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102-533: Ramsey Bay ( Manx : Baie Rhumsaa ) is a large bay and Marine Nature Reserve covering some 94 square kilometres off the northeastern coast of the Isle of Man . It runs for 18 kilometres from the Point of Ayre at the island's northern tip to Maughold Head . The port town of Ramsey , the island's second town, lies towards the south of the bay. The entire bay has had statutory legal protection as Ramsey Bay Marine Nature Reserve,

204-616: A Bachelorʼs degree in Liberal Arts. Kichwa is the variety of the Quechua language spoken in Ecuador and is one of the most widely spoken indigenous languages in South America. Despite this fact, Kichwa is a threatened language, mainly because of the expansion of Spanish in South America. One community of original Kichwa speakers, Lagunas, was one of the first indigenous communities to switch to

306-516: A Manx phrase is the norm. Manx is one of the three daughter languages of Old Irish (via Middle Irish ), the other two being Irish and Scottish Gaelic . It shares a number of developments in phonology, vocabulary and grammar with its sisters (in some cases only with certain dialects) and shows a number of unique changes. There are two attested historical dialects of Manx, Northern Manx and Southern Manx . A third dialect may have existed in-between, around Douglas. Manx and Scottish Gaelic share

408-437: A Manx-speaking community environment. Despite this, the language has never fallen completely out of use, with a minority having some knowledge of it as a heritage language , and it is still an important part of the island's culture and cultural heritage . Manx is often cited as a good example of language revitalization efforts; in 2015, around 1,800 people had varying levels of second-language conversational ability. Since

510-464: A century later it was considered to be so backwards to speak the language that there were stories of Manx speakers getting stones thrown at them in the towns." Following the decline in the use of Manx during the 19th century, Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh (The Manx Language Society) was founded in 1899. By the middle of the 20th century, only a few elderly native speakers remained (the last of them, Ned Maddrell , died on 27 December 1974), but by then

612-428: A division can exist between educated revitalizers, interested in historicity, and remaining speakers interested in locally authentic idiom (as has sometimes occurred with Irish ). Some have argued that structural compromise may, in fact, enhance the prospects of survival, as may have been the case with English in the post- Norman period . Other linguists have argued that when language revitalization borrows heavily from

714-661: A dozen languages from "elsewhere in Canada and around the globe", along with 17 dictionary apps. Similar to other indigenous languages, Tlingit is critically endangered. Fewer than 100 fluent Elders existed as of 2017. From 2013 to 2014, the language activist, author, and teacher, Sʔímlaʔxw Michele K. Johnson from the Syilx Nation, attempted to teach two hopeful learners of Tlingit in the Yukon. Her methods included textbook creation, sequenced immersion curriculum, and film assessment. The aim

816-530: A first language in Gaeltacht areas). Ó Béarra stated: "[to] follow the syntax and idiomatic conventions of English, [would be] producing what amounts to little more than English in Irish drag." With regard to the then-moribund Manx language , the scholar T. F. O'Rahilly stated, "When a language surrenders itself to foreign idiom, and when all its speakers become bilingual, the penalty is death." Neil McRae has stated that

918-738: A first language. Of course this came at the expense of local Italian languages, most of which are now endangered . Success was enjoyed in similar circumstances by High German , standard Czech , Castilian Spanish and other languages. The Coptic language began its decline when Arabic became the predominant language in Egypt. Pope Shenouda III established the Coptic Language Institute in December 1976 in Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Cairo for

1020-508: A language spoken by the people of the same name in Massachusetts, underwent a language revival project led by Jessie Little Doe Baird , a trained linguist. Members of the tribe use the extensive written records that exist in their language, including a translation of the Bible and legal documents, in order to learn and teach Wampanoag. The project has seen children speaking the language fluently for

1122-751: A little" Ainu. As of 2001, Ainu was not taught in any elementary or secondary schools in Japan, but was offered at numerous language centres and universities in Hokkaido, as well as at Tokyo's Chiba University . In China, the Manchu language is one of the most endangered languages, with speakers only in three small areas of Manchuria remaining. Some enthusiasts are trying to revive the language of their ancestors using available dictionaries and textbooks, and even occasional visits to Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County in Xinjiang , where

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1224-542: A little-documented Brythonic language (i.e. related to modern Welsh , Cornish and Breton ) may have been spoken on the Isle of Man before the arrival of Christian missionaries from Ireland in the early Middle Ages. However, there is little surviving evidence about the language spoken on the island at that time. The basis of the modern Manx language is Primitive Irish (like modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic). The island either lends its name to or takes its name from Manannán ,

1326-506: A marked resurgence on the island, especially Moirrey and Voirrey (Mary), Illiam ( William ), Orry (from the Manx king Godred Crovan of Norse origin), Breeshey/Breesha ( Bridget ), Aalish/Ealish ( Alice ), Juan ( Jack ), Ean (John), Joney (Joan), Fenella ( Fionnuala ), Pherick ( Patrick ) and Freya (from the Norse goddess ) remain popular. Manx

1428-432: A plan for language revitalization. One of these is provided by celebrated linguist Joshua Fishman . Fishman's model for reviving threatened (or sleeping) languages, or for making them sustainable, consists of an eight-stage process. Efforts should be concentrated on the earlier stages of restoration until they have been consolidated before proceeding to the later stages. The eight stages are: This model of language revival

1530-736: A range of different techniques or methods that speakers can use to try to revitalize a language, including techniques to revive extinct languages and maintain weak ones. The techniques he lists are often limited to the current vitality of the language. He claims that the immersion method cannot be used to revitalize an extinct or moribund language. In contrast, the master-apprentice method of one-on-one transmission on language proficiency can be used with moribund languages. Several other methods of revitalization, including those that rely on technology such as recordings or media, can be used for languages in any state of viability. David Crystal , in his book Language Death , proposes that language revitalization

1632-469: A renewed sense of ethnic identity. The revival of Manx was aided by the recording work done in the 20th century by researchers. Most notably, the Irish Folklore Commission was sent in with recording equipment in 1948 by Éamon de Valera . Also important in preserving the Manx language was work conducted by the late Brian Stowell, who is considered personally responsible for the current revival of

1734-423: A scholarly revival had begun and a few people had started teaching it in schools. The Manx Language Unit was formed in 1992, consisting of three members and headed by Manx Language Officer Brian Stowell , a language activist and fluent speaker, "which was put in charge of all aspects of Manx language teaching and accreditation in schools." This led to an increased interest in studying the Manx language and encouraged

1836-621: A strong renewal. This happened, for example, in the revival of Classical Latin in the Renaissance , and the revival of Sanskrit in the early centuries AD. An analogous phenomenon in contemporary Arabic -speaking areas is the expanded use of the literary language ( Modern Standard Arabic , a form of the Classical Arabic of the 6th century AD). This is taught to all educated speakers and is used in radio broadcasts, formal discussions, etc. In addition, literary languages have sometimes risen to

1938-406: A voluntary language. As a result of its loss as an official language and years of marginalization at the official level during and after American colonization, the use of Spanish amongst the overall populace decreased dramatically and became moribund, with the remaining native speakers left being mostly elderly people. The language has seen a gradual revival, however, due to official promotion under

2040-501: A wish to be aligned with the prestige of the language, rather than being genuinely indicative of the presence of thousands of L1 Sanskrit speakers in India. There has also been a rise of so-called "Sanskrit villages", but experts have cast doubt on the extent to which Sanskrit is really spoken in such villages. The Soyot language of the small-numbered Soyots in Buryatia , Russia , one of

2142-739: Is [t̪roᵇm] in the North but [t̪roː(ᵇ)m] in the South. This feature is also found in Cornish . Southern Manx tended to lose word-initial [ɡ] before [lʲ] , which was usually preserved in the North, e.g. glion "glen" and glioon "knee" are and [lʲɔᵈn] and [lʲuːᵈn] in the South but [ɡlʲɔᵈn] and [ɡlʲuːn] in the North. In modern times, the small size of the island and the improvement in communications precludes any regional dialect variations. Language revitalization Languages targeted for language revitalization include those whose use and prominence

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2244-503: Is severely limited . Sometimes various tactics of language revitalization can even be used to try to revive extinct languages . Though the goals of language revitalization vary greatly from case to case, they typically involve attempting to expand the number of speakers and use of a language, or trying to maintain the current level of use to protect the language from extinction or language death . Reasons for revitalization vary: they can include physical danger affecting those whose language

2346-464: Is dying, economic danger such as the exploitation of indigenous natural resources, political danger such as genocide, or cultural danger/assimilation. In recent times alone, it is estimated that more than 2000 languages have already become extinct. The UN estimates that more than half of the languages spoken today have fewer than 10,000 speakers and that a quarter have fewer than 1,000 speakers; and that, unless there are some efforts to maintain them, over

2448-515: Is essentially Spanish monolingualism. The feelings of the Lagunas people present a dichotomy with language use, as most of the Lagunas members speak Spanish exclusively and only know a few words in Kichwa. The prospects for Kichwa language revitalization are not promising, as parents depend on schooling for this purpose, which is not nearly as effective as continual language exposure in the home. Schooling in

2550-405: Is intended to direct efforts to where they are most effective and to avoid wasting energy trying to achieve the later stages of recovery when the earlier stages have not been achieved. For instance, it is probably wasteful to campaign for the use of a language on television or in government services if hardly any families are in the habit of using the language. Additionally, Tasaku Tsunoda describes

2652-400: Is known as pre-occlusion . In Southern Manx, however, there is also pre-occlusion of [d] before [l] and of [ɡ] before [ŋ] , as in [ʃuːᵈl] for shooyl "walking" and [lɔᶢŋ] for lhong "ship". These forms are generally pronounced without pre-occlusion in the North. Pre-occlusion of [b] before [m] , on the other hand, is more common in the North, as in trome "heavy", which

2754-493: Is largely based on an independent community-based school system, known generally as Gaelscoileanna . These schools teach entirely through Irish and their number is growing, with over thirty such schools in Dublin alone. They are an important element in the creation of a network of urban Irish speakers (known as Gaeilgeoirí), who tend to be young, well-educated and middle-class. It is now likely that this group has acquired critical mass,

2856-462: Is more likely to be successful if its speakers: In her book, Endangered Languages: An Introduction, Sarah Thomason notes the success of revival efforts for modern Hebrew and the relative success of revitalizing Maori in New Zealand (see Specific Examples below). One notable factor these two examples share is that the children were raised in fully immersive environments. In the case of Hebrew, it

2958-610: Is not officially recognised by any national or regional government, although its contribution to Manx culture and tradition is acknowledged by some governmental and non-governmental bodies. The Standing Orders of the House of Keys provide that: "The proceedings of the House shall be in English; but if a Member at any point pronounces a customary term or sentence in Manx Gaelic or any other language,

3060-614: Is provided by the Department of Education 's Manx Language Team which teach up to A Level standard. The Bunscoill Ghaelgagh , a primary school at St John's , has 67 children, as of September 2016, who receive nearly all of their education through the medium of the language. Children who have attended the school have the opportunity to receive some of their secondary education through the language at Queen Elizabeth II High School in Peel . The playgroup organisation Mooinjer Veggey , which operates

3162-520: Is that /a/ rather than /ə/ appears in unstressed syllables before /x/ ( ⟨agh⟩ in Manx), e.g. jeeragh "straight" [ˈdʒiːrax] (Irish díreach ), cooinaghtyn "to remember" [ˈkuːnʲaxt̪ən] (Scottish Gaelic cuimhneachd ). Like Southern and Western Irish and Northern Scottish Gaelic, but unlike the geographically closer varieties of Ulster Irish and Arran and Kintyre Gaelic, Manx shows vowel lengthening or diphthongisation before

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3264-510: Is the Ramsey Mooragh Shore Area of Special Scientific Interest , and Ramsey Harbour, along with the whole coast of the bay has been designated as an Area of Ecological Importance in the local area plan. As of 2019 a significant part of the reserve is included in a controversial proposal for a marina which would see South Beach infilled and a new harbour built in the bay. In July 1964 the original Radio Caroline ship sailed from

3366-673: Is the treatment of Middle Irish word-final unstressed [əð] (- ⟨(e)adh⟩ in Irish and Scottish Gaelic). In nouns (including verbal nouns ), this became [ə] in Manx, as it did in Southern Irish, e.g. caggey "war" [ˈkaːɣə] , moylley "to praise" [ˈmɔlə] (cf. Irish cogadh and moladh (Southern Irish) [ˈkɔɡə] and [ˈmˠɔl̪ˠə] ). In finite verb forms before full nouns (as opposed to pronouns) [əð] became [ax] in Manx, as in Southern Irish, e.g. voyllagh [ˈvɔlax] "would praise" (cf. Irish mholfadh (Southern Irish) [ˈβˠɔl̪ˠhəx] ). Linguistic analysis of

3468-480: The Bunscoill Ghaelgagh , runs a series of preschool groups that introduce the language. Bilingual road, street, village and town boundary signs are common throughout the Isle of Man. All other road signs are in English only. Business signage in Manx is gradually being introduced but is not mandated by law; however, the 1985 Tynwald Report on the use of Manx states that signage should be bilingual except where

3570-655: The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and in the framework of the British-Irish Council . The Isle of Man comprised the one site for the Manx language in the Atlas Linguarum Europae , a project that compared dialects and languages across all countries in Europe. Manx is taught as a second language at all of the island's primary and secondary schools. The lessons are optional and instruction

3672-542: The Siberian Turkic languages , has been reconstructed and a Soyot- Buryat - Russian dictionary was published in 2002. The language is currently taught in some elementary schools. The Ainu language of the indigenous Ainu people of northern Japan is currently moribund, but efforts are underway to revive it. A 2006 survey of the Hokkaido Ainu indicated that only 4.6% of Ainu surveyed were able to converse in or "speak

3774-562: The insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language family , itself a branch of the Indo-European language family . Manx is the historical language of the Manx people . Although few children native to the Isle of Man speak Manx as a first language , there has been a steady increase in the number of speakers since the death of Ned Maddrell in 1974. He was considered to be the last speaker to grow up in

3876-640: The Brythonic and Gaelic sea god who is said in myth to have once ruled the island. Primitive Irish is first attested in Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain . Primitive Irish transitioned into Old Irish through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the Latin script and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts, but there are no extant examples from

3978-508: The Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland between 1400 and 1900. The 17th century Plantation of Ulster , the decline of Irish in Leinster and the extinction of Galloway Gaelic led to the geographic isolation of Manx from other dialects of Gaelic. The development of a separate orthography also led Manx to diverge from Irish and Scottish Gaelic. In the 17th century, some university students left

4080-412: The Irish god Manannán mac Lir , thus Ellan Vannin ("Mannanán's Island", Irish : Oileán Mhannanáin "Mannanán's Island"). Manx is a Goidelic language , closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic . On the whole it is partially mutually intelligible with these, and native speakers of one find it easy to gain passive, and even spoken, competency in the other two. It has been suggested that

4182-407: The Isle of Man are Norse in origin, e.g. Laxey (Laksaa) and Ramsey (Rhumsaa). Other Norse legacies in Manx include loanwords and personal names . By the 10th century, it is supposed that Middle Irish had emerged and was spoken throughout Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. The island came under Scottish rule in 1266, and alternated between Scottish and English rule until finally becoming

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4284-495: The Isle of Man to attend school in England. At the same time, teaching in English was required in schools founded by governor Isaac Barrow . Barrow also promoted the use of English in churches; he considered that it was a superior language for reading the Bible; however, because the majority of ministers were monolingual Manx speakers, his views had little practical impact. Thomas Wilson began his tenure as Bishop of Mann in 1698 and

4386-423: The Isle of Man. Latin was used for ecclesiastical records from the establishment of Christianity in the Isle of Man in the 5th century AD. Many lexical items concerning religion, writing and record keeping entered Manx at this time. The Isle of Man was conquered by Norse Vikings in the 9th century. Although there is some evidence in the form of runic inscriptions that Norse was used by some of these settlers,

4488-674: The Isle of Man. Since then, UNESCO's classification of the language has changed to "critically endangered". In the 2011 census, 1,823 out of 80,398 Isle of Man residents, or 2.27% of the population, claimed to have knowledge of Manx, an increase of 134 people from the 2001 census. These individuals were spread roughly uniformly over the island: in Douglas 566 people professed an ability to speak, read or write Manx; 179 in Peel , 146 in Onchan , and 149 in Ramsey. Traditional Manx given names have experienced

4590-434: The Lagunas community, although having a conscious focus on teaching Kichwa, consists of mainly passive interaction, reading, and writing in Kichwa. In addition to grassroots efforts, national language revitalization organizations, like CONAIE , focus attention on non-Spanish speaking indigenous children, who represent a large minority in the country. Another national initiative, Bilingual Intercultural Education Project (PEBI),

4692-534: The Manx language. The Manx Language Strategy was released in 2017, outlining a five-year plan for the language's continued revitalisation. Culture Vannin employs a Manx Language Development Officer ( Manx : Yn Greinneyder ) to encourage and facilitate the use of the language. In 2009, UNESCO 's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger declared Manx an extinct language , despite the presence of hundreds of speakers on

4794-918: The Old Irish fortis and lenis sonorants , e.g. cloan "children" [klɔːn] , dhone "brown" [d̪oːn] and eeym "butter" [iːᵇm] correspond to Irish/Scottish Gaelic clann , donn , and im respectively, which have long vowels or diphthongs in Western and Southern Irish and in the Scottish Gaelic dialects of the Outer Hebrides and Skye , thus Western Irish [klˠɑːn̪ˠ] , Southern Irish/Northern Scottish [kl̪ˠaun̪ˠ] , [d̪ˠaun̪ˠ]/[d̪ˠoun̪ˠ] , [iːm]/[ɤim] ), but short vowels and 'long' consonants in Ulster Irish, Arran, and Kintyre, [klˠan̪ːˠ] , [d̪ˠon̪ːˠ] and [imʲː] . Another similarity with Southern Irish

4896-457: The Spanish language. According to King, this was because of the increase of trade and business with the large Spanish-speaking town nearby. The Lagunas people assert that it was not for cultural assimilation purposes, as they value their cultural identity highly. However, once this contact was made, language for the Lagunas people shifted through generations, to Kichwa and Spanish bilingualism and now

4998-500: The Speaker may call upon the Member for a translation." An example was at the sitting on 12 February 2019, when an MHK used the expression boghtnid , stated to mean "nonsense". Manx is used in the annual Tynwald ceremony and Manx words are used in official Tynwald publications. For the purpose of strengthening its contribution to local culture and community, Manx is recognised under

5100-508: The Vikings who settled around the Irish Sea and West Coast of Scotland soon became Gaelic speaking Norse–Gaels . During the 9th century AD, the Gaelic of the inhabitants of the Isle of Man, like those of Scotland and the North of Ireland, may have been significantly influenced by Norse speakers. While Norse had very little impact on the Manx language overall, a small number of modern place names on

5202-553: The administration of former President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo . Most notably, Resolution No. 2006-028 reinstated Spanish as a mandatory subject in secondary schools and universities. Results were immediate as the job demand for Spanish speakers had increased since 2008. As of 2010, the Instituto Cervantes in Manila reported the number of Spanish-speakers in the country with native or non-native knowledge at approximately 3 million,

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5304-576: The case of Hebrew , resulting in Modern Hebrew - now the national language of Israel . In this case, there was a unique set of historical and cultural characteristics that facilitated the revival. (See Revival of the Hebrew language .) Hebrew, once largely a liturgical language , was re-established as a means of everyday communication by Jews, some of who had lived in what is now the State of Israel, starting in

5406-609: The central governments of the different states imposed their vernacular language as the standard throughout education and official use (this was the case in the United Kingdom , France , Spain , Italy and Greece , and to some extent, in Germany and Austria-Hungary ). In the last few [when?] decades, local nationalism and human rights movements have made a more multicultural policy standard in European states; sharp condemnation of

5508-637: The coast of Essex to Ramsey Bay, from where it broadcast as Radio Caroline North until it was towed away by creditors in March 1968. On 7 March 1956 the Fleetwood -based trawler , Fleetwood Lady , anchored in Ramsey Bay to allow three of the male crew to visit their families ashore. All six crew, Allan Bradford, Arnold Brew, Albert (Abby) Cottier, Eric Lyall, his son Eric James Lyall and Reginald Wright lost their lives when their rowing boat capsized as they returned to

5610-666: The creation of the Saroyan Committee or the Armenian Language Preservation Committee, launched in 2013. Other attempts at language revitalization can be seen within the University of California in Irvine . In Thailand, there exists a Chong language revitalization project, headed by Suwilai Premsrirat. In Europe , in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the use of both local and learned languages declined as

5712-456: The death or emigration of many Irish speakers during the Irish famine of the 1840s, and continued emigration since. Efforts to revitalise Irish were being made, however, from the mid-1800s, and were associated with a desire for Irish political independence. Contemporary Irish language revitalization has chiefly involved teaching Irish as a compulsory language in mainstream English-speaking schools. But

5814-740: The dialect remain in diasporic communities away from their homeland in Anatolia, following the Armenian genocide . In spite of this, there have been various efforts to revitalize the language, especially within the Los Angeles community where the majority of Western Armenians reside. Within her dissertation, Shushan Karapetian discusses at length the decline of the Armenian language in the United States, and new means for keeping and reviving Western Armenian, such as

5916-668: The earlier practices of suppressing regional languages was expressed in the use of such terms as " linguicide ". In Francoist Spain , Basque language use was discouraged by the government's repressive policies . In the Basque Country, "Francoist repression was not only political, but also linguistic and cultural." Franco's regime suppressed Basque from official discourse, education, and publishing, making it illegal to register newborn babies under Basque names, and even requiring tombstone engravings in Basque to be removed. In some provinces

6018-525: The early Jewish immigrants to Ottoman Palestine and received the official status in the 1922 constitution of the British Mandate for Palestine and subsequently of the State of Israel . There have been recent attempts at reviving Sanskrit in India. However, despite these attempts, there are no first language speakers of Sanskrit in India. In each of India's recent decennial censuses, several thousand citizens have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue. However, these reports are thought to signify

6120-412: The eve of Italian unification , the language only counted about 500,000 speakers (many non-native), out of a total population of c.  22,000,000 . The subsequent success of the language has been through conscious development, where speakers of any of the numerous Italian languages were taught standard Italian as a second language and subsequently imparted it to their children, who learned it as

6222-453: The failure to teach it in an effective and engaging way means (as linguist Andrew Carnie notes) that students do not acquire the fluency needed for the lasting viability of the language, and this leads to boredom and resentment. Carnie also noted a lack of media in Irish (2006), though this is no longer the case. The decline of the Gaeltachtaí and the failure of state-directed revitalisation have been countered by an urban revival movement. This

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6324-527: The feudal possession of the Stanley family in 1405. It is likely that until that point, except for scholarly knowledge of Latin and courtly use of Anglo-Norman , Manx was the only language spoken on the island. Since the establishment of the Stanleys on the Isle of Man, first Anglo-Norman and later the English language have been the chief external factors in the development of Manx, until the 20th century, when Manx speakers became able to access Irish and Scottish Gaelic media. Manx had diverged considerably from

6426-409: The field of historical linguistics by, for instance, weakening the family tree model , which implies that a language has only one parent." There are disagreements in the field of language revitalization as to the degree that revival should concentrate on maintaining the traditional language, versus allowing simplification or widespread borrowing from the majority language . Zuckermann acknowledges

6528-401: The figure albeit including those who speak the Spanish-based creole Chavacano . Complementing government efforts is a notable surge of exposure through the mainstream media and, more recently, music-streaming services. The Western Armenian language, has been classified as a definitely endangered language in the Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2010), as most speakers of

6630-638: The first time in over 100 years. In addition, there are currently attempts at reviving the Chochenyo language of California, which had become extinct. Efforts are being made by the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community and others to keep Chinook Jargon , also known as Chinuk Wawa , alive. This is helped by the corpus of songs and stories collected from Victoria Howard and published by Melville Jacobs . The open-source platform FirstVoices hosts community-managed websites for 85 language revitalization projects, covering multiple varieties of 33 Indigenous languages in British Columbia as well as over

6732-403: The form of English spoken on the island. A feature of Manx English deriving from Gaelic is the use of the definite article, e.g. "the Manx", "the Gaelic", in ways not generally seen in standard English. The word "Manx", often spelled historically as "Manks" (particularly by natives of the island), means "Mannish" and originates from Old Norse * manskr . The Isle of Man is named after

6834-435: The globe. According to Zuckermann, "revival linguistics combines scientific studies of native language acquisition and foreign language learning. After all, language reclamation is the most extreme case of second-language learning. Revival linguistics complements the established area of documentary linguistics , which records endangered languages before they fall asleep." Zuckermann proposes that "revival linguistics changes

6936-749: The historical consonant clusters /kn ɡn mn tn/ to /kr ɡr mr tr/ , e.g. Middle Irish cnáid "mockery" and mná "women" have become craid and mraane respectively in Manx. The affrication of slender " ⟨d, t⟩ " sounds is also common to Manx, Northern Irish, and Scottish Gaelic. Unstressed Middle Irish word-final syllable [iʝ] (- ⟨(a)idh, (a)igh⟩ ) has developed to [iː] (- ⟨ee⟩ ) in Manx, as in kionnee "buy" (cf. Irish ceannaigh ) and cullee "apparatus" (cf. Gaelic culaidh ), like Northern/Western Irish and Southern dialects Scottish Gaelic (e.g. Arran , Kintyre ). Another property Manx shares with Ulster Irish and some dialects of Scottish Gaelic

7038-425: The home, and maintaining national and regional attention. The revival of the Hebrew language is the only successful example of a revived dead language. The Hebrew language survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy and rabbinic literature . With the rise of Zionism in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, becoming primarily a spoken lingua franca among

7140-447: The island's first Marine Nature Reserve designated in October 2011 under the Wildlife Act 1990 . It contains internationally significant areas of eelgrass meadows, horse mussel reefs, kelp forests and maerl beds, which boost biodiversity and create an environment for commercially important species of fish, shellfish and crustacea. Furthermore, the bay is a "core marine area" of the Isle of Man's UNESCO Biosphere Reserve . Parts of

7242-404: The land, making up an essential part of their history and self-image. Language revitalization is also closely tied to the linguistic field of language documentation . In this field, linguists try to create a complete record of a language's grammar, vocabulary, and linguistic features. This practice can often lead to more concern for the revitalization of a specific language on study. Furthermore,

7344-516: The last few dozen native speakers reveals a number of dialectal differences between the North and the South of the island. Northern Manx ( Manx : Gaelg Hwoaie ) was spoken from Maughold in the northeast to Peel on the west coast. Southern Manx was spoken in the sheading of Rushen . It is possible that written Manx represents a 'midlands' dialect of Douglas and surrounding areas. In Southern Manx, older ⟨á⟩ , and in some cases ⟨ó⟩ , became [æː] . In Northern Manx

7446-527: The late 20th century, Manx has become more visible on the island, with increased signage, radio broadcasts and a Manx- medium primary school. The revival of Manx has been made easier because the language was well recorded, e.g. the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer had been translated into Manx, and audio recordings had been made of native speakers. The endonym of the language is Gaelg / Gailck , which shares

7548-423: The level of becoming first languages of very large language communities. An example is standard Italian , which originated as a literary language based on the language of 13th-century Florence , especially as used by such important Florentine writers as Dante , Petrarch and Boccaccio . This language existed for several centuries primarily as a literary vehicle, with few native speakers; even as late as 1861, on

7650-445: The majority language, the result is a new language, perhaps a creole or pidgin . For example, the existence of "Neo-Hawaiian" as a separate language from "Traditional Hawaiian" has been proposed, due to the heavy influence of English on every aspect of the revived Hawaiian language. This has also been proposed for Irish, with a sharp division between "Urban Irish" (spoken by second-language speakers) and traditional Irish (as spoken as

7752-433: The next hundred years most of these will become extinct. These figures are often cited as reasons why language revitalization is necessary to preserve linguistic diversity. Culture and identity are also frequently cited reasons for language revitalization, when a language is perceived as a unique "cultural treasure." A community often sees language as a unique part of their culture, connecting them with their ancestors or with

7854-414: The nineteenth century. It is the world's most famous and successful example of language revitalization. In a related development, literary languages without native speakers enjoyed great prestige and practical utility as lingua francas , often counting millions of fluent speakers at a time. In many such cases, a decline in the use of the literary language, sometimes precipitous, was later accompanied by

7956-416: The old. One of the best known European attempts at language revitalization concerns the Irish language . While English is dominant through most of Ireland, Irish, a Celtic language , is still spoken in certain areas called Gaeltachta í , but there it is in serious decline. The challenges faced by the language over the last few centuries have included exclusion from important domains, social denigration,

8058-413: The older pronunciation of ⟨bh⟩ include Divlyn , Divlin "Dublin", Middle Irish Duibhlind /d̪uβʲlʲin̠ʲː/ . Moreover, similarly to Munster Irish , historical ⟨bh⟩ ( [βʲ] ) and ⟨mh⟩ ( nasalised [βʲ] ) tend to be lost word medially or finally in Manx, either with compensatory lengthening or vocalisation as [u] resulting in diphthongisation with

8160-1444: The partial loss of phonemic palatalisation of labial consonants ; while in Irish velarised consonants /pˠ bˠ fˠ w mˠ/ contrast phonemically with palatalised /pʲ bʲ fʲ vʲ mʲ/ . A consequence of this phonemic merger is that Middle Irish unstressed word-final [əβʲ] (- ⟨(a)ibh, (a)imh⟩ in Irish and Gaelic) has merged with [əβ] (- ⟨(e)abh, (e)amh⟩ in Irish and Gaelic), in Manx; both have become [u] (- ⟨oo, u(e)⟩ ), e.g. shassoo "to stand" (Irish seasamh ), credjue "religion" (Irish creideamh ), nealloo "fainting" ( Early Modern Irish i néalaibh , lit. in clouds ), and erriu "on you (pl.)" (Irish oraibh ). Medial and final * ⟨bh, mh⟩ have generally become /u/ and /w/ in Manx, thus shiu 'you pl.' (Irish and Scottish Gaelic sibh ; Lewis Gaelic siù ), sharroo "bitter" (Scottish searbh /ˈʃɛɾˠɛv/ , Irish searbh (Northern/Western) /ʃaɾˠu/ , (Southern) /ʃaɾˠəβˠ/ ), awin "river" (Scottish abhainn /aviɲ/ , Irish abhainn (Northern) /oːn̠ʲ/ ) (Western) /aun̠ʲ/ (Southern) /aunʲ/ , laaue "hand" (Scottish làmh /l̪ˠaːvˠ/ , Irish lámh (Northern) /l̪ˠæːw/ , (Western) /l̪ˠɑːw/ , (Southern) /l̪ˠɑːβˠ/ ), sourey "summer" (Scottish samhradh /saurəɣ/ , Irish samhradh (Northern) /sˠauɾˠu/ , (Western/Southern) /sˠauɾˠə/ ). Rare retentions of

8262-494: The phrases Gaelg/Gailck Vannin "Gaelic of Mann " and Gaelg/Gailck Vanninnagh "Manx Gaelic" are also used. In addition, the nickname Çhengey ny Mayrey "the mother tongue", lit. "the mother's tongue" is occasionally used. The language is usually referred to in English as "Manx". The term "Manx Gaelic" is often used, for example when discussing the relationship between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx) or to avoid confusion with Manx English ,

8364-404: The population claimed to speak Manx in 1901; in 1921 the percentage was only 1.1%. Since the language was used by so few people, it had low linguistic " prestige ", and parents tended not to teach Manx to their children, thinking it would be useless to them compared with English. According to Brian Stowell , "In the 1860s there were thousands of Manx people who couldn't speak English, but barely

8466-620: The preceding vowel, e.g. geurey "winter" [ˈɡʲeurə, -uːrə] (Irish geimhreadh (Southern) [ˈɟiːɾʲə] ) and sleityn "mountains" [ˈsleːdʒən] (Irish sléibhte (Southern) [ˈʃlʲeːtʲə] ). Another similarity to Munster Irish is the development of the Old Irish diphthongs [ai oi] before velarised consonants ( ⟨ao⟩ in Irish and Scottish Gaelic) to [eː] , as in seyr "carpenter" [seːr] and keyl "narrow" [keːl] (Irish and Scottish saor and caol ). Like Connacht and Ulster Irish (cf. Irish phonology ) and most dialects of Scottish Gaelic, Manx has changed

8568-732: The presence of "local peculiarities and idiosyncrasies" but suggests that "there are linguistic constraints applicable to all revival attempts. Mastering them would help revivalists and first nations' leaders to work more efficiently. For example, it is easier to resurrect basic vocabulary and verbal conjugations than sounds and word order. Revivalists should be realistic and abandon discouraging, counter-productive slogans such as "Give us authenticity or give us death!" Nancy Dorian has pointed out that conservative attitudes toward loanwords and grammatical changes often hamper efforts to revitalize endangered languages (as with Tiwi in Australia), and that

8670-492: The public use of Basque was suppressed, with people fined for speaking it. Public use of Basque was frowned upon by supporters of the regime, often regarded as a sign of anti-Francoism or separatism . in the late 1960s. Since 1968, Basque has been immersed in a revitalisation process, facing formidable obstacles. However, significant progress has been made in numerous areas. Six main factors have been identified to explain its relative success: While those six factors influenced

8772-472: The purpose of reviving the Coptic language. In recent years, a growing number of Native American tribes have been trying to revitalize their languages. For example, there are apps (including phrases, word lists and dictionaries) in many Native languages including Cree , Cherokee , Chickasaw , Lakota , Ojibwe , Oneida , Massachusett , Navajo , Halq'emeylem , Gwych'in , and Lushootseed . Wampanoag ,

8874-458: The related Xibe language is still spoken natively. In the Philippines, a local variety of Spanish that was primarily based on Mexican Spanish was the lingua franca of the country since Spanish colonization in 1565 and was an official language alongside Filipino (standardized Tagalog ) and English until 1987, following the ratification of a new constitution, where it was re-designated as

8976-510: The reserve are highly protected conservation zones, while a "fisheries management zone" is co-managed by the Department of Environment, Food and Agriculture and the Manx Fish Producers' Organisation in an innovative approach to fisheries management, which sees little of this zone fished. The reserve is also part of the OSPAR network of European Marine Protected Areas. At the centre of the bay

9078-410: The revitalisation process, the extensive development and use of language technologies is also considered a significant additional factor. Overall, in the 1960s and later, the trend reversed and education and publishing in Basque began to flourish. A sociolinguistic survey shows that there has been a steady increase in Basque speakers since the 1990s, and the percentage of young speakers exceeds that of

9180-410: The same etymology as the word "Gaelic", as do the endonyms of its sister languages : Irish ( Gaeilge ; Gaoluinn , Gaedhlag and Gaeilic ) and Scottish Gaelic ( Gàidhlig ). Manx frequently uses the forms y Ghaelg / y Ghailck (with definite article ), as do Irish ( an Ghaeilge ) and Scottish Gaelic ( a' Ghàidhlig ). To distinguish it from the two other forms of Gaelic,

9282-653: The same happened, but ⟨á⟩ sometimes remained [aː] as well, e.g. laa "day" (cf. Irish lá ) was [læː] in the South but [læː] or [laː] in the North. Old ⟨ó⟩ is always [æː] in both dialects, e.g. aeg "young" (cf. Irish óg ) is [æːɡ] in both dialects. ⟨á, ó⟩ and lengthened ⟨a⟩ before ⟨rt, rd, rg⟩ became /œː/ , as in paayrt '"part" /pœːrt/ , ard "high" /œːrd/ , jiarg "red" /dʒœːrɡ/ , argid "money, silver" /œːrɡid/ and aarey "gold gen. " /œːrə/ . In Northern Manx, older ⟨(e)a⟩ before ⟨nn⟩ in

9384-473: The same syllable is diphthongised, while in Southern Manx it is lengthened but remains a monophthong , e.g. kione "head" (cf. Irish ceann ) is [kʲaun] in the North but [kʲoːn] in the South. Words with ⟨ua⟩ , and in some cases ⟨ao⟩ , in Irish and Scottish are spelled with ⟨eay⟩ in Manx. In Northern Manx, this sound was [iː] , while in Southern Manx it

9486-461: The six-degree scale) to "characterize a language’s overall sociolinguistic situation". The nine factors with their respective scales are: One of the most important preliminary steps in language revitalization/recovering involves establishing the degree to which a particular language has been “dislocated.” This helps involved parties find the best way to assist or revive the language. There are many different theories or models that attempt to lay out

9588-504: The task of documentation is often taken on with the goal of revitalization in mind. Uses a six-point scale is as follows: Another scale for identifying degrees of language endangerment is used in a 2003 paper ("Language Vitality and Endangerment") commissioned by UNESCO from an international group of linguists. The linguists, among other goals and priorities, create a scale with six degrees for language vitality and endangerment. They also propose nine factors or criteria (six of which use

9690-484: The trawler. In March 2002 a plaque was unveiled in Ramsey to commemorate them. Ramsey has had a lifeboat station since 1829 which has been under the control of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution since 1868. Manx language Manx ( endonym : Gaelg or Gailck , pronounced [ɡilɡ, geːlɡ] or [gilk] ), also known as Manx Gaelic , is a Gaelic language of

9792-406: The uses of Scottish Gaelic are becoming increasingly tokenistic, and native Gaelic idiom is being lost in favor of artificial terms created by second-language speakers. The total revival of a dead language (in the sense of having no native speakers ) to become the shared means of communication of a self-sustaining community of several million first language speakers has happened only once, in

9894-454: Was [ɯː] , [uː] , or [yː] , e.g. geay "wind" (cf. Irish gaoth ) is [ɡiː] in the north and [ɡɯː] in the South, while geayl "coal" (cf. Irish gual ) is [ɡiːl] in the North and [ɡyːl] , [ɡɯːl] , or [ɡuːl] in the South. In both the North and the South, there is a tendency to insert a short [d] before a word-final [n] in monosyllabic words, as in [sleᵈn] for slane "whole" and [beᵈn] for ben "woman". This

9996-419: Was ineffective in language revitalization because instruction was given in Kichwa and Spanish was taught as a second language to children who were almost exclusively Spanish monolinguals. Although some techniques seem ineffective, Kendall A. King provides several suggestions: Specific suggestions include imparting an elevated perception of the language in schools, focusing on grassroots efforts both in school and

10098-721: Was on early collective-communities called kibbutzim . For the Maori language In New Zealand, this was done through a language nest . Ghil'ad Zuckermann proposes "Revival Linguistics" as a new linguistic discipline and paradigm. Zuckermann's term 'Revival Linguistics' is modelled upon 'Contact Linguistics'. Revival linguistics inter alia explores the universal constraints and mechanisms involved in language reclamation, renewal and revitalization. It draws perspicacious comparative insights from one revival attempt to another, thus acting as an epistemological bridge between parallel discourses in various local attempts to revive sleeping tongues all over

10200-404: Was succeeded by Mark Hildesley. Both men held positive views of Manx; Wilson was the first person to publish a book in Manx, a translation of The Principles and Duties of Christianity ( Coyrie Sodjey ), and Hildesley successfully promoted the use of Manx as the language of instruction in schools. The New Testament was first published in Manx in 1767. In the late 18th century, nearly every school

10302-431: Was teaching in English. This decline continued into the 19th century, as English gradually became the primary language spoken on the Isle of Man. In 1848, J.G. Cumming wrote, "there are ... few persons (perhaps none of the young) who speak no English." Henry Jenner estimated in 1874 that about 30% of the population habitually spoke Manx (12,340 out of a population of 41,084). According to official census figures, 9.1% of

10404-578: Was to assist in the creation of adult speakers that are of parent-age, so that they too can begin teaching the language. In 2020, X̱ʼunei Lance Twitchell led a Tlingit online class with Outer Coast College . Dozens of students participated. He is an associate professor of Alaska Native Languages in the School of Arts and Sciences at the University of Alaska Southeast which offers a minor in Tlingit language and an emphasis on Alaska Native Languages and Studies within

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