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52-564: According to Ethnologue there are several dialectal varieties, but all are mutually intelligible. Pulaar is not to be confused with Pular , another variety of Fula spoken in Guinea (including the Fouta Djallon region). The Pulaar and Pular varieties of Fula are to some extent mutually intelligible. Pulaar is currently written in primarily in the Latin script . Historically, for centuries, Pulaar has

104-565: A caste system . There are an estimated 1 million Toucouleur people in West Africa. They are found primarily in the northern regions of Senegal where they constitute 15% of the population. This region is irrigated by the Senegal River valley, overlaps southern Mauritania . During the colonial era, and in the modern times, some of the Toucouleurs resettled in western Mali . They are about

156-489: A Pular text, one may see the letter ba with three small dots ' بۛ ‎' to indicate a [ɓ] or [p] pronunciation instead of a [b] pronunciation. Unlike consonants, there are no variations in writing of vowels, and there does exist a universally accepted convention for them in Pular Ajami. While Arabic has 3 basic vowels, Pular has 5. Vowels [a], [i], and [u] are written with the three Arabic diacritics , whereas vowel [e]

208-528: A decree, as the effort by the Senegalese ministry of education was to be part of a multi-national standardization effort. Prenasalized consonants are written as a digraph (combination of two consonants). While historically, there were single letter alternatives, these letters are no longer used. Prenasalized consonants are constructed using meem (م) or noon (ن) in combination with other consonants. The letter meem (م) appears in pairs with beh (ب), whereas

260-412: A deformation of tekruri , a precolonial term meaning "people from Takrur ". The supposed distinction between Toucouleurs and Fula people more generally was invented by French ethnographers in the 19th century. They differentiated between supposedly sedentary, agricultural, fanatical, and anti-European Toucouleurs on one hand and nomadic, pastoralist, docile and cooperative Peulhs on the other, but

312-559: A literary tradition based on the Arabic script , an orthographic tradition now known as " Ajami ". More recently, Adlam script for Pulaar has been gaining ground as well (see Fula alphabets ). The word Pulaar translates to 'the language of the Fulɓe' as the stem /pul/ is the singular form of Fulɓe and the suffix /-aar/ means language. The language is believed to have formed in Fuuta Tooro when

364-682: A marked inequality. Property and land has been exclusively owned by the upper caste members. Occupations and caste memberships are inherited. The Toucouleur castes have been endogamous , segregated and intermarriage has been rare. The clerics among Toucouleur like the Wolof people formed a separate group. The religious leaders were not necessarily endogamous nor an inherited post in Toucouleur people's long history, but it has been rare for lower caste people to become religious specialist, states Rüdiger Seesemann, as they were viewed as not sufficiently adhering to

416-503: A million Toucouleur people in Senegal River valley area, and about 100,000 in Mali. Besides Toucouleur , they are variously referred to as Pulaar : Torooɓe , Futanke , or Haalpulaar (French literature). The name Toucouleur is of unclear origin, with some sources stating it as a French derivation meaning "of every color", which itself may be a folk etymology . More likely it is

468-633: Is a Fula language spoken primarily by the Fula people of Fouta Djallon , Guinea . It is also spoken in parts of Guinea-Bissau , Sierra Leone , and Senegal . There are a small number of speakers in Mali . Pular is spoken by 4.3 million Guineans, about 55% of the national population. This makes Pular the most widely spoken indigenous language in the country. Substantial numbers of Pular speakers have migrated to other countries in West Africa , notably Senegal . Pular

520-411: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about Atlantic languages is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Toucouleur people The Toucouleur people or Tukulor people ( Arabic : توكولور , French : Toucouleur ), also called Haalpulaar (Ajami: هَالْݒُلَارْ ‎, Adlam: 𞤖𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤨𞤵𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤪 ), are a West African ethnic group native to

572-482: Is a declining language in West Africa, the surrounding Niger-Congo languages, such as Wolof , are increasing in speakers instead. A 1987–1988 study of bilingual North Senegalese communities found that the use of Pulaar was decreasing in the younger generation. Pulaar was being replaced by Wolof and French loan words. John Hames has argued that the reason for this decline in Pulaar in favour for Wolof and French has come down to

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624-583: Is a short segment of a larger poetry, called "the Mine of Happiness" (Oogirde Malal, عࣾوࢼِرْدٜ مَلَلْ ‎, 𞤌𞥅𞤺𞤭𞤪𞤣𞤫 𞤃𞤢𞤤𞤢𞤤 ). O listener, listen to the words of the little man, the humble subject, the weak, if you want Happiness; The child of the humble Sa'iidu Muhammadu, of the Seele lineage, from the land of Fuuta, From the village of Mombeya, Lash'arî of School and Malekite of Way I will thank my Master without interruption. May he bless

676-399: Is added to verbs in order to change the case of the verb. The allomorphs -t or -it are added to make a verb retaliative, meaning to do in retaliation for a previous action. For example, lata (meaning ‘kick’) adds the allomorph - it to become lat-it-o (meaning ‘kick back’). The allomorphs -t , -it or -ut   are added to a verb to make it reversive, meaning to do the opposite of

728-464: Is also the same form the repetitive case (meaning ‘ask again’). Therefore, yam-t-a is either one of those cases and therefore cannot be distinguished without taking into account the context of the sentence it is used in. The Toucouleur people (also referred to as Tukulor) are one of the largest Pulaar speaking demographics in West Africa. They are an ethnic group of the Futa Tooro region encompassing

780-544: Is not to be confused with Pulaar , another Fula language spoken natively in Guinea, Senegal, Mauritania , and western Mali (including the Futa Tooro region). Pular is written in three alphabets: Adlam script , Ajami script and the Latin script . There are some particularities to this version of Fula, including: (as in Pulaar) hilan (non-standard alternate form) himen (non-standard alternate form) Like other varieties of

832-544: Is the only language that they learned. John Hames claims that the prevalence of Wolof in Senegalese culture as well as the lack of government intervention to maintain Pulaar as a contemporary language has led to its decline. John Hames has argued that the regime of Mauritanian President Moktar Ould Daddah has helped decrease the prevalence of Pulaar. Hames states that the Moor supportive presidency of Daddah led to an increase of Arab education over education of native languages. One of

884-543: Is used to talk about the responsibilities that one has to maintain their relationship with their family. The word musidal is used to describe one's blood relationship to a family. Pulaar's noun classes also indicate the influence of the agricultural lifestyle of Fula people. For example, the nge class of nouns refers to bovines including cow ( naage ) and heifer ( wiige ), and the ki class of nouns refer to trees or objects that are straight upright. The noun classes relating to themes of agriculture and farming relate to

936-547: Is written with the Quranic notation commonly found in books of Warsh tradition, which is a 'dot below' diacritic, and vowel [o] is written with 'damma' ([u]) with a dot on top. Vowels at the beginning of syllables are written not with alif or hamza as is common in Arabic, but with ‘ayin . Vowel lengthening is done with a succeeding alif for [aː], a succeeding yaa for [eː] and [iː], and succeeding waawu for [oː] and [uː]. Below

988-412: The -n suffixes, and the -r suffixes. When multiple suffixes are used in a single verb, they follow the 'TDNR' order. This means that - t suffixes go before -d suffixes which go before -n suffixes, and -r suffixes are the last in order . There are few exceptions to this rule. An example of this is the word nyaam-n-id-ii. In this word, the -n suffix goes before the -d suffix. the -t suffix

1040-745: The 1984 coup d'état of then President of Mauritania, Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla , by Colonel Maaouya Ould Sid’Ahmed Taya . In response to the coup d'état, the Manifesto of the Oppressed Black Mauritanian was published in 1986 which criticized the perceived power and influence of the Arab "minority" in Mauritania. After the publishing of this manifesto, crackdowns by the Government against Pulaar speaker and teachers increased. Political imprisonments against

1092-455: The Fula language , Pular was written before colonization in an Arabic-based orthography called Ajami. Today, Ajami remains prevalent in rural areas of Fouta Djallon, but Pular is mainly written in a Latin-based orthography, the so-called UNESCO orthography and the Adlam script , an indigenous alphabet created at the end of the 1980s by two brothers for the Fula language. Adlam have widely spread over

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1144-484: The Futa Toro region of Senegal . There are smaller communities in Mali and Mauritania . The Toucouleur were Islamized in the 11th century; their early and strong Islamic heritage, which is seen as a defining feature, is a matter of great pride for them. They were among the first Muslims in the area that became Senegal. They were influential in the spread of Islam to West Africa in the medieval era . They founded

1196-666: The Mouride Muslim Sufi order holds its capital in Touba , which is a predominately Wolof-speaking zone. The Mouride population constitutes 3-5 million people in Senegal (the population of Senegal is around 16 million). Fiona McLaughlin argues that this economic and cultural hegemony that the Wolof have is at the expense of the Pulaar language. She states that people in Senegal will call themselves Wolof, despite not being ethnically Wolof , because it

1248-487: The joking relationship by anthropologists, exists between the Serers and Toucouleurs . The Toucouleur people have long inhabited the Senegal River area, with roots of an organized Tekrur kingdom tracing back to the 5th century. They were part of the 10th to the 18th century kingdom, but led by non-Toucouleur rulers from other ethnic groups. In the 18th century, a Toucouleur empire emerged which reached its peak influence in

1300-418: The "clerical standards of piety". Marriage among the Toucouleurs requires a bride price payable to the bride's family. A girl from high social status family such as of noble lineage expects substantially higher payment than one of lower status such as artisan castes or with slave lineage. The marriage is validated by a mosque . The bride comes to live with her husband's joint family. Traditionally, before

1352-539: The 19th century under the Islamic leader Omar Saidou Tall . Omar was born in a Toucouleur clerical family in 1797. During his visit to Mecca in 1827, Omar was designated as the "Caliph of Black Africa." He returned to West Africa in 1833, and subsequently learned political and state building strategies from his father-in-law in the Sokoto Caliphate . Omar returned to Senegal in 1845, where he began preaching Islam among

1404-1266: The Prophet filled with excellence. Yaa joom-nanugol, heɗo haala gorel, jiyangel, lo'ungel, si a faala malal; Iwngel e Sa'iidu-Muhammaduwel, Seelenke leɲol, Fuutanke laral, Mommbenke hoɗannde e Lash'ariyanke to Kaɓɓe e Maalikiyanke Ɗatal. Miɗo yettira Joomam rewnindiral. Yo O juul e Nulaaɗo yeɗaaɗo ɓural. يَاجࣾمْ نَنُࢼࣾلْ، هٜطࣾ حَالَ ࢼࣾرٜل، جِيَࢼۛ‎ٜلْ، ضࣾعُࢼٜۛلْ، سِعَ ࢻَالَ مَلَلْ؞ اِوْࢼٜۛلْ اٜ سَعِيدُ مُحَمَّدُ وٜلْ، سٜيلٜنْکٜ لٜࢽۛجࣾلْ، ࢼُتَنْکٜ لَرَلْ، مࣾࢽۛبٜنْکٜ هࣾطَنْدٜ عٜلَشْعَرِ يَنْکٜ تࣾکَبّٜۛ اٜ مَالِکِ يَنکٜ طَتَلْ؞ مِطࣾيٜتِّرَ جࣾومَمْ رٜوْنِدِرَلْ؞ يࣾعࣾ جُولْ عٜنُلَاطُ يٜطَاطࣾ بۛࣾرَلْ؞ ‎ ‮𞤒𞤢𞥄 𞤶𞤮𞥅𞤥-𞤲𞤢𞤲𞤵𞤺𞤮𞤤⹁ 𞤸𞤫𞤯𞤮 𞤸𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤢 𞤺𞤮𞤪𞤫𞤤⹁ ‮𞤶𞤭𞤴𞤢𞤲'𞤺𞤫𞤤⹁ 𞤤𞤮'𞤵𞤲'𞤺𞤫𞤤⹁ 𞤧𞤭 𞤢 𞤬𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤢 𞤥𞤢𞤤𞤢𞤤⁏ ‮𞤋𞤱𞤲'𞤺𞤫𞤤 𞤫 𞤅𞤢’𞤭𞥅𞤣𞤵 𞤃𞤵𞤸𞤢𞤥𞥆𞤢𞤣𞤵𞤱𞤫𞤤⹁ ‮𞤅𞤫𞥅𞤤𞤫𞤲𞤳𞤫 𞤤𞤫𞤻𞤮𞤤⹁ 𞤊𞤵𞥅𞤼𞤢𞤲𞤳𞤫 𞤤𞤢𞤪𞤢𞤤⹁ ‮𞤃𞤮𞤥𞤦𞤫𞤲𞤳𞤫 𞤸𞤮𞤯𞤢𞤲𞤣𞤫 𞤫 𞤂𞤢𞥃'𞤢𞤪𞤭𞤴𞤢𞤲𞤳𞤫 ‮𞤼𞤮 𞤑𞤢𞤩𞥆𞤫 𞤫 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭𞤳𞤭𞤴𞤢𞤲𞤳𞤫 𞤍𞤢𞤼𞤢𞤤. ‮𞤃𞤭𞤯𞤮 𞤴𞤫𞤼𞥆𞤭𞤪𞤢 𞤔𞤮𞥅𞤥𞤢𞤥 𞤪𞤫𞤱𞤲𞤭𞤲'𞤣𞤭𞤪𞤢𞤤. ‮𞤒𞤮 𞤌 𞤶𞤵𞥅𞤤 𞤫 𞤐𞤵𞤤𞤢𞥄𞤯𞤮 𞤴𞤫𞤯𞤢𞥄𞤯𞤮 𞤩𞤵𞤪𞤢𞤤. This Guinea -related article

1456-451: The Pulaar people increased, notably Djigo Tafsirou, who was a Pulaar language activist, was arrested and possibly died in detention after 2 years of imprisonment. The Ministère de l'Éducation de Base et des Langues Nationales in 1986, (becoming the Ministère de l'Alphabétisation et des Langues Nationales in 2001) was established by the Senegal government as a means to boost the influence of

1508-451: The Pular Ajami script remains basic and without standardization, although consistently in the Maghrebi script . The alphabet does not contain any additional letters to represent consonant phonemes that don't exist in Arabic. A single Arabic letter can correspond to multiple Latin letters and digraphs. Some authors do use small dots and markings to denote a different pronunciation. For example, in

1560-464: The Toucouleur differ from other Fula people by the sedentary nature of their society. Toucouleur society is patriarchal and divided into strict and rigid caste hierarchies . The highest status among the five Toucouleur castes is of the aristocratic leaders and Islamic scholars called Torobe . Below them are the Rimbe , or the administrators, traders and farmers. The Nyenbe are the artisan castes of

1612-519: The Toucouleur economy, which consists mainly of raising of stock, crop cultivation and fishing. The Fulɓe people are known for being a semi-nomadic pastoralist group who have a history of cattle-herding, justifying the bovine noun class. Pulaar today is primarily written in Latin alphabet, with orthographic conventions that are in common for all indigenous languages of Senegal . The Latin alphabet has been standardized in various Senegalese government decrees,

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1664-539: The Toucouleur society. The fourth caste strata is called the Gallunkobe or the slaves or descendants of slaves "who have been freed". The bottom strata among the Toucouleurs are the Matyube or slaves. The slaves were acquired by raiding pagan ethnic groups or purchased in slave markets, or the status was inherited. The hierarchical social stratification has been an economically closed system, which historically has meant

1716-495: The Toucouleur. He obtained weapons from Europe, then mobilized the Toucouleur to pursue an Islamic holy war in 1854 against the non-Muslim ethnic groups and those Muslims who had strayed. The Toucouleur armies succeeded. The Toucouleur Empire grew and extended from Senegal to much of Mali over the next ten years. His son Mustafa reigned over this empire and the Toucouleur between 1864 and 1870, followed by Omar's second son, Ahmadu Tall. The rule of Ahmadu, state Gallieni and Joffre,

1768-509: The ancestors of the Toucouleur people began speaking the language of the Fulɓe. It is then believed that the term Haalpulaar'en (which means 'speakers of the language of Pulaar') was created to apply to non-Fulɓe speakers of Fulɓe, of which the Toucouleur people are the largest demographic. The negative accomplished verb form ends in -aani . (This is slightly different from Maasina Fulfulde and Pular .) Pulaar contains 21 noun classes. These noun classes can commonly be observed by looking at

1820-451: The class indicates the content of the noun to be: The Pulaar counting system is base five (a quinary-decimal system) which is similar to the surrounding Niger-Congo languages. The number 7, for example, uses the prefix of d͡ʒoj (5) and the suffix ɗiɗi (2) becoming d͡ʒeeɗiɗi (5+2). Other languages that use this system in West Africa include Pular, Wolof , Sereer-Sine and East Limba. These quinary-decimal counting languages can be found in

1872-526: The dichotomy is false. Toucouleurs speak the Pulaar language , a dialect of Fula , an Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family of languages. According to the oral traditions of the Toucouleur and Serer , the Toucouleurs are descendants of Serer and Fula ancestors. This tradition is supported by many scholars including Foltz and Phillips. A mutually acceptable bantering-style interaction, called

1924-475: The fact that the Wolof culture and Senegalese identity are strongly related. In Western Africa, Wolof language is often used in "major pop cultural and entertainment products and radio broadcast content". Wolof interpreters were used from the late sixteenth century with the Portuguese , therefore Wolof maintained a position in West Africa as the language of trade. Wolof also hold religious importance in West Africa as

1976-516: The latest of which was issued in 2005. However, historically, similar to other indigenous languages of the region, such as Wolof language , its first writing system was the adaption of the Arabic Script. The Arabic script is used today as well, albeit in a smaller scale, and only mostly limited to Islamic school teachers and students. The Arabic -based script of Pulaar was set by the government as well, between 1985 and 1990, although never adopted by

2028-483: The letter noon (ن) appears in pairs with dal (د), jeem (ج), and geh (گ). Prenasalized consonants cannot take the zero-vowel diacritic sukun (◌ْ). If they are at the end of the word and have no vowels, they will take the gemination diacritic shadda (◌ّ). Some consider these digraphs as their own independent letters. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . The Pulaar language

2080-528: The local languages of Senegal (including Pulaar). It did this by increasing the literacy amongst its users. Non-government companies that have aided the influence of the Pulaar language include the cotton producing company in West Africa, SODEFITEX. SODEFITEX has implemented local languages in their training courses for local farmers. A way this has been achieved is by creating radio programs in local languages to reinforce Pulaar to local employees. International development agencies have increasingly decided to focus on

2132-410: The marriage is consummated, the bride's aunt checks if the girl is a virgin, then bathes and massages her. The bride and groom then join in a wedding feast where the village members join in, marking the start of a new couple. One week after pémbougale (childbirth), the baby is named and a gorgol (sister of the father) cuts its hair. The father tells the marabout the name he has chosen, after which

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2184-577: The middle of the Senegal River. The Toucouleur people are heavily influenced by Islam , being one of the first black African groups to embrace Islam in the 11th century. Therefore, the Pulaar language has influences from Islam. This influence has led to Arabic words being integrated into the Pulaar language. The vocabulary of the Pulaar language is also influenced by the conservative, family-oriented culture of Pulaar. There are Pulaar words which describe relationships between people. The phrase jokkere endam' (literally translated to "following maternal milk")

2236-469: The more notable examples of this is when the Mauritanian government officially passed a law in 1965 that made it mandatory to teach Arabic during primary and secondary education. The Association pour la Renaissance du Pulaar- Republique Islamique de Mauritanie ( ARP-RIM) was established to teach Pulaar literacy in Mauritania. The organization received increased government funding after the coup d'état of

2288-424: The object of the action the same as the subject. For example, ndaara ( meaning ‘look at’) becomes ndaar-t-o ( meaning ‘look at oneself’). The allomorphs -t, -ut and -it are used to show that a verb is completed with intensity. For example, yana (meaning ‘fall’) becomes yan-t-a (meaning ‘fall heavily’). For words such as ‘ yama (meaning ‘ask’), the intensive form becomes yam-t-a (meaning ‘interrogate’) which

2340-402: The original verb. For example, taara (meaning ‘wind’) becomes taar-t-a (meaning ‘unwind’). The same allomorphs apply for the repetitive case, meaning the repeating of an action. There are no means of distinguishing between a reversive and a repetitious case other than by observing the context of the sentence. The allomorphs -t and -it are used to make a verb reflexive , which means to make

2392-402: The suffix of a noun. For example, a noun that is the result of a loan word will typically end in -o (however, human singular nouns such as debbo (meaning woman) also end in -o ). The class of the noun will often refer to the actual content of the noun. For example, the ɗam noun class is applied to nouns that describe a liquid. The table below shows some of the noun classes in Pulaar and what

2444-520: The then President of Mauritania, Moktar Ould Daddah in the late 1970s. The programs which the ARP-RIM participated in included campaigns to increase Pulaar literacy, this was done by creating more radio programs which taught the local languages of Mauritania. As The ARP-RIM also focused on applying the Pulaar language to primary education as it allocated Pulaar teachers to public schools in Mauritania. The efforts to revive Pulaar in Mauritania were reduced after

2496-558: The use of local languages in West Africa to communicate ideas and governance. This is done as a means to increase local governance in regional areas of West Africa. These agencies include World Vision International and Tostan . For instance, the provision of basic literacy of Pulaar is one of the main focuses of Tostan. The government of Senegal has also had talks about creating an academy for national languages. Mauritanian mathematician Mouhamadou Sy has published two math textbooks in Pulaar. Pular language Pular ( 𞤆𞤵𞤤𞤢𞤪 )

2548-500: The vast Toucouleur Empire in the 19th century under Omar Saidou Tall who led a religious war against the neighboring ethnic groups and the French colonial forces. The Toucouleur are traditionally sedentary, settled primarily in the Senegal River valley, with farming, fishing and raising cattle as their main activities. The Toucouleur society has been patrilineal, polygynous and with high social stratification that included slavery and

2600-408: The west African regions of Sierra Leone, Guinea and Gambia. Pulaar and Pular possess almost identical words for numbers, in which every number from 1 to 10 share the exact same name except for 5 ( d͡ʒoj for Pulaar and d͡ʒowi for Pular). The Pulaar verb system contains multiple suffixes which can be added to verbs to change their cases. These suffixes include the - t suffixes, the -d suffixes,

2652-609: The years in over 20 countries. Up until 1989, Pular in Guinea was written with the Guinean languages alphabet that differed from that used in other countries. Despite decades of official endorsement and preference granted to the Latin Alphabet, Pular Ajami writing still remains widespread in every segment of Fuuta Jalon society. The study and literacy in Pular Ajami still forms an important part of Fula-speaking children's formative years. But despite its widespread and historic usage,

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2704-698: Was a "Toucouleur-Muslim despot" over the Mandinka people and Bambara people . The empire collapsed in the 1880s as the Fulani, Tuaregs and the Moors attacked the Toucouleurs, and a civil war between local Toucouleur leaders engulfed the region. The empire ended in 1891, after the French colonial forces invaded the region. The Toucouleurs speak the Futa Tooro dialect of Pulaar . They call themselves Haalpulaar’en , which means "those who speak Pulaar". They are Muslims. Culturally,

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