Umbri Ptolemy has only nine towns, omitting some of the major ones: Arna, Spello , Todi , etc. Regio VI included the territory of many towns of Umbrian, Gallic and Roman foundation. Some of them were originally Picentian centres. Pliny the Elder enumerates 44 cities in addition to other minor localities, of these cities today 25 belong to the Umbria region and 16 to the Marche region, 2 to Romagna and 1 to Tuscany . Italic peoples The concept of Italic peoples

1232-752: The archaeologist Luigi Pigorini . The Urnfield culture might have brought proto-Italic people from among the "Italo-Celtic" tribes who remained in Hungary into Italy. These tribes are thought to have penetrated Italy from the east during the late second millennium BC through the Proto-Villanovan culture . They later crossed the Apennine Mountains and settled central Italy, including Latium . Before 1000 BC several Italic tribes had probably entered Italy. These divided into various groups and gradually came to occupy central Italy and southern Italy. This period

1276-443: The black earth ( terra marna ) residue of settlement mounds, which have long served the fertilizing needs of local farmers. These people were still hunters, but had domesticated animals; they were fairly skillful metallurgists, casting bronze in moulds of stone and clay, and they were also agriculturists, cultivating beans , the vine , wheat and flax . The Latino-Faliscan people have been associated with this culture, especially by

1320-676: The country, and non-Italic elements eventually adopted the Latin language and culture in a process known as Romanization . In the early first century BC, several Italic tribes, in particular the Marsi and the Samnites, rebelled against Roman rule. This conflict is called the Social War . After Roman victory was secured, all peoples in Italy, except for the Celts of the Po Valley, were granted Roman citizenship . In

1364-506: The early and middle Roman Republic . By the late republic, Umbria was part of Rome. The language was no longer generally spoken. Like any other region, over the centuries Region VI changed its borders. These changes are reflected in the writings of the imperial geographers. The sexta regio is described in some detail by Pliny the Elder . Gallia Togata went along the northern Adriatic coast of Italy in Marche from Ancona to "this side of Rimini." The southernmost point of Gallia Togata

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1408-474: The first time the development of a highly hierarchical society, so characteristic of Indo-European cultures . The burial characteristics relate the Proto-Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture and Celtic Hallstatt culture that succeeded it. It is not possible to tell these apart in their earlier stages. Generally speaking, Proto-Villanovan settlements have been found in almost

1452-545: The indigenous Ligurians , produced the mixed Golasecca culture . Canegrate had a cultural dynamic, as expressed in its pottery and bronzework, that was completely new to the area and was a typical example of the western Hallstatt culture . The name comes from the locality of Canegrate in Lombardy, south of Legnano and 25 km north of Milan , where Guido Sutermeister discovered important archaeological finds (approximately 50 tombs with ceramics and metallic objects). It

1496-615: The late third to the early second millennium BC, tribes coming both from the north and from Franco-Iberia brought the Beaker culture and the use of bronze smithing, to the Po Valley , to Tuscany and to the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily . The Beakers could have been the link which brought the Yamnaya dialects from Hungary to Austria and Bavaria . These dialects might then have developed into Proto-Celtic . The arrival of Indo-Europeans into Italy

1540-484: The presence of about 25–35% steppe ancestry . Overall, the genetic differentiation between the Latins, Etruscans and the preceding proto-villanovan population of Italy was found to be insignificant. Spello Spello (in Antiquity: Hispellum ) is an ancient town and comune (township) of Italy , in the province of Perugia in eastern-central Umbria , on the lower southern flank of Monte Subasio . It

1584-553: The proto- Italics into the Italian peninsula . In the 13th century BC, Proto- Celts (probably the ancestors of the Lepontii people), coming from the area of modern-day Switzerland , eastern France and south-western Germany ( RSFO Urnfield group), entered Northern Italy ( Lombardy , eastern Piedmont and Ticino ), starting the Canegrate culture , who not long time after, merging with

1628-422: The remains of six Latin males buried near Rome between 900 BC and 200 BC. They carried the paternal haplogroups R-M269 , R-311 , R-PF7589 and R-P312 and the maternal haplogroups H1aj1a , T2c1f , H2a , U4a1a , H11a and H10 . A female from the preceding Proto-Villanovan culture carried the maternal haplogroups U5a2b . These examined individuals were distinguished from preceding populations of Italy by

1672-455: The specialised linguistic literature, the term is also used to describe the ancient peoples of Italy as defined in Roman times, including pre- Roman peoples like the Etruscans and the Raetians , who did not speak Indo-European languages. Such use is improper in linguistics, but employed by sources such as the Encyclopædia Britannica , which contends that «Italy attained a unified ethnolinguistic, political, and cultural physiognomy only after

1716-405: The subsequent centuries, Italic tribes were assimilated into Latin culture in a process known as Romanization . Italian peoples such as the Etruscans had already developed forms of theatrical literature. The legend, also reported by Livy , speaks of a pestilence that had struck Rome, at the beginning, and the request for Etruscan historians. The Roman historian thus refused the filiation from

1760-410: The town is enclosed in a circuit of medieval walls built on Roman foundations, including three Roman Late Antique gates ( Porta Consolare , Porta di Venere and the "Arch of Augustus") and traces of three more. The town incorporated the remains of an amphitheater. Among the churches of interest in the town are: Other points of interest include: An ancient Roman temple, dating to the 4th century AD,

1804-403: The whole Italian peninsula from Veneto to eastern Sicily, although they were most numerous in the northern-central part of Italy. The most important settlements excavated are those of Frattesina in Veneto region, Bismantova in Emilia-Romagna and near the Monti della Tolfa , north of Rome . Various authors, such as Marija Gimbutas , associated this culture with the arrival, or the spread, of

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1848-416: Was discovered by researchers in 2023 underneath a carpark in Spello. According to Professor Douglas Boin, who announced the discovery at an Archaeological Society of America meeting in early 2024, the temple dates to Constantine's period and marks the transition of the Roman Empire to Christianity. In the plain, near San Claudio, are the remains of a semi-excavated Roman amphitheater; and a small valley to

1892-544: Was characterized by widespread upheaval in the Mediterranean, including the emergence of the Sea Peoples and the Late Bronze Age collapse . The Proto-Villanovan culture dominated the peninsula and replaced the preceding Apennine culture . The Proto-Villanovans practiced cremation and buried the ashes of their dead in Urnfield-style double-cone shaped funerary urns, often decorated with geometric designs. Elite graves containing jewellery, bronze armour and horse harness fittings were separated from ordinary graves, showing for

1936-417: Was considered to be "in Umbria", while today it is in the modern province of Forlì-Cesena , in Emilia-Romagna . The importance of Umbria in Roman and medieval times was intimately bound up with the Via Flaminia , the consular road that supplied Rome and served as a military highway into and out of the City: for this reason once the Roman empire collapsed, Umbria became a strategic battleground fought over by

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