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71-473: The breed is a fat-tailed hair sheep; they do not produce wool and are kept primarily for meat . Though less productive than some other breeds raised in East Africa, they are valued for their hardiness in arid conditions and their relatively stronger resistance to internal parasites. Although their origin is unclear, Red Maasai sheep are endemic to Kenya and have long been a part of the farming cultures of

142-518: A 19th-century BC ruler of Uruk named Naram-sin. Uruk continued as principality of Ur, Babylon, and later Achaemenid, Seleucid, and Parthian Empires. It enjoyed brief periods of independence during the Isin-Larsa period , under kings such as (possibly Ikūn-pî-Ištar , Sumu-binasa, Alila-hadum, and Naram-Sin), Sîn-kāšid , his son Sîn-irībam, his son Sîn-gāmil, Ilum-gāmil, brother of Sîn-gāmil , Etēia, AN-am 3 (Dingiram), ÌR 3 -ne-ne ( Irdanene ), who

213-585: A façade treatment was greatly developed as well, perhaps used to greatest effect in the Cone-Mosaic Temple. Composed of three parts: Temple N, the Round Pillar Hall, and the Cone-Mosaic Courtyard, this temple was the most monumental structure of Eanna at the time. They were all ritually destroyed and the entire Eanna district was rebuilt in period IVa at an even grander scale. During Eanna IVa,

284-525: A minimal cost. Warka was also scouted by archaeologist Walter Andrae in 1902. In 1905 Warka was visited by archaeologist Edgar James Banks . From 1912 to 1913, Julius Jordan and his team from the German Oriental Society discovered the temple of Ishtar , one of four known temples located at the site. The temples at Uruk were quite remarkable as they were constructed with brick and adorned with colorful mosaics . Jordan also discovered part of

355-412: A monumental limestone-paved staircase and a trough running parallel to the staircase was used to drain the ziggurat. The Eanna district is historically significant as both writing and monumental public architecture emerged here during Uruk periods VI–IV. The combination of these two developments places Eanna as arguably the first true city and civilization in human history. Eanna during period IVa contains

426-648: A new form and under a new name, 'The House of Inanna in Uruk' (Sumerian: e₂-ᵈinanna unuᵏⁱ-ga ). The location of this structure is currently unknown. Although it had been a thriving city in Early Dynastic Sumer, especially Early Dynastic II, Uruk was ultimately annexed by the Akkadian Empire and went into decline. Later, in the Neo-Sumerian period, Uruk enjoyed revival as a major economic and cultural center under

497-543: A provincial capital. Under the Neo-Assyrians and Neo-Babylonians , Uruk regained much of its former glory. By 250 BC, a new temple complex the 'Head Temple' (Akkadian: Bīt Reš ) was added to northeast of the Uruk period Anu district. The Bīt Reš along with the Esagila was one of the two main centers of Neo-Babylonian astronomy . All of the temples and canals were restored again under Nabopolassar . During this era, Uruk

568-534: A shift in the Euphrates River. By 300 AD, Uruk was mostly abandoned, but a group of Mandaeans settled there, and by c. 700 AD it was completely abandoned. Uruk played a very important part in the political history of Sumer. Starting from the Early Uruk period, the city exercised hegemony over nearby settlements. At this time ( c. 3800 BC), there were two centers of 20 hectares, Uruk in

639-574: A single chamber cella with a terrazzo floor beneath which bucrania were found. In phase E, corresponding to the Uruk III period (c. 3200–3000 BC), the White Temple was built. The White Temple could be seen from a great distance across the plain of Sumer, as it was elevated 21 m and covered in gypsum plaster which reflected sunlight like a mirror. In addition to this temple the Anu Ziggurat had

710-562: A strong smell when cooked, though the flavor is described as rich and full. Uruk Uruk , known today as Warka , was an ancient city in the Near East, located east of the current bed of the Euphrates River, on an ancient, now-dried channel of the river. The site lies 93 kilometers (58 miles) northwest of ancient Ur , 108 kilometers (67 miles) southeast of ancient Nippur , and 24 kilometers (15 miles) southeast of ancient Larsa . It

781-579: A surplus of ghee for export to India. The animal's meat was the Afghan population's main meat source, according to Baker. Uzbek cuisine is high in fat, and tail fat, called qurdiuq or dumba (often from the Karakul breed ), is an important supplier of that fat, which is "revere[d] as a semi-sacred object of gastronomical desire", and used in a variety of national dishes, such as laghman and palov . Food scholar Russell Zanca notes that dumba has become scarce in

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852-531: Is 3 km (1.9 miles) north/south, and 2.5 km (1.6 miles) east/west. There are three major tells within the site: The Eanna district, Bit Resh (Kullaba), and Irigal. Archaeologically, the site is divided into six parts 1) the É-Anna ziggurat ' Egipar-imin, 2) the É-Anna enclosure (Zingel), 3) the Anu-Antum temple complex, BitRes and Anu-ziggurat, 4) Irigal, the South Building, 5) Parthian structures including

923-449: Is 30 km (19 mi) east of modern Samawah , Al-Muthannā , Iraq . Uruk is the type site for the Uruk period . Uruk played a leading role in the early urbanization of Sumer in the mid-4th millennium BC. By the final phase of the Uruk period around 3100 BC, the city may have had 40,000 residents, with 80,000–90,000 people living in its environs, making it the largest urban area in

994-529: Is a general type of domestic sheep known for their distinctive large tails and hindquarters. Fat-tailed sheep breeds comprise approximately 25% of the world's sheep population, and are commonly found in northern parts of Africa , the Middle East , and various Central Asian countries, Afghanistan , Pakistan and all the way to China. The tail fat from those sheep is an important ingredient in many regional cuisines. Two general varieties of fat-tails exist,

1065-647: Is built on structures from earlier periods dating back to the Ubaid period . According to the SKL , Uruk was founded by the king Enmerkar . Though the king-list mentions a father before him, the epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta relates that Enmerkar constructed the House of Heaven (Sumerian: e₂-anna ; cuneiform: 𒂍𒀭 E₂.AN) for the goddess Inanna in the Eanna District of Uruk. In

1136-416: Is clear Eanna was dedicated to Inanna from the earliest Uruk period throughout the history of the city. The rest of the city was composed of typical courtyard houses, grouped by profession of the occupants, in districts around Eanna and Anu. Uruk was extremely well penetrated by a canal system that has been described as " Venice in the desert". This canal system flowed throughout the city connecting it with

1207-596: The Epic of Gilgamesh , Gilgamesh builds the city wall around Uruk and is king of the city. Uruk went through several phases of growth, from the Early Uruk period (4000–3500 BC) to the Late Uruk period (3500–3100 BC). The city was formed when two smaller Ubaid settlements merged. The temple complexes at their cores became the Eanna District and the Anu District dedicated to Inanna and Anu , respectively. The Anu District

1278-510: The Aramaic Uruk incantation . The last dated cuneiform tablet from Uruk was W22340a, an astronomical almanac, which is dated to 79/80 AD. The oldest known writing to feature a person's name was found in Uruk, in the form of several tablets that mention Kushim , who (assuming they are an individual person) served as an accountant recording transactions made in trading barley – 29,086 measures barley 37 months Kushim . Beveled rim bowls were

1349-617: The Bible ( Exodus 29:22 and Leviticus 3:9), where a sacrificial offering is described which includes the tail fat (called Alya , Hebrew: אַלְיָה) of sheep. Mesopotamian records provide a wealth of information about fat-tailed sheep ( udu gukkal or udu-gug-gal ); they produced the highest-quality wool and were kept in large numbers. The city state of Lagash , around 2000 BCE, had over 66,000 such sheep. A report published in 1915 by Henry D. Baker , American consul in Bombay, indicates how important

1420-769: The Great Rift Valley . Though traditional Maasai culture places cattle in higher prominence than small ruminants, many Maasai and smallholders in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda have raised the breed. The Red Maasai was the predominant sheep breed among the Maasai and other tribes in Kenya until the 1970s, when subsidies began to support crossbreeding with Dorper sheep and other imported types. Developed in South Africa, Dorpers began to be widely crossbred with native Kenyan stock. Today, fewer purebred Red Maasai sheep remain, and crossbreeds are

1491-928: The Hejaz region), the Arabi (black or piebald, in Arabia and Iraq), the Awassi (the dominant variety in Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Jordan), and the ak or White Karaman (in Turkey). Eastward, toward Iran (among the Bakhtiari people ) and China, there are dozens of varieties, including the Karakul . Fat-tailed sheep likely moved into Africa through the Horn of Africa , then into Egypt and North Africa, at least by 2000 BC, when they are depicted in Egyptian art. They were

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1562-469: The city wall . It was later discovered that this 40-to-50-foot (12 to 15 m) high brick wall, probably utilized as a defense mechanism, totally encompassed the city at a length of 9 km (5.6 mi). Utilizing sedimentary strata dating techniques, this wall is estimated to have been erected around 3000 BC. Jordan produced a contour map of the entire site. The GOS returned to Uruk in 1928 and excavated until 1939, when World War II intervened. The team

1633-654: The 'Great Sanctuary' (Cuneiform: E₂.IRI₁₂.GAL, Sumerian: eš-gal) of Ishtar was added between the Anu and Eanna districts. The ziggurat of the temple of Anu, which was rebuilt in this period, was the largest ever built in Mesopotamia. When the Seleucids lost Mesopotamia to the Parthians in 141 BC, Uruk continued in use. The decline of Uruk after the Parthians may have been in part caused by

1704-561: The 'Sumerian Mona Lisa ', dating from 3100 BC, is one of the earliest representations of the human face. The carved marble female face is probably a depiction of Inanna. It is approximately 20 cm tall, and may have been incorporated into a larger cult image. The mask was looted from the Iraq Museum during the fall of Baghdad in April 2003. It was recovered in September 2003 and returned to

1775-481: The Arabic name of the present-day country of al-ʿIrāq is often thought to be derived directly from the name Uruk , it is more likely loaned via Middle Persian ( Erāq ) and then Aramaic ’yrg , which nonetheless may still ultimately refer to the Uruk region of southern Mesopotamia. In myth and literature, Uruk was famous as the capital city of Gilgamesh , hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh . Scholars identify Uruk as

1846-532: The Dorper, Red Maasai are significantly more resistant to parasites. This resistance is potentially of great value to other sheep operations due to the significant financial losses caused by parasites in other sheep-producing regions. Consequently, scientists have focused on attempting to identify the genes responsible for internal parasite resistance in Red Maasai sheep. Fat-tailed sheep The fat-tailed sheep

1917-450: The Eanna and Anu Districts. Temple N, Cone-Mosaic Courtyard, and Round Pillar Hall are often referred to as a single structure; the Cone-Mosaic Temple. It is clear Eanna was dedicated to Inanna symbolized by Venus from the Uruk period. At that time, she was worshipped in four aspects as Inanna of the netherworld (Sumerian: ᵈinanna-kur), Inanna of the morning (Sumerian: ᵈinanna-hud₂), Inanna of

1988-624: The Early Dynastic IIIb period (2500–2334 BC), also called the Pre-Sargonic period (before the rise of the Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad ), Uruk continued to be ruled by Ur. Dynastic categorizations are described solely from the Sumerian King List , which is of problematic historical accuracy; the organization might be analogous to Manetho's . In 2009, two different copies of an inscription were put forth as evidence of

2059-456: The English translation of the same. The stratigraphy of the site is complex and as such much of the dating is disputed. In general, the structures follow the two main typologies of Sumerian architecture , Tripartite with 3 parallel halls and T-Shaped also with three halls, but the central one extends into two perpendicular bays at one end. The following table summarizes the significant architecture of

2130-617: The Gareus-temple, and the Multiple Apse building, 6) the "Gilgameš" city-wall with associated Sinkâsid Palace and the Seleucid Bit Akîtu. The location of Uruk was first noted by Fraser and Ross in 1835. William Loftus excavated there in 1850 and 1854 after a scouting mission in 1849. By Loftus' own account, he admits that the first excavations were superficial at best, as his financiers forced him to deliver large museum artifacts at

2201-697: The German Archaeological Institute in Baghdad as Jan J. A. Djik, Hermann Hunger , Antoine Cavigneaux, Egbert von Weiher , and Karlheinz Kessler  [ de ] , or others as Erlend Gehlken. Many of the cuneiform tablets form acquisitions by museums and collections as the British Museum , Yale Babylonian Collection , and the Louvre . The latter holds a unique cuneiform tablet in Aramaic known as

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2272-521: The German archaeologists spent 39 seasons working at Uruk. The results are documented in two series of reports: Most recently, from 2001 to 2002, the German Archaeological Institute team led by Margarete van Ess, with Joerg Fassbinder and Helmut Becker, conducted a partial magnetometer survey in Uruk. In addition to the geophysical survey, core samples and aerial photographs were taken. This

2343-774: The Golden Age. During the Early Dynastic II period (2800–2600 BC), Uruk was again the dominant city exercising control of Sumer. This period is the time of the First Dynasty of Uruk sometimes called the Heroic Age. However, by the Early Dynastic IIIa period (2600–2500 BC) Uruk had lost sovereignty, this time to Ur. This period, corresponding to the Early Bronze Age III, is the end of the First Dynasty of Uruk. In

2414-732: The Limestone Temple was demolished and the Red Temple built on its foundations. The accumulated debris of the Uruk IVb buildings were formed into a terrace , the L-Shaped Terrace, on which Buildings C, D, M, Great Hall, and Pillar Hall were built. Building E was initially thought to be a palace, but later proven to be a communal building. Also in period IV, the Great Court, a sunken courtyard surrounded by two tiers of benches covered in cone mosaic,

2485-401: The Red Maasai is suited to meat production instead of fiber. Red Maasai sheep are renowned for their resistance to parasite like Haemonchus contortus . In Africa, endoparasites in particular can cause large livestock losses, because smallholder farmers that also raise crops often rely on shared grazing land. Several peer-reviewed studies have shown that compared to introduced breeds such as

2556-552: The Riemchen Building. In the following period, Uruk V, about 100 m east of the Stone-Cone Temple the Limestone Temple was built on a 2 m high rammed-earth podium over a pre-existing Ubaid temple, which like the Stone-Cone Temple represents a continuation of Ubaid culture. However, the Limestone Temple was unprecedented for its size and use of stone, a clear departure from traditional Ubaid architecture. The stone

2627-561: The Stone Temple, has been discovered. The Stone Temple was built of limestone and bitumen on a podium of rammed earth and plastered with lime mortar. The podium itself was built over a woven reed mat called ĝipar , which was ritually used as a nuptial bed. The ĝipar was a source of generative power which then radiated upward into the structure. The structure of the Stone Temple further develops some mythological concepts from Enuma Elish , perhaps involving libation rites as indicated from

2698-571: The biblical Erech ( Genesis 10:10), the second city founded by Nimrod in Shinar . In addition to being one of the first cities, Uruk was the main force of urbanization and state formation during the Uruk period, or 'Uruk expansion' (4000–3200 BC). This period of 800 years saw a shift from small, agricultural villages to a larger urban center with a full-time bureaucracy, military, and stratified society. Although other settlements coexisted with Uruk, they were generally about 10 hectares while Uruk

2769-776: The broad fat-tails and the long fat-tails. The long-tailed varieties have the smallest geographical distribution, being found mostly in Arabia (a variety called the Nejd, black with a white head, named for the Nejd region, and raised also in Iraq, Central Asia, and Syria) and in the Caucasus (the Colchian, for the Colchis territory, and the Circassian). Broad varieties include the Hajaz (Arabia, small and white, named for

2840-411: The cardinal directions, a central hall flanked along the long axis by two smaller halls, and buttressed façades; the prototype of all future Mesopotamian temple architectural typology . Between these two monumental structures a complex of buildings (called A–C, E–K, Riemchen, Cone-Mosaic), courts, and walls was built during Eanna IVb. These buildings were built during a time of great expansion in Uruk as

2911-562: The channels, tanks, and vessels found there. The structure was ritually destroyed, covered with alternating layers of clay and stone, then excavated and filled with mortar sometime later. The Anu Ziggurat began with a massive mound topped by a cella during the Uruk period (c. 4000 BC), and was expanded through 14 phases of construction. These phases have been labeled L to A₃ ( L is sometimes called X ). The earliest phase used architectural features similar to PPNA cultures in Anatolia :

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2982-694: The city grew to 250 hectares and established long-distance trade, and are a continuation of architecture from the previous period. The Riemchen Building, named for the 16×16 cm brick shape called Riemchen by the Germans, is a memorial with a ritual fire kept burning in the center for the Stone-Cone Temple after it was destroyed. For this reason, Uruk IV period represents a reorientation of belief and culture. The facade of this memorial may have been covered in geometric and figural murals. The Riemchen bricks first used in this temple were used to construct all buildings of Uruk IV period Eanna. The use of colored cones as

3053-530: The decline of Uruk. Archeologists have discovered multiple cities of Uruk built atop each other in chronological order. Unlike the Eanna district, the Anu district consists of a single massive terrace, the Anu Ziggurat , dedicated to the Sumerian sky god Anu . Sometime in the Uruk III period the massive White Temple was built atop the ziggurat. Under the northwest edge of the ziggurat an Uruk VI period structure,

3124-465: The earliest examples of writing. The first building of Eanna , Stone-Cone Temple (Mosaic Temple), was built in period VI over a preexisting Ubaid temple and is enclosed by a limestone wall with an elaborate system of buttresses . The Stone-Cone Temple, named for the mosaic of colored stone cones driven into the adobe brick façade, may be the earliest water cult in Mesopotamia. It was "destroyed by force" in Uruk IVb period and its contents interred in

3195-404: The earliest recorded writing , dating to approximately 3300 BC. Later cuneiform tablets were deciphered and include the famous SKL , a record of kings of the Sumerian civilization. There was an even larger cache of legal and scholarly tablets of the Neo-Babylonian , Late Babylonian , and Seleucid period, that have been published by Adam Falkenstein and other Assyriological members of

3266-414: The evening (Sumerian: ᵈinanna-sig), and Inanna (Sumerian: ᵈinanna-NUN). The names of four temples in Uruk at this time are known, but it is impossible to match them with either a specific structure and in some cases a deity. The site, which lies about 50 miles (80 km) northwest of ancient Ur , is one of the largest in the region at around 5.5 km (2.1 sq mi) in area. The maximum extent

3337-431: The evolution of writing ; writing may have originated in Uruk around 3300 BC. Evidence from excavations such as extensive pottery and the earliest known tablets of writing support these events. Excavation of Uruk is highly complex because older buildings were recycled into newer ones, thus blurring the layers of different historic periods. The topmost layer most likely originated in the Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BC) and

3408-405: The fat-tailed sheep was for Afghanistan. The animal's wool, he says, was one of the country's most important export products; in 1912-1913 the country exported (through Balochistan ) for over $ 1.5 million in wool. Frequently fat-tailed sheep were interbred with Indian sheep to produce high-quality wool. In addition, because the fat was used in the way of butter or ghee , Afghans were able to produce

3479-409: The ground and hindered copulation. Fat-tailed sheep are well adapted to life in arid landscapes, the fat providing a food reserve for "combatting harsh desert conditions". The earliest record of fat-tailed sheep is found in ancient Uruk ( 3000 BC ) and Ur ( 2400 BC ) on stone vessels and mosaics . In Sumer , fat-tailed sheep were kept in temples, for wool. Another early reference is found in

3550-457: The historical tradition as preserved in the Sumerian king-list confirms it. From Uruk the center of political gravity seems to have moved to Ur . The recorded chronology of rulers over Uruk includes both mythological and historic figures in five dynasties. As in the rest of Sumer, power moved progressively from the temple to the palace. Rulers from the Early Dynastic period exercised control over Uruk and at times over all of Sumer. In myth, kingship

3621-425: The majority, making the future of the breed uncertain. Red Maasai sheep are named for their usual color of red-brown, though they may also be pied . The breed is a hair sheep, meaning it does not produce wool , though it may have a shaggy coat of hair. It is also a fat-tailed sheep breed known for visibly large fat deposits in its tail and hindquarters. Red Maasai are medium-to-large bodied sheep. These factors mean

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3692-423: The maritime trade on the ancient Euphrates River as well as the surrounding agricultural belt. The original city of Uruk was situated southwest of the ancient Euphrates River, now dry. Currently, the site of Warka is northeast of the modern Euphrates river. The change in position was caused by a shift in the Euphrates at some point in history, which, together with salination due to irrigation, may have contributed to

3763-400: The most common type of container used during the Uruk period. They are believed to be vessels for serving rations of food or drink to dependent laborers. The introduction of the fast wheel for throwing pottery was developed during the later part of the Uruk period, and made the mass production of pottery simpler and more standardized. The Mask of Warka , also known as the 'Lady of Uruk' and

3834-405: The museum. The Sumerian King List (SKL) lists only 22 rulers among five dynasties of Uruk. The sixth dynasty was an Amorite dynasty not mentioned on the SKL . The following list should not be considered complete: "Then Kish was defeated and the kingship was taken to Eanna (Uruk)." "Meshkiangasher entered the sea and disappeared." "12 kings; they ruled for 2,310 years. Then Uruk

3905-490: The post-Soviet era. Under Soviet rule Uzbekistan became a huge grower of cotton, and consequently cottonseed oil took over as the major fat used in cooking; still, dumba continues to play an important role in the Uzbek imagination and folklore. The tail fat is an essential part of many cuisines. It is called لية ( leeyeh , leyyah , or layeh ) in Arabic, zaaka in Algeria, kuyruk yağı in Turkish, and دنبه ( donbe or dombe or dumba ) in Iran and Pakistan. It emits

3976-487: The south and Nippur in the north surrounded by much smaller 10 hectare settlements. Later, in the Late Uruk period, its sphere of influence extended over all Sumer and beyond to external colonies in upper Mesopotamia and Syria. In Uruk, in southern Mesopotamia, Sumerian civilization seems to have reached its creative peak. This is pointed out repeatedly in the references to this city in religious and, especially, in literary texts, including those of mythological content;

4047-430: The sovereignty of Ur . The Eanna District was restored as part of an ambitious building program, which included a new temple for Inanna. This temple included a ziggurat , the 'House of the Universe' (Cuneiform: E₂ . SAR.A ) to the northeast of the Uruk period Eanna ruins. Following the collapse of Ur ( c. 2000 BC), Uruk went into a steep decline until about 850 BC when the Neo-Assyrian Empire annexed it as

4118-455: The third type of sheep to be brought into Africa. The majority of fat-tailed sheep breeds have broad fat-tails, where the fat is accumulated in baggy deposits in the hind parts of a sheep on both sides of its tail and on the first 3–5 vertebrae of the tail. Earlier historians including Herodotus report that their tails sometimes were so long that shepherds built miniature carts for them, and that tails sometimes grew so large that it dragged on

4189-499: The world at the time. King Gilgamesh , according to the chronology presented in the Sumerian King List ( SKL ), ruled Uruk in the 27th century BC. After the end of the Early Dynastic period, marked by the rise of the Akkadian Empire , the city lost its prime importance. It had periods of florescence during the Isin-Larsa period, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods and throughout the Achaemenid (550–330 BC), Seleucid (312–63 BC) and Parthian (227 BC to AD 224) periods until it

4260-434: Was built. A small aqueduct drains into the Great Courtyard, which may have irrigated a garden at one time. The impressive buildings of this period were built as Uruk reached its zenith and expanded to 600 hectares. All the buildings of Eanna IVa were destroyed sometime in Uruk III, for unclear reasons. The architecture of Eanna in period III was very different from what had preceded it. The complex of monumental temples

4331-423: Was defeated by Rīm-Sîn I of Larsa in his year 14 (c. 1740 BC), Rîm-Anum and Nabi-ilīšu. Uruk has some of the first monumental constructions in architectural history, and certainly the largest of its era. Much of Near Eastern architecture can trace its roots to these prototypical buildings. The structures of Uruk are cited by two different naming conventions, one in German from the initial expedition, and

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4402-404: Was divided into five main districts: the Adad Temple, Royal Orchard, Ištar Gate, Lugalirra Temple, and Šamaš Gate districts. Uruk, known as Orcha ([Ὄρχα] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) ) to the Greeks, continued to thrive under the Seleucid Empire . During this period, Uruk was a city of 300 hectares and perhaps 40,000 inhabitants. In 200 BC,

4473-729: Was finally abandoned shortly before or after the Islamic conquest of 633–638. William Kennett Loftus visited the site of Uruk in 1849, identifying it as "Erech", known as "the second city of Nimrod ", and led the first excavations from 1850 to 1854. Uruk ( / ˈ ʊ r ʊ k / ) has several spellings in cuneiform ; in Sumerian it is 𒀕𒆠 unugᵏⁱ ; in Akkadian , 𒌷𒀕 or 𒌷𒀔 Uruk ( UNUG). Its names in other languages include: Arabic : وركاء or أوروك , Warkāʾ or Auruk ; Classical Syriac : ܐܘܿܪܘܿܟ , ʿÚrūk ; Biblical Hebrew : אֶרֶךְ ‎ ʾÉreḵ ; Ancient Greek : Ὀρχόη , romanized :  Orkhóē , Ὀρέχ Orékh , Ὠρύγεια Ōrúgeia . Though

4544-615: Was followed up with high-resolution satellite imagery in 2005. Work resumed in 2016 and is currently concentrated on the city wall area and a survey of the surrounding landscape. Part of the work has been to create a digital twin of the Uruk archaeological area. The current effort also involves geophysical surveying. The soil characteristics of the site make ground penetrating radar unsuitable so caesium magnetometers, combined with resistivity probes, are being used. About 400 Proto-cuneiform clay tablets were found at Uruk with Sumerian and pictorial inscriptions that are thought to be some of

4615-453: Was led by Jordan until 1931 when Jordan became Director of Antiquities in Baghdad, then by A. Nöldeke, Ernst Heinrich, and H. J. Lenzen. Among the finds was the Stell of the Lion Hunt, excavated in a Jemdat Nadr layer but sylistically dated to Uruk IV. The German excavations resumed after the war and were under the direction of Heinrich Lenzen from 1954 to 1967. He was followed in 1968 by J. Schmidt, and in 1978 by R.M. Boehmer. In total,

4686-580: Was located in the southern part of Mesopotamia, an ancient site of civilization, on the Euphrates river. Through the gradual and eventual domestication of native grains from the Zagros foothills and extensive irrigation techniques, the area supported a vast variety of edible vegetation. This domestication of grain and its proximity to rivers enabled Uruk's growth into the largest Sumerian settlement, in both population and area, with relative ease. Uruk's agricultural surplus and large population base facilitated processes such as trade, specialization of crafts and

4757-409: Was lowered from heaven to Eridu then passed successively through five cities until the deluge which ended the Uruk period. Afterwards, kingship passed to Kish at the beginning of the Early Dynastic period, which corresponds to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age in Sumer. In the Early Dynastic I period (2900–2800 BC), Uruk was in theory under the control of Kish. This period is sometimes called

4828-399: Was originally called 'Kullaba' (Kulab or Unug-Kulaba) prior to merging with the Eanna District. Kullaba dates to the Eridu period when it was one of the oldest and most important cities of Sumer. The Eanna District was composed of several buildings with spaces for workshops, and it was walled off from the city. By contrast, the Anu District was built on a terrace with a temple at the top. It

4899-412: Was quarried from an outcrop at Umayyad about 60 km east of Uruk. It is unclear if the entire temple or just the foundation was built of this limestone . The Limestone Temple is probably the first Inanna temple, but it is impossible to know with certainty. Like the Stone-Cone temple the Limestone temple was also covered in cone mosaics. Both of these temples were rectangles with their corners aligned to

4970-407: Was replaced with baths around the Great Courtyard and the labyrinthine Rammed-Earth Building. This period corresponds to Early Dynastic Sumer c. 2900 BC, a time of great social upheaval when the dominance of Uruk was eclipsed by competing city-states . The fortress -like architecture of this time is a reflection of that turmoil. The temple of Inanna continued functioning during this time in

5041-408: Was significantly larger and more complex. The Uruk period culture exported by Sumerian traders and colonists had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own comparable, competing economies and cultures. Ultimately, Uruk could not maintain long-distance control over colonies such as Tell Brak by military force. Geographic factors underpin Uruk's unprecedented growth. The city

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