The Duchy of Württemberg ( German : Herzogtum Württemberg ) was a duchy located in the south-western part of the Holy Roman Empire . It was a state of the Holy Roman Empire from 1495 to 1803. The dukedom's long survival for over three centuries was mainly due to its size, being larger than its immediate neighbors. During the Protestant Reformation , Württemberg faced great pressure from the Catholic emperors to remain loyal. Württemberg resisted repeated French invasions in the 17th and 18th centuries, the duchy being directly in the path of French and Austrian armies who were engaged in the long rivalry between the House of Bourbon and the House of Habsburg . In 1803, Napoleon raised the duchy to be the Electorate of Württemberg . On 1 January 1806, the last elector assumed the title of King of Württemberg. Later that year, on 6 August 1806, the last Emperor, Francis II , abolished (de facto) the Holy Roman Empire.
183-560: The term Realphilosophie was first introduced by Hegel . His Jenaer Realphilosophie of 1805/6 contains lectures "on the philosophy of nature and of the spirit". Hegel confronts the material philosophy of pure logic: Realphilosophie (Material philosophy) is thus thinking on empirical basis . In his Realphilosophie, Hegel concerns himself, among other things, with phenomena found in astronomy and biology . However, Realphilosophie also includes social and cultural phenomena. It covers both natural philosophy and cultural philosophy . According to
366-819: A French absolutist state. They interpreted the social and natural calamities faced by the Württemberg as God 's punishment for the immorality of the ducal court and society and worked to uphold the Estates of Württemberg and co-operation between it and the duke. After the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht that ended the War of the Spanish Succession , the duchy enjoyed a period of peace and increasing fortune, and Württemberg Pietism's character shifted from moral and philosophical criticism of society to quiet theological contemplation. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from
549-447: A "philosophical disputorium." In 1802, Schelling and Hegel founded the journal Kritische Journal der Philosophie ( Critical Journal of Philosophy ) to which they contributed until the collaboration ended when Schelling left for Würzburg in 1803. In 1805, the university promoted Hegel to the unsalaried position of extraordinary professor after he wrote a letter to the poet and minister of culture Johann Wolfgang von Goethe protesting
732-471: A "small, taxable community." By 1520, the number of these districts had risen to 45, from 38 in 1442, and would number 58 by the end of the 16th century. These varied vastly in size, with Urach containing 76 outlying villages to Ebingen , which only contained its eponymous town. Württemberg was also one of the most populous regions of the Holy Roman Empire , supporting 300,000-400,000 inhabitants (and
915-446: A birthrate that grew 6–7% each year) in the 16th century, 70% of which lived in the countryside. The largest town in the duchy was Stuttgart (9,000), followed by Tübingen, then Schorndorf , and Kirchheim-Teck (2,000-5,000), and over 670 villages that contained the rest of the population. The Duchy of Württemberg was formed when, at the Diet of Worms , 21 July 1495, Maximilian I , King of
1098-440: A burgher. The senior bailiff, more free than his counterpart, was not restricted to serving within his own district and would sometimes advise other rulers and even the duke. The senior bailiff was also charged with the defense of his district and so usually would reside in a castle in or near the district seat. Old noble families traditionally served in their districts, giving them experience that some would use to secure positions in
1281-550: A collection of atomized individuals, instead taking a holistic view of human self-consciousness as requiring the recognition of others, and people's view of themselves as being shaped by the views of others. Hegel describes The Phenomenology as both the "introduction" to his philosophical system and also as the "first part" of that system as the "science of the experience of consciousness." Yet it has long been controversial in both respects; indeed, Hegel's own attitude changed throughout his life. Nevertheless, however complicated
1464-623: A diet to state publicly his support of the Treaty of Tübingen , then appointed a new Statthalter , Maximilian van Zevenbergen from the Netherlands , and new Chancellor, Heinrich Winckelhofer. They were aided in issuing the Statthalter ' s orders by the regents and other commissioners. Treasury officials were given much more control over the treasury than in Ulrich's reign so as to reestablish order, and
1647-502: A diet. He held it in Tübingen on 26 June 1514 in a move that showed his paranoia of public opinion of him in the capital, and would be the first of three diets in Ulrich's reign, though representatives from 14 towns in the duchy had met previously in Marbach am Neckar in order to effectively pacify the attending commoners. The result of that pre-meeting was the list of 41 articles that became
1830-584: A difference here to which one can "refer," only a dialectic that one can observe and describe. The final category of the Logic is "the idea." As with "the concept", the sense of this term for Hegel is not psychological. Rather, following Kant in The Critique of Pure Reason , Hegel's usage harks back to the Greek eidos , Plato 's concept of form that is fully existent and universal: "Hegel's Idee (like Plato's idea)
2013-489: A famous humanist and knight who was also a firebrand publicist, and son of Ludwig von Hutten, a Franconian knight who had also served in the ducal court and was of the von Huttens, one of the most powerful lower noble families in the entire duchy. The political fallout of this murder resulted in the immediate resignation of 18 noblemen from Ulrich's court, demands from the von Huttens for financial compensation, and fiery, printed attacks by Ulrich von Hutten. The second event
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#17328482201382196-616: A high official in Munich, pleading for Niethammer's help in securing a teaching position. With the help of Niethammer, Hegel was appointed headmaster of a gymnasium in Nuremberg in November 1808, a post he held until 1816. While in Nuremberg, Hegel adapted his recently published Phenomenology of Spirit for use in the classroom. Part of his remit was to teach a class called "Introduction to Knowledge of
2379-523: A higher rank, and they were paid differently. Chamber music began to be considered a major part of the court's musical establishment, on par even with church and table music, as evidenced by various documents following Pez's death (25 September 1716) in May 1717 from Schwartzkopf and Störl that confirmed Pez's view of the Hofkapelle as a pool of multi-talented musicians who could play a wide range of instruments, and
2562-527: A historian; and Immanuel [ de ] , who followed a theological path – lived long and safeguarded their father's manuscripts and letters , and produced editions of his works. As H. S. Harris recounts, when Hegel entered the Tübingen seminary in 1788, "he was a typical product of the German Enlightenment – an enthusiastic reader of Rousseau and Lessing , acquainted with Kant (at least at second hand), but perhaps more deeply devoted to
2745-505: A kind of "unity-in-difference," this both in the ancient articulation provided by Plato and in the Christian religion's doctrine of agape , which Hegel at this time viewed as "already 'grounded on universal Reason. ' " This interest, as well as his theological training, would continue to mark his thought, even as it developed in a more theoretical or metaphysical direction. According to Glenn Alexander Magee, Hegel's thought (in particular,
2928-552: A matter could not be solved by the town council, it would be referred to the Chancellor by the bailiff , and he would decide the matter. The Chancellor also represented the Duke for diplomatic missions and occasionally at territorial diets of the Estates . By the mid-16th century, the advisory body to the Duke, the Oberrat , created the position of Vice Chancellor ( Vizekanzler ) in 1556 to aid
3111-430: A metaphysical logic of truth. There are two texts of Hegel's Logic . The first, The Science of Logic (1812, 1813, 1816; bk.I revised 1831), is sometimes also called the "Greater Logic." The second is the first volume of Hegel's Encyclopedia and is sometimes known as the "Lesser Logic." The Encyclopedia Logic is an abbreviated or condensed presentation of the same dialectic. Hegel composed it for use with students in
3294-695: A past debt. The leader of the Swabian League army was the capable William IV, Duke of Bavaria , and his campaign lasted little over two weeks. It opened with Duke William attacking Hellenstein Castle on 28 March 1519, followed then by attacks on Esslingen , Uhlbach , Obertürkheim , Hedelfingen , the nunnery of Weiler Filstand , Hunddskehle Castle , Teck Castle , and finally stormed Stuttgart in April and forced Ulrich to flee. His first reign had ended, and he would not return for 15 years. The first order of business for
3477-602: A permanent position replacing a professor of botany, he was unable to find a permanent position. In 1807, he had to move to Bamberg since his savings and the payment from the Phenomenology were exhausted and he needed money to support his illegitimate son Ludwig. There, he became the editor of the local newspaper, Bamberger Zeitung [ de ] , a position he obtained with the help of Niethammer. Ludwig Fischer and his mother stayed behind in Jena. In Bamberg, as editor of
3660-621: A post from the Universities of Erlangen , Berlin and Heidelberg , Hegel chose Heidelberg, where he moved in 1816. Soon after, his illegitimate son Ludwig Fischer (now ten years old) joined the Hegel household in April 1817, having spent time in an orphanage after the death of his mother Christiana Burkhardt. In 1817, Hegel published The Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline as
3843-544: A rarity and he was typically appointed by the town council and normally from the town's notables. The Burgomaster often came into conflict with the Schultheiss as the former upheld the interests of the town council and the latter of the lord. His chief duties were the accounting of taxes, fines and other town incomes and to present an annual accounting ( Gemeinderechnung ) before the junior bailiff, whom he assisted in daily local administration. The number of Burgomasters throughout
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#17328482201384026-504: A ruler's wealth and sophistication and the perceptible increase in instrumental specialization in the Hofkapelle (a phenomenon also present at larger German courts), which may have been effected by the employment of foreign musicians. This process was brought about by the formalization of service at the Ducal family's country estates. By 1715, this began to cause financial hardship in Stuttgart, as
4209-460: A seven-member regency would rule the duchy for a period of six years consisting of the Landhofmeister , the Chancellor, a prelate, two nobles, and two burghers, with an eighth regent to be named by the emperor. Ulrich himself was to be dependent on this regency for counsel, and he no longer had control of the duchy, a proposition he was not in agreement with. Ulrich charged many leading members of
4392-471: A single kettledrummer . Two of those Kapellmeister s, Theodor Schwartzkopf and Johann Georg Christian Störl, Schwartzkopf's former pupil. These two men had a falling out and Störl attempted to have Schwartzkopf and his family ejected from the Kapellhaus , claiming that his residence was unsuitable for the practice of opera. In truth, the small Old Castle was already too small for the Duke's musical retinue, as
4575-496: A sudden end with the War of Spanish Succession and it would have an indelible impact on music at the court in later years. While very little documentation of the musical activity of the first decade of the 18th century, we know that by 1715, the membership of the duchy's Hofkapelle was three concertmasters ( German : Kapellmeister ), 22 instrumentalists, 11 vocalists, and two choirboys ( German : Kapellknaben ) as well as an additional complement of seven trumpeters and
4758-639: A summary of his philosophy for students attending his lectures at Heidelberg. It is also while in Heidelberg that Hegel first lectured on the philosophy of art. In 1818, Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy at the University of Berlin, which had remained vacant since Johann Gottlieb Fichte 's death in 1814. Here, Hegel published his Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821). Hegel devoted himself primarily to delivering lectures; his lectures on
4941-509: Is Hegel's attempt to meet this foundational demand. As he puts it, " logic coincides with metaphysics ." In the words of scholar Glenn Alexander Magee, the logic provides "an account of pure categories or ideas which are timelessly true" and which make up "the formal structure of reality itself". It is important to see, however, that Hegel's metaphysical program is not a return to the Leibnizian - Wolffian rationalism critiqued by Kant, which
5124-494: Is a criticism Hegel accepts. In particular, Hegel rejects any form of metaphysics as speculation about the transcendent. His procedure, an appropriation of Aristotle's concept of form , is fully immanent. More generally, Hegel agrees wholeheartedly with Kant's rejection of all forms of dogmatism and also agrees that any future metaphysics must pass the test of criticism. It is the assessment of scholar Stephen Houlgate that Hegel's method of immanent logical development and critique
5307-424: Is an ongoing project with respect to its historical content, which continues to change and develop. For instance, although Hegel regards "the basic structure" of the philosophy of nature as complete, he was "aware that science is not 'finished' and will continue to make new discoveries". Philosophy is, as Hegel puts it, " its own time comprehended in thoughts ." He expands upon this definition: A further word on
5490-422: Is embarking upon nothing less than a transcendental deduction of metaphysics." In the course of its dialectic, the Phenomenology purports to demonstrate that – because consciousness always includes self-consciousness – there are no 'given' objects of direct awareness not already mediated by thought. Further analysis of the structure of self-consciousness reveals that both the social and conceptual stability of
5673-593: Is historically unique. Philosopher Béatrice Longuenesse holds that this project may be understood, on analogy to Kant, as "inseparably a metaphysical and a transcendental deduction of the categories of metaphysics." This approach insists, and claims to demonstrate, that the insights of logic cannot be judged by standards external to thought itself, that is, that "thought... is not the mirror of nature." Yet, she argues, this does not imply that these standards are arbitrary or subjective. Hegel's translator and scholar of German idealism George di Giovanni likewise interprets
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5856-408: Is neither a Platonist who believes in abstract logical entities, nor a nominalist according to whom the particular is first in the orders of explanation and being alike. Rather, Hegel is a holist . For Hegel, the universal is always first in the order of explanation even if what is naturally particular is first in the order of being. With respect to the system as a whole, that universal is supplied by
6039-656: Is not a psychological concept. When deployed with the definitive article ("the") and sometimes modified by the term "logical," Hegel is referring to the intelligible structure of reality as articulated in the Subjective Logic. (When used in the plural, however, Hegel's sense is much closer to the ordinary dictionary sense of the term. ) Hegel's inquiry into thought is concerned to systematize thought's own internal self-differentiation, that is, how pure concepts ( logical categories ) differ from one another in their various relations of implication and interdependence. For instance, in
6222-515: Is the final part of the Logic . It discusses the doctrine of "the Concept," which is concerned with reintegrating those categories of objectivity into a thoroughly idealistic account of reality. Simplifying greatly, Being describes its concepts just as they appear, Essence attempts to explain them with reference to other forces, and the Concept explains and unites them both in terms of an internal teleology. The categories of Being "pass over" from one to
6405-446: Is the product of an attempt to fuse ontology, epistemology, evaluation, etc., into a single set of concepts." The Logic accommodates within itself the necessity of the realm of natural-spiritual contingency , that which cannot be determined in advance: "To go further, it must abandon thinking altogether and let itself go, opening itself to that which is other than thought in pure receptivity." Simply put, logic realizes itself only in
6588-448: Is the self-concept of consciousness itself that is tested in the domain of experience, and where that concept is not adequate, self-consciousness "suffers this violence at its own hands, and brings to ruin its own restricted satisfaction." For, as Hegel points out, one cannot learn how to swim without getting into the water. By progressively testing its concept of knowledge in this way, by "making experience his standard of knowledge, Hegel
6771-414: Is to articulate what Hegel calls "the identity of identity and non-identity" of nature and spirit. Put another way, it aims to overcome subject-object dualism. This is to say that, among other things, Hegel's philosophical project endeavors to provide the metaphysical basis for an account of spirit that is continuous with, yet distinct from, the "merely" natural world – without thereby reducing either term to
6954-470: Is what our musicians do with the utmost diligence and punctuality; one can make music with two or three people, which is also [the number of musicians] a burgher can afford, but a most Serene Ruling Duke of Württemberg providing for His Most Princely Kapelle and Hofmusik (as I understand the setting and glory of his most princely house) must have more than eight musicians belonging to his musical establishment." Despite its small size and financial strain, Pez
7137-622: The Bamberger Zeitung [ de ] , which was a pro-French newspaper, Hegel extolled the virtues of Napoleon and often editorialized the Prussian accounts of the war. Being the editor of a local newspaper, Hegel also became an important person in Bamberg social life, often visiting with the local official Johann Heinrich Liebeskind [ de ] , and becoming involved in local gossip and pursued his passions for cards, fine eating, and
7320-581: The Centner ) on consumables such as meats, wine and grain. Again Ulrich refused to call a diet to discuss the tax, but successfully levied it through local and district officials. This particular tax was intensely unpopular, even more so than the first, as it was implemented by the officials who had dodged the first tax, drove the prices of their food up and, to the chagrin of the lower classes, Ulrich and his government sought to have Roman law officially accepted into Württemberg's legal system. The tax, combined with
7503-664: The Life of Jesus and a book-length manuscript titled "The Positivity of the Christian Religion." His relations with his employers becoming strained, Hegel accepted an offer mediated by Hölderlin to take up a similar position with a wine merchant's family in Frankfurt in 1797. There, Hölderlin exerted an important influence on Hegel's thought. In Berne, Hegel's writings had been sharply critical of orthodox Christianity, but in Frankfurt, under
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7686-583: The Duchy of Württemberg in the Holy Roman Empire (now southwestern Germany). Christened Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father, Georg Ludwig Hegel (1733–1799), was secretary to the revenue office at the court of Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg . Hegel's mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa Hegel, née Fromm (1741–1783), was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at
7869-709: The Ehrbarkeit , and of them killed brothers Conrad and Sebastion Breuning, Conrad Vaut, the bailiff of Cannstatt , and Hans Stickel, the Burgomaster of Stuttgart. After the executions of the Breuning brothers, Maximilian attempted to call another diet to enforce the Treaty of Blaubeuren, but it was here that he realized the fatal flaw of the treaty: it did not involve the Estates and, thanks in part to Maximilian's advanced age, they had neither
8052-482: The Encyclopedia (second edition, 1827; third, 1830). In his political philosophy, he criticized Karl Ludwig von Haller 's reactionary work, which claimed that laws were not necessary. A number of other works on the philosophy of history , religion , aesthetics and the history of philosophy were compiled from the lecture notes of his students and published posthumously. Hegel was appointed University Rector of
8235-492: The Logic as (drawing upon, yet also in opposition to, Kant ) immanently transcendental ; its categories, according to Hegel, are built into life itself , and define what it is to be "an object in general." Books one and two of the Logic are the doctrines of "Being" and "Essence." Together they comprise the Objective Logic, which is largely occupied with overcoming the assumptions of traditional metaphysics. Book three
8418-434: The Phenomenology a Bildungsroman . It is not the consciousness under observation that learns from its experience. Only "we," the phenomenological observers, are in a position to profit from Hegel's logical reconstruction of the science of experience. The ensuing dialectic is long and hard. It is described by Hegel himself as a "path of despair," in which self-consciousness finds itself to be, over and again, in error. It
8601-438: The Phenomenology with respect to either of the systematic roles asserted by Hegel at the time of its publication. Hegel's philosophical system is divided into three parts: the science of logic , the philosophy of nature , and the philosophy of spirit (the latter two of which together constitute the real philosophy ). This structure is adopted from Proclus 's Neoplatonic triad of " 'remaining-procession-return' and from
8784-510: The Swabian League occupation was to set Württemberg's government in order. One of the most crucial steps to achieve this was to settle the Duchy's enormous 1.1 million gulden debt, and few wanted to help finance this. The knights, who were at this time most able to assist, did not want to as they felt that they did not constitute an estate of the duchy and were thus without obligation to it. Since
8967-502: The Swabian League . The Estates would continue to exercise their right to approve taxation to the duchy's frequent wars, a right that would be extremely tested during Ulrich's reign. Despite its urbanization, the duchy's economy was very agricultural, its most important product being wine. The peasantry harvested such grains as rye , barley , hay , and oats . Other products, wool , wood , cloth , linen , and glass and metal wares, followed in importance. Frequent trading partners were
9150-451: The Treaty of Tübingen , the most significant piece of legislation of Ulrich's reign, at the Diet on 8 July 1514. The Estates agreed to pay Ulrich 920,000 florins over the next decade to annul his debts in exchange for requiring the consent of the Estates prior to any declaration of war, the prosecution of criminals to be instigated only with a regular legal procedure, and the right all citizens of
9333-587: The University of Tübingen , where he had as roommates the poet and philosopher Friedrich Hölderlin and the future philosopher Friedrich Schelling . Sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each other's ideas. (It is mostly likely that Hegel attended the Stift because it was state-funded, for he had "a profound distaste for
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#17328482201389516-450: The essentialities of the things ." As Michael Wolff explains, Hegel's logic is a continuation of Kant's distinctive logical program. Its occasional engagement with the familiar Aristotelian conception of logic is only incidental to Hegel's project. Twentieth-century developments by such logicians as Frege and Russell likewise remain logics of formal validity and so are likewise irrelevant to Hegel's project, which aspires to provide
9699-571: The history of music in the West: the emergence of the orchestra , importance of chamber music and the growing number of Italian composers and musicians employed at the courts of German princes in the 18th century. Although the duchy was recognized by Peter H. Wilson as "one of the weaker middle ranking territories within the Empire," the Dukes went to great - and expensive - lengths by the ducal court to be ahead of
9882-500: The inaugural dissertation De Orbitis Planetarum , in which he briefly criticized mathematical arguments that assert that there must exist a planet between Mars and Jupiter . Later in the year, Hegel's essay The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy was completed. He lectured on "Logic and Metaphysics" and gave lectures with Schelling on an "Introduction to the Idea and Limits of True Philosophy" and facilitated
10065-424: The "fourteen great monastic trusts," and the Duke or the Estates could spend this money on the duchy's defense or on other projects. While he supervised this revenue, his clerks recorded it account books called Kirchenkastenrechungen . Of the positions only held by nobility, most were created in the 15th century and required little or no education, paid much more than burgher, and often involved constant contact to
10248-622: The 15th century, the membership of the council and court were, by the end of the 16th century, made up completely by the town's notables, people like rich artisans, merchants, and local guild members. One of the leading officials in the local government was a kind of village mayor called the Schultheiss . The origins of this position date back to the 13th century, the first recorded instances being in Rottweil in 1222 and in Tübingen in 1247. In that time,
10431-409: The Chancellor, by now struggling with his workload, and to substitute for the Chancellor in his absence, and to serve as the secretary for sessions of the privy council ( Geheimer Rat ). More than any other official in the central government, the chamber secretary, Kammersekretär , charged with the organizing the Duke's schedule, writing Ducal correspondence, and processing documents, worked solely for
10614-496: The Christian Trinity." Although evident in draft writings dating back as early as 1805, the system was not completed in published form until the 1817 Encyclopedia (1st ed.). Frederick C. Beiser argues that the position of the logic with respect to the real philosophy is best understood in terms of Hegel's appropriation of Aristotle's distinction between "the order of explanation" and "the order of being." To Beiser, Hegel
10797-549: The County of Löwenstein-Wertheim and the districts of Weinsberg , Neuenstadt am Kocher , and Möckmühl from the Palatinate as well as Heidenheim an der Brenz and the abbeys of Königsbronn , Anhausen , and Herbrechtingen . Ulrich's ability to rule, on the other hand, was less reliable. The first crisis he faced was financial: since the beginning of his reign to 1514, he had racked up a debt of more than 600,000 florins in addition to
10980-402: The Duke or other nobles. Originally, the Württemberg court had a Hofmeister , but this office was broken into the offices of territorial governor, Landhofmeister , and the court steward, Haushofmeister . The most powerful of the nobles in court traditionally was the territorial governor, Landhofmeister , who served as the Duke's foremost adviser and controlled the chancery. With the creation of
11163-455: The Duke's advisers were arrested or fled, Eberhard II himself was banished to Lindenfels Castle and granted an annuity of 6000 florins until his death in 1504. The one accomplishment of Eberhard II's reign was the establishment of the Hofkapelle for the performance of religious music, and this system of music patronage would remain uninterrupted until the Thirty Years' War . Ulrich, of
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#173284822013811346-510: The Duke, but he became even more powerful during the Habsburg occupation of the duchy, as three were appointed to set the duchy's finances in order. However, this title too became increasingly honorary; by the 1570s, there were long periods wherein there were no Kammermeister as the Kammersekretär had largely taken over his responsibilities. The final noble-held office in the central government
11529-465: The Duke, increasingly short on cash because of the war and the construction of Ludwigsburg Palace , issued a massive retrenchment that dramatically shrank the Hofkapelle . This strain would still be felt in 1714, and Pez commented: "...four hours of Tafelmusik , two to three and a half hours of chamber music, Tafelmusik once again, and from time to time, a ball as well, that [is a workload] eight musicians could not manage without alternation, which
11712-462: The Duke. This job was also always held by a burgher, as he had to have clerical expertise, but almost never had a university education. At first, the Vice Chancellor held no political power, but then Duke Christoph enlarged the role of the Kammersekretär by allowing him to advise on policies concerning the chancery, church council , and even to oversee the treasury, a right no other official but
11895-575: The Emperor. This entire event, the metaphorical last straw of Ulrich's reign, was in complete violation of the Treaty of Tübingen. It angered the other Free Cities, most of whom were in the Swabian League , from which Württemberg had been expelled in February 1512 against the wishes of Maximilian I. They prepared for war while Ulrich coerced 80,000 florins from the Estates and received 10,000 crowns from Francis I of France in February 1519 to fund his war and repay
12078-418: The Estates but were rebuked, despite Ulrich's now widespread unpopularity out of loyalty to him and a lack of influence in Württemberg on Sabina's part. The Bavarians resorted to attacking the duchy, causing Maximilian I to intervene and call a diet in Stuttgart on 18 September 1515 to limit Ulrich's power and to create a balanced system of government. This resulted in the Treaty of Blaubeuren, which mandated that
12261-661: The Estates helped organize it like its counterpart in Austria , which was separate from the Chancery and was called the Kammer and was operated by three treasurers. This control over the treasury and state expenditure would be the most important reform of the Habsburg occupation. The government of the Duchy of Württemberg was one composed of several hundred people. One group, called the "Notables," or Ehrbarkeit , made up of powerful local families,
12444-532: The Estates often to consent to new taxation and to raise troops for Austria during the War with the Turks . Unfortunately for the Habsburgs , the tenures of the Statthalter tended to be short. Despite this, their office would continue into the second reign of Duke Ulrich and would become especially important in the regency of Duke Ludwig. Beneath the councilors were the secretaries , clerks , and accountants who ran
12627-482: The Estates, as they authored a government based on collegiate principle, with four nobles acting as regents and two prelates as advisers. The Estates voiced the interests of the towns to the regency, but during the Swabian War this regency became opposed to the wishes of the local burghers, among whom the war was very unpopular. The Estates would continue to vote more men and money to the war, which would end in defeat for
12810-538: The German science journalist Gábor Paál the concept is congruent with the idea of the Third Culture. This philosophy -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a German philosopher and one of the most influential figures of German idealism and 19th-century philosophy . His influence extends across
12993-601: The Latin School two years later, he already knew the first declension , having been taught it by his mother. In 1776, he entered Stuttgart's Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium and during his adolescence read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary. Authors he read include the poet Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock and writers associated with the Enlightenment , such as Christian Garve and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing . In 1844, Hegel's first biographer, Karl Rosenkranz described
13176-612: The Romans and Holy Roman Emperor , declared the Count of Württemberg ( German : Graf von Württemberg ), Eberhard V "the Bearded," Duke of Württemberg ( German : Herzog von Württemberg ). This would be the last elevation to dukedom of the Medieval era. The House of Württemberg had reigned over the territory since the 11th century, and Duke Eberhard I himself ascended to the throne in 1450 at
13359-582: The Universal Coherence of the Sciences." In 1811, Hegel married Marie Helena Susanna von Tucher (1791–1855), the eldest daughter of a Senator. This period saw the publication of his second major work, the Science of Logic ( Wissenschaft der Logik ; 3 vols., 1812, 1813 and 1816), and the birth of two sons, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm (1813–1901) and Immanuel Thomas Christian (1814–1891). Having received offers of
13542-438: The University of Jena from much of the destruction of the surrounding city, few students returned after the battle and enrollment suffered, making Hegel's financial prospects even worse. Hegel traveled in the winter to Bamberg and stayed with Niethammer to oversee the proofs of the Phenomenology , which was being printed there. Although Hegel tried to obtain another professorship, even writing Goethe in an attempt to help secure
13725-495: The Urach line of the House of Württemberg , succeeded Eberhard II in 1498, in his minority. His regency was controlled by four nobles: Counts Wolfgang von Fürstenberg and Andreas von Waldburg, Hans von Reischach (the senior bailiff of Mömpelgard ), and Diepolt Spät (the senior bailiff of Tübingen ). Two other men, the abbots of Zwiefalten and Bebenhausen , also held advisory positions in
13908-486: The Württemberg court Ludwig Albrecht Fromm (1696–1758). She died of bilious fever when Hegel was thirteen. Hegel and his father also caught the disease but narrowly survived. Hegel had a sister, Chistiane Luise [ de ] (1773–1832); and a brother, Georg Ludwig (1776–1812), who perished as an officer during Napoleon's 1812 Russian campaign. At the age of three, Hegel went to the German School. When he entered
14091-509: The abstruse ideas of philosophers accessible to a wider public; his own felt need to engage critically with the central ideas of Kantianism would not come until 1800. Having received his theological certificate from the Tübingen Seminary, Hegel became Hofmeister (house tutor) to an aristocratic family in Berne (1793–1796). During this period, he composed the text which has become known as
14274-561: The age of 14, over a territory split in two states: the Württemberg ruled by the Württemberg-Stuttgart line, and the Württemberg of the Württemberg-Urach line. In 1482, he united the two parts of the future duchy, fusing the governments of both counties into what would be the basis of the duchy's central government. After Eberhard's death in 1496, he was succeeded by his cousin, Eberhard II , and he would make little change to
14457-455: The authority of the Schultheiss eroded. Despite this, he could still preside over the district court in the absence of the bailiff. Subordinate to the Schultheiss was the town's Burgomaster ( Burgermeister ), the only official to be elected by the citizenry and another office with its origins in the 13th century (the first documented one in Rottweil in 1283). However, popular election was still
14640-455: The bureaucracy of the duchy and adhered to a strict discipline and worked long hours. These men held no political power of their own, but often, this was the starting place for burghers looking to climb the ladder. Secretaries and clerks ( Schreiber ) copied and filed important documents for the various branches of the government. The growth of the central government's bureaucracy also meant the number of clerks growing from 25 in 1520 to over 80 by
14823-478: The burghers that attended the Landtag of 1520, all of them belonged to the court and council of 44 towns, all of them Ehrbarkeit . The lack of resistance on their part to Ulrich's strong government shows that the Estates had neither a strong leader and popular support nor a permanent position in the duchy's constitution and could be easily coerced. The Estates became useful to the Duke for the payment of his debts and for
15006-399: The capital, Stuttgart . The supervision of the count's court income and grain and wine had become too great for the 15th century Hofmeister and cellarer, prompting the creation of the receipt department ( Zentralkasse ), staffed by the territorial clerk ( Landschreiber ) and ducal treasurer ( Kammermeister ). To complement this was the central financial office ( Landschreiberei ), in essence
15189-441: The central government of the duchy. By the end of the 17th century, the title of senior bailiff had become almost entirely honorary and only about 25 were employed by the duchy. The junior bailiff was a much more executive officer, being charged with law and order through the district courts, and he also supervised the district's finances and the levying of new taxes. If he was unable to rectify any given situation, he would refer it to
15372-512: The chamber master ( Kammermeister ) possessed. In the reign of Duke Ludwig , he would become one of the most influential officers in the central government, assuming the role of personal adviser and close friend to the Duke, rivaling only the territorial governor, Landhofmeister in influence on policy. Following the Reformation , new positions that worked during the Visitation were created. With
15555-413: The chancery in 1482, the same year as the reunification of the duchy (then county) and establishment of Stuttgart as capital, the Landhofmeister and the Chancellor worked closely together, and this association remained important until the Kammersekretär supplanted the chancellor in importance. The Haushofmeister , who once accompanied the Duke on hunting trips and managed the court income and servants,
15738-587: The chancery in Stuttgart, and the Chancellor ( Kanzler ) would decide the matter. This position, the link between local, district, and central government, was very common among officials who would later join the central government. Two more offices completed district government: the Cellarer ( Keller or Pfleger ) and the Forester ( Forstmeister or Waldvogt ), of whom there were never more than 12. The cellarer oversaw
15921-414: The chancery, because of the legal knowledge required. The growing influence of the chancery meant the growing influence of the Chancellor, normally the best educated of the Duke's councilors, typically holding a doctorate in canon and civil law as well as extensive administrative power. As one of the burgher elite, he was the link between the central government and local communities for settling disputes. If
16104-600: The church council director, or Kirchenratdirektor , who worked with the church council on Ducal policy in religious matters, helped with the appointing of local preachers and administrating of church lands, and supervised the monasteries. Supervision of the monasteries and nunneries was important to the duchy, as the Reformation made their exorbitant spending no longer acceptable, though they were still allowed to exist in Lutheran Württemberg. The government placed levies on
16287-457: The citizenry, who resented the increasing taxes and restrictions placed on the forest's use. The primary power in local government were the town council and court ( Rat und Gericht ). The council handled the town's daily affairs while the court exercised civil jurisdiction in the town and jurisdiction of non-capital criminal affairs for the entire district. Though the bailiff was originally charged with appointing members of either organization in
16470-402: The city. On the day before the battle, Napoleon entered the city of Jena. Hegel recounted his impressions in a letter to his friend Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer : I saw the Emperor – this world-soul [ Weltseele ] – riding out of the city on reconnaissance. It is indeed a wonderful sensation to see such an individual, who, concentrated here at a single point, astride a horse, reaches out over
16653-513: The classics than to any thing modern." During this early period of his life "the Greeks – especially Plato – came first." Although he later elevated Aristotle above Plato, Hegel never abandoned his love of ancient philosophy, the imprint of which is everywhere in his thought. Hegel's concern with various forms of cultural unity (Judaic, Greek, medieval, and modern) during this early period would remain with him throughout his career. In this way, he
16836-462: The collection and stockpiling of the district's grain and wine, a job previously managed by the bailiff until the creation of the cellarer (this duty would sometime be performed by another chief administrative officer called the Schultheiss ). The forester, a position created around 1410, was in charge of the forests in his district, enforcing the laws governing the forest that covered such things as logging and hunting. Often, he came into conflict with
17019-486: The court and the number of court musicians who could pay more than one instrument, but also dramatically shrank the importance of the Kapellknaben to the point where only two were employed by the court. This growth happened in spite of the ongoing War of the Spanish Succession and even Villars 's invasion of the duchy in 1707 (which caused the ducal family to temporarily flee to Switzerland ) finally ended in 1709 when
17202-491: The court chapel as well as the group that played within it, was founded by Duke Eberhard II during his short reign of the Duchy of Württemberg. The rules of the Baroque dukes, Eberhard Louis , Charles Alexander , and Charles Eugene , were an unstable period in the musical scene in the duchy based at the palaces of Ludwigsburg and Stuttgart (much like the Dukes that patronized those arts) that illuminates three central themes in
17385-423: The cultural curve. The result, in the final years of the 17th century, was an increasing awareness and then desire for French style and fashion, resulting in the employment of French musicians, adoption of new Baroque woodwinds , putting on of large-scale French-style ballets de cour called Singballete and the institution of a Lullian string band that paved the way for appearance of the orchestra at court. Even in
17568-453: The debt of 300,000 florins he inherited, amounting to almost one million florins. Ulrich attempted to assuage this with a 6% wealth tax (1 pfennig on 1 gulden ), which was met with fierce resistance by his subjects, particularly the Ehrbarkeit , who had the most to lose. Ulrich refused to call a diet to discuss this tax, but he did not press it and repealed it. Following this failure, Ulrich next tried an indirect tax (3 schilling heller on
17751-408: The declaration of the war, and they provided the duchy's leading inhabitants political power and a forum to debate in. The Treaty of Esslingen in 1492, which stated that 12 members of the Estates could assume rule in times of incompetence, became the basis for following compromises between the Duke and the Estates throughout the 16th centuries. The regency of Duke Ulrich was a time of transition for
17934-611: The definitive modern articulation of the divisions that must be overcome. This led to his engagement with the philosophical programs of Fichte and Schelling , as well as his attention to Spinoza and the Pantheism controversy . The influence of Johann Gottfried von Herder , however, would lead Hegel to a qualified rejection of the universality claimed by the Kantian program in favor of a more culturally, linguistically, and historically informed account of reason. The Phenomenology of Spirit
18117-462: The details, the basic strategy by which it attempts to make good on its introductory claim is not difficult to state. Beginning with only the most basic "certainties of consciousness itself," "the most immediate of which is the certainty that I am conscious of this object, here and now ," Hegel aims to show that these "certainties of natural consciousness" have as their consequence the standpoint of speculative logic. This does not, however, make
18300-478: The domain of nature and spirit, in which it attains its "verification." Hence the conclusion of the Science of Logic with "the idea freely discharging [entläßt] itself" into "objectivity and external life" – and, so too, the systematic transition to the Realphilosophie . In contrast to the first, logical part of Hegel's system, the second, real-philosophical part – the philosophy of nature and of spirit –
18483-467: The duchy at will, called the Freisitz , provided they met certain criteria. While the relationship between the Duke and the Estates seemed to be cemented, the dukes did not always abide by the Treaty, and the knights and prelates, who appeared at no point or at one point in the creation of the treaty respectively, had little no involvement in it. Ironically, the treaty, which would not be fully implemented for
18666-420: The duchy in comparison to other German states was that burghers held positions in the duchy's central government alongside nobility, most of them holding an extensive university education, and were employed in an ever-growing number for the administrative needs of the duchy. Despite the lower pay and prestige they enjoyed by comparison to nobility, burghers would remain their own distinct class. The best example of
18849-436: The duchy was wildly inconsistent, as each town's constitution mandated how many Burgomasters the town could have and how long they served (most terms ranged from one year to a decade). In some instances, no Burgomasters were present in town and thus they only had a Schultheiss . The final office in local government was the town clerk ( Stadtschreiber ), who wrote up important documents for the council and would sometimes supervise
19032-482: The duchy's neighbors, mostly including the south western Imperial cities like Esslingen am Neckar and Reutlingen , and the Swiss Confederation . The cities of Basel and Solothurn would also regularly extended loans to the dukes of Württemberg. Though it had no central business hub like Ulm or Strasbourg , the duchy was a breadbasket for its neighbors. The Württemberg Hofkapelle , a term both describing
19215-667: The east. The very southeastern part of the duchy, on the other side of the Swabian Alb, is the Danube river basin. The Duchy of Württemberg was over 8,000 square kilometres (3,100 sq mi) of pastures, forests, and rivers. Politically, it was a patchwork of 350 smaller territories governed by many different secular and ecclesiastical landlords. As early as the 14th century, it had dissolved into many districts (called Ämter or Vogteien in German ), which originally were called " Steuergemeinde ,"
19398-451: The ecclesiastical bodies whom fronted the salaries of the Hofkapelle made known their disdain for paying a clearly secular facet of the court. To reduce this strain, a rotational system wherein a copyist and pianist were on call at all times with three groups consisting of a violinist, an oboist, and a string bass player alternating every four weeks. These musicians were simply referred to as "court and chamber musicians," weren't appointed at
19581-444: The end of the century. Accountants too grew in number, as the number of bookkeepers ( Buchhalter ), charged with maintaining a general ledger to recording and writing summaries of votes cast in privy council meetings, would be expanded greatly to fill the needs of the government. Other low-level positions included the keeper of the treasury ( Gewöhlbeverwater ), who curated the goods of the treasury vault such as government archives, and
19764-601: The entire range of contemporary philosophical topics, from metaphysical issues in epistemology and ontology , to political philosophy , the philosophy of history , philosophy of art , philosophy of religion , and the history of philosophy . Born in 1770 in Stuttgart , Holy Roman Empire, during the transitional period between the Enlightenment and the Romantic movement in the Germanic regions of Europe, Hegel lived through and
19947-418: The essay "Fragments on Religion and Love." In 1799, he wrote another essay titled "The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate", unpublished during his lifetime. In 1801, Hegel came to Jena at the encouragement of Schelling, who held the position of Extraordinary Professor at the University of Jena . Hegel secured a position at the University of Jena as a Privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer) after submitting
20130-485: The experiential world depend upon networks of reciprocal recognition. Failures of recognition, then, demand reflection upon the past as a way "to understand what is required of us at the present." For Hegel, this ultimately involves rethinking an interpretation of "religion as the collective reflection of the modern community on what ultimately counts for it." He contends, finally, that this "historically, socially construed philosophical account of that whole process" elucidates
20313-419: The face of periodic French aggression in the 18th century, Duke Eberhard Louis, educated with French style and mannerisms, strove to make his court a haven for French culture . At the turn of the 18th century, Württemberg's musical interests, like many other European states, began turning to Italy , which can be seen in the productions of Johann Sigismund Kusser from 1698 to 1702. Musical funding would come to
20496-486: The forests of Böblingen in May 1515. Ulrich had taken a romantic interest in von Hutten's wife and, according to a later declaration the Imperial Diet of Augsburg on 19 August 1518, had become hostile towards him after Hans' marriage to Ursula von Hutten. Ursula was the daughter of Thumb von Neuburg, the marshal and one of the most influential men in the ducal court, and Hans von Hutten was the cousin of Ulrich von Hutten,
20679-418: The genesis of a distinctly "modern" standpoint. Another way of putting this is to say that the Phenomenology takes up Kant's philosophical project of investigating the capacities and limits of reason. Under the influence of Herder, however, Hegel proceeds historically, instead of altogether a priori. Yet, although proceeding historically, Hegel resists the relativistic consequences of Herder's own thought. In
20862-423: The government treasury that received the taxes collected across the duchy. The Ehrbarkeit held a variety of positions in local government as well as district government, which relied on a network of the duchy's market towns, establishing a link between the town and the countryside. The most powerful official in a district was the bailiff ( Vogt ), who governed and supervised the functions of urban government in
21045-474: The government's structure. Despite having earlier been the count from 1480 to 1482, he proved to be administratively incompetent, and his attempt to begin a war against Bavaria prompted the Estates to request Maximilian I to call a diet in March 1498 to remove Eberhard II. The Emperor then made the unprecedented decision to side with the Estates and thus deprived Duke Eberhard II of his principality in May 1498. While
21228-408: The help of the Ducal court and reformers Johannes Brenz , Ambrosius Blarer , and Erhard Schnepf , a powerful new, centralized ecclesiastical cabinet formed to assure the Duke's will in religious matters were felt throughout the duchy via a strict system of visitation to all of the duchy's districts. The creation of the church council, Kirchenrat , in 1553 resulted in a position only held by burghers:
21411-432: The hiring of violinist and virtuoso Giuseppe Antonio Brescianello as "director of chamber music" about a month after Pez's death. By the end of 1717, the concept of an orchestra as an institution began to solidify at the court. The University of Tübingen was established by the ruling dynasty in 1477. In the 16th century, Württemberg became one of three competing southwest Imperial states vying for greater status in
21594-436: The human reality they reflect." In other words, it is not enough to consider propositions, or even the content of consciousness; "it is worthwhile to ask in every instance what kind of spirit would entertain such propositions, hold such views, and have such a consciousness. Every outlook in other words, is to be studied not merely as an academic possibility but as an existential reality." The Phenomenology of Spirit shows that
21777-418: The ideal appears opposite the real and reconstructs this real world, which it has grasped in its substance, in the shape of an intellectual realm. When philosophy paints its gray in gray, a shape of life has grown old, and it cannot be rejuvenated, but only recognized, by the gray in gray of philosophy; the owl of Minerva begins its flight only with the onset of dusk. Duchy of W%C3%BCrttemberg Much of
21960-413: The influence of early Romanticism, he underwent a sort of reversal, exploring, in particular, the mystical experience of love as the true essence of religion. Also in 1797, the unpublished and unsigned manuscript of " The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism " was written. It was written in Hegel's hand, but may have been authored by Hegel, Schelling, or Hölderlin. While in Frankfurt, Hegel composed
22143-438: The interdependence of logic, nature , and spirit in his later Encyclopedia . He asserts that the Logic at once preserves and overcomes the dualisms of the material and the mental – that is, it accounts for both the continuity and difference marking the domains of nature and culture – as a metaphysically necessary and coherent "identity of identity and non-identity". Hegel was born on 27 August 1770 in Stuttgart , capital of
22326-466: The knights refused to pay and the Ehrbarkeit and lay citizenry had not the funds to pay, the League sold the duchy to the new Holy Roman Emperor , Charles V , on 6 February 1520, for 220,000 florins, with the blessing of the Estates. The sale was on the conditions that League pay the debts incurred under Ulrich and defend the duchy from any future attacks made by Ulrich. Charles V may have had some motives in
22509-406: The laws that governed it, and this would be tested by the chancery in Stuttgart whenever the clerk visited the capital. As before, the duchy's notables had a powerful presence in the central government but burghers, in particular, came to fill many important offices by either university education, clerical expertise, or administrative experience in district and local government. Burgher or noble,
22692-453: The leading burgher councilors in the central government was the Chancellor ( Kanzler ), a position again traceable to the 13th century, when monks worked on documents for the court. The duchy's first Chancellor was a prelate who was given the position by Count Eberhard V in 1481. However, after the County 's elevation to a duchy, this position would only be held by burghers, like most of the jobs in
22875-483: The lecture hall, not as a substitute for its proper, book-length exposition. Hegel presents logic as a presuppositionless science that investigates the most fundamental thought-determinations [ Denkbestimmungen ], or categories , and so constitutes the basis of philosophy. In putting something into question, one already presupposes logic; in this regard, it is the only field of inquiry that must constantly reflect upon its own mode of functioning. The Science of Logic
23058-469: The length of the text itself. The fourth chapter of the Phenomenology includes Hegel's first presentation of the lord-bondsman dialectic , the section of the book that has been most influential in general culture. What is at stake in the conflict Hegel presents is the practical (not theoretical) recognition or acknowledgement [ Anerkennung , anerkennen ] of the universality – i.e., personhood, humanity – of each of two opposed self-consciousnesses. What
23241-508: The local Bamberg beer. However, Hegel bore contempt for what he saw as "old Bavaria", frequently referring to it as "Barbaria" and dreaded that "hometowns" like Bamberg would lose their autonomy under new the Bavarian state. After being investigated in September 1808 by the Bavarian state for potentially violating security measures by publishing French troop movements, Hegel wrote to Niethammer, now
23424-416: The logic. Michael J. Inwood states, "The logical idea is non-temporal and therefore does not exist at any time apart from its manifestations." To ask "when" it divides into nature and spirit is analogous to asking "when" 12 divides into 5 and 7. The question does not have an answer because it is predicated upon a fundamental misunderstanding of its terms. The task of the logic (at this high systemic level)
23607-506: The longest and most tumultuous periods in the history of the region. The young duke at first made little change to the government, allowing his councilors to decide on policy while he made his greatest marks in the duchy through the expansion of the realm, usually through war. With the aid of Duke Albert IV of Bavaria and Maximilian I, Ulrich invaded the Electoral Palatinate with an army of 20,000 soldiers, obtaining Maulbronn Abbey ,
23790-442: The many councilors in the central government had tremendous influence, even if that influence and thus the balance of power in the duchy's administration, was subject to the whim of the ruling duke. However, they were not entirely dependent on the duke, as much of the actual governing was out of his hands, and the geographical location and political instability of the duchy contributed greatly to its unique political development. One of
23973-421: The masculinity of the term) who would receive music training with the expectation that they would become permanent members of the Württemberg establishment with an equal salary to the choirboys. It is also likely that female vocalists formed part of a French comödianten from 1713 to 1716 in a nod to the large-scale theatrical performances of the early days that the Duke called off and never returned to because of
24156-554: The message supervisor ( Botenmeister ), who managed the couriers of the duchy. The Estates ( Landschaft ), the largest political body in the duchy, were an entity that had existed even before the founding of the duchy (The first assembly of the Estates, called a Landtag , occurred in Leonberg in 1457 when Count Ulrich V summoned the notables of the towns to counterbalance the attending knights ( Ritterschaft )), and it consisted of representatives from several different estates ( Stände ):
24339-480: The moderate Girondin faction and never lost his commitment to the principles of 1789, which he expressed by drinking a toast to the storming of the Bastille every fourteenth of July. Schelling and Hölderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on Kantian philosophy , from which Hegel remained aloof. Hegel, at this time, envisaged his future as that of a Popularphilosoph (a "man of letters") who serves to make
24522-414: The name of the duke from the district seat ( Amtstadt ). This position first appeared around 1425, but it took around seventy years for the functions of the bailiff to be fully established. By the end of the 15th century, this office had split into senior bailiff ( Obervogt ), typically a nobleman, and junior bailiff ( Untervogt ), who would preside in the absence of the senior bailiff and was usually himself
24705-452: The new semester began in October, Hegel returned to Berlin in the mistaken belief that the epidemic had largely subsided. By 14 November, Hegel was dead. The physicians pronounced the cause of death as cholera, but it is likely he died from another gastrointestinal disease. His last words are said to have been, "There was only one man who ever understood me, and even he didn't understand me." He
24888-473: The next as denoting thought-determinations only extrinsically connected to one another. The categories of Essence reciprocally "shine" into one another. Finally, in the Concept, thought has shown itself to be fully self-referential, and so its categories organically "develop" from one to the next. It is clear then, that in Hegel's technical sense of the term, the concept ( Begriff , sometimes also rendered "notion," capitalized by some translators but not others )
25071-527: The nobility were to be empowered. This government in Charles V's absence was headed by a new position, the Statthalter , a nobleman who represented the Emperor in all matters, and by the Chancellor. This was Gregor Lamparter (one of the Ehrbarkeit ), who had been Chancellor and was arrested by Ulrich but escaped death. Charles V turned the duchy over to Archduke Ferdinand I on 31 March 1522. Ferdinand first called
25254-399: The opening dialectic of the Logic , Hegel claims to display that the thought of " being, pure being – without further determination" is indistinguishable from the concept of nothing , and that, in this "passing back and forth" of being and nothing, " each immediately vanishes in its opposite. " This movement is neither one concept nor the other, but the category of becoming . There is not
25437-533: The other. Furthermore, the final sections of Hegel's Encyclopedia suggest that to give priority to any one of its three parts is to have an interpretation that is "one-sided," incomplete or otherwise inaccurate. As Hegel famously declares, "The true is the whole." Hegel's concept of logic differs greatly from that of the ordinary English sense of the term. This can be seen, for instance, in such metaphysical definitions of logic as "the science of things grasped in [the] thoughts that used to be taken to express
25620-528: The participants of a Diet were townsfolk, though the peasantry had almost no input. The Estates had no means of imposing their will, and were to a certain extent dependent on the Duke to be effective. At times they were able to convince the Duke into reform, such as with the Treaty of Tübingen in 1514. During times of minority or absence of the Duke, the Estates had a large decree of control over policy and government, which they effectively lost in times of majority. Duke Ulrich, for example, rarely called Diets. Of
25803-630: The peasantry makes clear their dissatisfaction, and the final result of this dissatisfaction and taxation was the Poor Conrad revolt, which began in Kernen im Remstal in the Schorndorf district, 30 km (19 mi) from Stuttgart, a wine-growing region particularly affected by economic downturn caused by poor harvests in recent years and high taxation. Despite Ulrich's repealing of the excise on meat, discontent continued to grow, forcing Ulrich to finally call
25986-416: The philosophy of fine art, the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of history, and the history of philosophy were published posthumously from students' notes. In spite of his notoriously terrible delivery, his fame spread and his lectures attracted students from all over Germany and beyond. Meanwhile, Hegel and his pupils, such as Leopold von Henning , Friedrich Wilhelm Carové , were harassed and put under
26169-456: The power wielded by the burghers in the duchy's government, however, was to be found in the Estates , who sought always to hold the duke to the terms of the Treaty of Tübingen , a piece of legislation that outlined the rights of the burghers and the duke's duties to them. The foundations of the government of the Duchy of Württemberg were laid even before the elevation of the County of Württemberg in 1495. The House of Württemberg had governed
26352-400: The prelates, nobles, and burgher officials. The prelates were the abbots of the fourteen monasteries of the duchy, who were generally present at the diets as Ducal appointees after the Reformation. Roughly 30 noblemen, usually ducal councilors or some other senior official, also regularly attended. Since the Estates were intended to be the representatives of the duchy's inhabitants, about 75% of
26535-442: The promotion of his philosophical adversary Jakob Friedrich Fries ahead of him. Hegel attempted to enlist the help of the poet and translator Johann Heinrich Voß to obtain a post at the renascent University of Heidelberg , but he failed. To his chagrin, Fries was, in the same year, made ordinary professor (salaried). The following February marked the birth of Hegel's illegitimate son, Georg Ludwig Friedrich Fischer (1807–1831), as
26718-529: The purchasing of the duchy based on plans of Maximilian I's in 1518 of "Austrian centralization" in Swabia with "an integrated judicial system." Charles V did not, however, ever rule the duchy himself, electing instead to proclaim the "freedom of the Estates of Württemberg " on 15 October 1520 and that Württemberg would pay him an annual levy of 22,000 florins, setting the tone of the Habsburgs' 14-year rule, during which
26901-408: The readers learn, but what the self-consciousnesses described do not yet realize, is that recognition can only be successful and actual as reciprocal or mutual. This is the case for the simple reason that the recognition of someone you do not recognize as properly human cannot count as genuine recognition. Hegel can also be seen here as criticizing the individualist worldview of people and society as
27084-438: The regency. While the regency would hear the wishes of the people through the Estates, they became opposed to the wishes of the local burghers during the very unpopular Swabian War , for which the Estates voted more soldiers and money. Maximilian I declared Ulrich I of age at 16, in the process violating the 1492 Treaty of Esslingen [ de ] that stipulated that he could only fully succeed at 20. Thus began one of
27267-551: The region and the Empire at large. Itself Lutheran , Württemberg sparred with the Roman Catholic Duchy of Lorraine and the Calvinist Electoral Palatinate . Württemberg found allies in north and east Germany because of its Lutheran faith. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Pietism became widespread throughout the duchy as a response to the perceived hedonism of Baroque society and attempt at
27450-427: The resources of ancient philosophy , particularly Aristotle . Hegel everywhere insists that reason and freedom are historical achievements, not natural givens. His dialectical -speculative procedure is grounded in the principle of immanence , that is, in assessing claims always according to their own internal criteria. Taking skepticism seriously, he contends that people cannot presume any truths that have not passed
27633-418: The rest of the 16th century, appeared to be more of a victory for Duke Ulrich, as he sought just to appease the Estates and to obtain the funds required to continue his rule, both of which he had accomplished, allowing him to ignore the treaty. Three events would come to be responsible for the demise of Duke Ulrich's first rule. The first of these would be the murder of his equerry , Hans Ritter von Hutten, in
27816-458: The result of an affair with Hegel's landlady Christiana Burkhardt née Fischer. With his finances drying up quickly, Hegel was under great pressure to deliver his book, the long-promised introduction to his philosophical system. Hegel was putting the finishing touches to it, The Phenomenology of Spirit , as Napoleon engaged Prussian troops on 14 October 1806 in the Battle of Jena on a plateau outside
27999-479: The search for an externally objective criterion of truth is a fool's errand. The constraints on knowledge are necessarily internal to spirit itself. Yet, although theories and self-conceptions may always be reevaluated, renegotiated, and revised, this is not a merely imaginative exercise. Claims to knowledge must always prove their own adequacy in real historical experience. Although Hegel seemed during his Berlin years to have abandoned The Phenomenology of Spirit , at
28182-419: The statute passed by the Estates in 1514 that denied scales and weights, further hurting merchants and farmers, the lack of say commoners had in their own government, and the restriction of the use of the forests, rivers and meadows around them caused much unrest. To pour salt into the wound, the commoners came to dread the increase in lawyers and officials, who brought new legal methods. A list of grievances from
28365-525: The study of orthodox theology" and never wanted to become a minister. ) All three greatly admired Hellenic civilization, and Hegel additionally steeped himself in Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Lessing during this time. They watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with shared enthusiasm. Although the violence of the 1793 Reign of Terror dampened Hegel's hopes, he continued to identify with
28548-460: The subject of issuing instructions on how the world ought to be: philosophy, at any rate, always comes too late to perform this function. As the thought of the world, it appears only at a time when actuality has gone through its formative process and attained its completed state [ sich fertig gemacht ]. This lesson of the concept is necessarily also apparent from history, namely that it is only when actuality [ Wirklichkeit ] has reached maturity that
28731-488: The surveillance of Prince Sayn-Wittgenstein , the interior minister of Prussia and his reactionary circles in the Prussian court. In the remainder of his career, he made two trips to Weimar , where he met with Goethe for the last time, and to Brussels , the Northern Netherlands , Leipzig, Vienna , Prague, and Paris. During the last ten years of his life, Hegel did not publish another book but thoroughly revised
28914-404: The taxation of the populace. The town clerk was the link between the local and central governments, as he had to, for example, write all requests to be sent to the Duke by the citizenry (these would also have to be approved by the junior bailiff), making him one of the most important people in local government. He would also be expected to have a specific knowledge of the territory of the duchy and
29097-432: The territory for centuries, but had split in half along the two branches of the family in 1442 by the Treaty of Nürtingen . When Count Eberhard V the Bearded united the two halves of the duchy in 1482, he merged the governments of the two into the basis of the central government. An important department of this government was the chancery ( Kanzlei ), which had existed in Württemberg since 1482 and found its headquarters in
29280-554: The territory of the Duchy of Württemberg lies in the valley of the Neckar river, from Tübingen to Heilbronn , with its capital and largest city, Stuttgart , in the center. The northern part of Württemberg is wide and open, with large rivers making for decent arable land. The southern part of Württemberg is mountainous and wooded, with the Black Forest to the west and the Swabian Alb to
29463-460: The test of experience; even the a priori categories of the Logic must attain their "verification" in the natural world and the historical accomplishments of humankind. Guided by the Delphic imperative to " know thyself ", Hegel presents free self-determination as the essence of humankind – a conclusion from his 1806–07 Phenomenology that he claims is further verified by the systematic account of
29646-442: The time of his unexpected death, he was in fact making plans to revise and republish it. As Hegel was no longer in need of money or credentials, H. S. Harris argues that "the only rational conclusion that can be drawn from his decision to republish the book… is that he still regarded the 'science of experience' as a valid project in itself" and one for which later system has no equivalent. There is, however, no scholarly consensus about
29829-465: The town's lord ( Stadtherr ) chose the Schultheiss from a pool of 30 to 50 men and he governed the town according to the lord's interests. When the interests of the Scultheiss came to share those of the town's elite rather than the lord's, he created the position of bailiff in order to maintain his interests in the community. These two officials would work together for a time, but during the 15th century,
30012-457: The tripartite structure of his system) also owes much to the hermetic tradition, in particular, the work of Jakob Böhme . The conviction that philosophy must take the form of a system Hegel owed, most particularly, to his Tübingen roommates, Schelling and Hölderlin. Hegel also read widely and was much influenced by Adam Smith and other theorists of the political economy . It was Kant's critical philosophy that provided what Hegel took as
30195-645: The university in October 1829, but his term ended in September 1830. Hegel was deeply disturbed by the riots for reform in Berlin in that year. In 1831 Frederick William III decorated him with the Order of the Red Eagle , 3rd Class for his service to the Prussian state. In August 1831, a cholera epidemic reached Berlin and Hegel left the city, taking up lodgings in Kreuzberg . Now in a weak state of health, Hegel seldom went out. As
30378-454: The various components of the participating Hofkapelle lodged in and around Ludwigsburg Palace . By the second decade of the 18th century, the Singballete and operas used to celebrate previous ducal birthdays had been replaced with smaller presentations. This coincided with the shift of opinion in the court as to what extent chamber music ( German : Cammer-Musique ) was able to portray
30561-420: The vast amounts of money lost in the stay of Johann Sigismund Kusser in Stuttgart, and Pez (according to his own word) was required to practice with and compose for this group for many hours. This group would perform in the celebrations of the Duke's hunting order, founded in 1702 and named after St. Hubert , that became one of the most important events in court life as the 18th century moved ahead, with Pez and
30744-483: The will nor the power to act against Ulrich. The final event that sealed the fate of Ulrich's first reign of the duchy came eight days after Maximilian I's death on 12 January 1519, when Duke Ulrich stormed the Imperial City of Reutlingen on the pretense of avenging the recent murder of the commander of the town's fort and his wife. He made it a possession of Württemberg, with its allegiance owed to Ulrich rather than
30927-441: The words of one scholar, "It is Hegel's insight that reason itself has a history, that what counts as reason is the result of a development. This is something that Kant never imagines and that Herder only glimpses." In praise of Hegel's accomplishment, Walter Kaufmann writes that the guiding conviction of the Phenomenology is that a philosopher should not "confine him or herself to views that have been held but penetrate these to
31110-530: The world and masters it. Hegel biographer Terry Pinkard notes that Hegel's comment to Niethammer "is all the more striking since he had already composed the crucial section of the Phenomenology in which he remarked that the Revolution had now officially passed to another land (Germany) that would complete 'in thought' what the Revolution had only partially accomplished in practice." Although Napoleon had spared
31293-617: The young Hegel's education there by saying that it "belonged entirely to the Enlightenment with respect to principle, and entirely to classical antiquity with respect to curriculum." His studies at the Gymnasium concluded with his graduation speech, "The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey." At the age of eighteen, Hegel entered the Tübinger Stift , a Protestant seminary attached to
31476-462: Was a position that would become merely honorary, and he would soon find himself relegated to tutoring of noble children and sourcing the food consumed by the court. This position was unique in that husband and wife could both serve as Haushofmeister and Haushofmesiterin , who would assist her husband and taught the female children of the nobility. A leading noble figure at the court was the Marshal , who
31659-414: Was also a typical product of early German romanticism . "Unity of life" was the phrase used by Hegel and his generation to express their concept of the highest good. It encompasses unity "with oneself, with others, and with nature. The main threat to such unity consists in division ( Entzweiung ) or alienation ( Entfremdung )." In this respect, Hegel was particularly taken with the phenomenon of love as
31842-612: Was buried on 16 November. In accordance with his wishes, Hegel was buried in the Dorotheenstadt cemetery next to Fichte and Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand Solger . Hegel's illegitimate son, Ludwig Fischer, had died shortly before while serving with the Dutch army in Batavia and the news of his death never reached his father. Early the following year, Hegel's sister Christiane committed suicide by drowning. Hegel's two remaining sons – Karl , who became
32025-587: Was in charge of instructing the Wittelsbach children in music. Emperor Charles VI released the entire musical ensemble of the Imperial fugitives by decree in May 1706, and Eberhard Louis hired Pez as Senior concert master ( German : Oberkapellmeister ) of the Württemberg Hofkapelle , above both Störl and Schwartzkopf. Pez expanded the size of the Hofkapelle , particularly the number of instruments used by
32208-519: Was influenced by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars . His fame rests chiefly upon The Phenomenology of Spirit , The Science of Logic , his teleological account of history, and his lectures at the University of Berlin on topics from his Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences . Throughout his work, Hegel strove to address and correct the problematic dualisms of modern philosophy, Kantian and otherwise, typically by drawing upon
32391-502: Was noted by the two Kapellmeister . While in Munich during the winter of 1705–06 following the defeat of Elector Maximilian II Emanuel and his brother, Joseph Clemens , Elector-archbishop of Cologne , after their defeat at defeat at Blenheim in 1704 and subsequent exile to France in 1706, he learned of the Catholic musician and composer Johann Christoph Pez , a Catholic , who now
32574-680: Was published in 1807. This is the first time that, at the age of thirty-six, Hegel lays out "his own distinctive approach" and adopts an "outlook that is recognizably 'Hegelian' to the philosophical problems of post-Kantian philosophy". Yet, the book was poorly understood even by Hegel's contemporaries and received mostly negative reviews. To this day, the Phenomenology is infamous for, among other things, its conceptual and allusive density, idiosyncratic terminology, and confusing transitions. Its most comprehensive commentary, scholar H. S. Harris 's two-volume Hegel's Ladder ( The Pilgrimage of Reason and The Odyssey of Spirit ), runs more than three times
32757-437: Was still very proud of the quality of his instrumentalists, however he worried about his vocalists, who were not numerous and contained many Catholic members who would at times not be present, exacerbating the problem. Württemberg, unlike other Lutheran German courts, found a semi-solution to a shortage of treble voices in the hiring of a succession of young, unmarried called Legr-Discantistinnen or Kapelleknaben (despite
32940-471: Was tasked with its defense as well as supervising the court servants ( Hofgesinde ). Although military experience was no longer considered a prerequisite by the reign of Duke Ludwig , it remained an important advisory position. The Kammermeister oversaw the Ducal treasury and was in this way distinct from the Landschreiber , who oversaw the general treasury. The Kammermeister was already a close adviser to
33123-399: Was that of the Statthalter , a kind of ad hoc substitute governor. There was typically a Statthalter only in times of regency or absence of the duchy's ruler, and he became particularly important during the period 1520–1534, when the occupying Habsburgs attempted to rule the Duchy in the absence of Emperors Charles V and Ferdinand . He maintained close ties with Austria , summoning
33306-457: Was the dominant force in the local administration of the duchy. The central government consisted primarily of a bureaucracy of these Ehrbarkeit from the regional towns that came to work and live in Stuttgart . Typically, these officials began in local or district government, and then retired to their home towns in their later years or when court was not in session, creating the "town and district" character of Württemberg's politics. An oddity of
33489-506: Was the flight of Ulrich's wife, Sabina of Bavaria , back to her family in November 1515 along with Dietrich Spät, one of Ulrich's advisers. Overnight she had unmade a match Emperor Maximilian I had arranged with her father, Duke Alphrecht. She had complained bitterly about the mistreatment she had experienced by Ulrich, of von Hutten's murder, and of Ulrich's refusal to pay off her debts. Her immediate family demanded immediate compensation and for Ulrich to be expelled, and to this end appealed to
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