130-540: Power Jets was a British company set up by Frank Whittle for the purpose of designing and manufacturing jet engines . The company was nationalised in 1944, and evolved into the National Gas Turbine Establishment . The origins of Power Jets is closely tied with the pioneering work of the British inventor Frank Whittle . Whittle had been exploring the use of gas turbines as a form of propulsion since
260-513: A base , a proton acceptor. Ammonia is moderately basic; a 1.0 M aqueous solution has a pH of 11.6, and if a strong acid is added to such a solution until the solution is neutral ( pH = 7 ), 99.4% of the ammonia molecules are protonated . Temperature and salinity also affect the proportion of ammonium [NH 4 ] . The latter has the shape of a regular tetrahedron and is isoelectronic with methane . The ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at room temperature;
390-466: A specific gravity of 0.880 and is often known as '.880 ammonia'. Liquid ammonia is a widely studied nonaqueous ionising solvent. Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conductive solutions containing solvated electrons . Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of the chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions . Comparison of
520-484: A vapour pressure of less than 1 bar even at 25 °C (77 °F). However, few oxyanion salts with other cations dissolve. Liquid ammonia will dissolve all of the alkali metals and other electropositive metals such as Ca , Sr , Ba , Eu and Yb (also Mg using an electrolytic process ). At low concentrations (<0.06 mol/L), deep blue solutions are formed: these contain metal cations and solvated electrons , free electrons that are surrounded by
650-399: A Distinction in every subject, except mechanical drawing, where he was described as "a very able student. He works hard and has originality. He is suitable for experimental duties." His performance in the course was so exceptional that in 1934 he was permitted, though the scheme for RAF officers had been ended the year before, to take a two-year engineering course as a member of Peterhouse ,
780-459: A First. Without Air Ministry support, he and two retired RAF servicemen formed Power Jets Ltd to build his engine with assistance from the firm of British Thomson-Houston . Despite limited funding, a prototype was created, which first ran in 1937. Official interest was forthcoming following this success, with contracts being placed to develop further engines, but the continuing stress seriously affected Whittle's health, eventually resulting in
910-468: A US patent was made by Power Jets for an "Aircraft propulsion system and power unit" The W.1X engine powered the E.28/39 for taxi testing on 7 April 1941 at Brockworth near the factory in Gloucester, where it took to the air for two or three short hops of several hundred yards at about six feet from the ground. The definitive W.1 of 850 lbf (3.8 kN ) thrust ran on 12 April 1941, and on 15 May
1040-444: A cage of ammonia molecules. These solutions are strong reducing agents. At higher concentrations, the solutions are metallic in appearance and in electrical conductivity. At low temperatures, the two types of solution can coexist as immiscible phases. The range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow, as the potential for oxidation to dinitrogen, E ° ( N 2 + 6 [NH 4 ] + 6 e ⇌ 8 NH 3 ),
1170-415: A cloud of ammonium chloride , which seems to appear 'out of nothing' as the salt aerosol forms where the two diffusing clouds of reagents meet between the two bottles. The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the ammonium salts and all contain the ammonium ion ( [NH 4 ] ). Although ammonia is well known as a weak base, it can also act as an extremely weak acid. It
1300-525: A compressor with a pressure ratio of 4:1, while the best current supercharger had only half that value. Besides publishing a paper on superchargers, Whittle wrote The Case for the Gas Turbine . According to John Golley, "The paper contained example calculations which showed the big increase in efficiency which could be obtained with the gas turbine at great height due to the beneficial effects of low air temperature. It also contained calculations to demonstrate
1430-596: A day and he suffered from various stress-related ailments such as frequent severe headaches, indigestion, insomnia, anxiety, eczema and heart palpitations, while his weight dropped to nine stone (126 lb / 57 kg). To keep to his 16-hour workdays, he sniffed benzedrine during the day and then took tranquillisers and sleeping pills at night to offset the effects and allow him to sleep. He admitted later he had become addicted to benzedrine. Over this period he became irritable and developed an "explosive" temper. On 30 June 1939, Power Jets could barely afford to keep
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#17328477745341560-407: A fuel for thermal power production. The flammable range of ammonia in dry air is 15.15–27.35% and in 100% relative humidity air is 15.95–26.55%. For studying the kinetics of ammonia combustion, knowledge of a detailed reliable reaction mechanism is required, but this has been challenging to obtain. Ammonia is a direct or indirect precursor to most manufactured nitrogen-containing compounds . It
1690-431: A geologically important antifreeze, as a mixture of water and ammonia can have a melting point as low as −100 °C (−148 °F; 173 K) if the ammonia concentration is high enough and thus allow such bodies to retain internal oceans and active geology at a far lower temperature than would be possible with water alone. Substances containing ammonia, or those that are similar to it, are called ammoniacal . Ammonia
1820-452: A laboratorial setting, gaseous ammonia can be detected by using concentrated hydrochloric acid or gaseous hydrogen chloride. A dense white fume (which is ammonium chloride vapor) arises from the reaction between ammonia and HCl(g). Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH 3 –N) is a measure commonly used for testing the quantity of ammonium ions, derived naturally from ammonia, and returned to ammonia via organic processes, in water or waste liquids. It
1950-532: A large diameter, thin-walled, shaft almost as large as the turbine disc, "necked down" at either end where it connected to the turbine and compressor. In April, the Air Ministry issued contracts for W.2 production lines with a capacity of up to 3,000 engines a month in 1942, asking BTH, Vauxhall and the Rover Company to join. However, the contract was eventually taken up by Rover only. In June, Whittle received
2080-459: A letter from Griffith, who was of the opinion that Whittle's "simple" design could not achieve the sort of efficiencies needed for a practical engine. After pointing out an error in one of Whittle's calculations, Griffith went on to comment that the centrifugal design would be too large for aircraft use and that using the jet directly for power would be rather inefficient. Griffith called the design "impracticable," as current materials could not achieve
2210-624: A letter of support for Whittle and the engine from Henry Tizard (chair of the Engine sub-committee of the Aeronautical Research Committee) in response to Whyte Falk then agreed to finance Whittle. With that the jet engine was finally on its way to becoming a reality. On 27 January 1936, the principals signed the "Four Party Agreement", creating " Power Jets Ltd" which was incorporated in March 1936. The parties were O.T. Falk & Partners,
2340-460: A nervous breakdown in 1940. In 1944 when Power Jets was nationalised he again suffered a nervous breakdown, and resigned from the board in 1946. In 1948, Whittle retired from the RAF and received a knighthood . He joined BOAC as a technical advisor before working as an engineering specialist with Shell , followed by a position with Bristol Aero Engines . After emigrating to the U.S. in 1976 he accepted
2470-584: A new twin-engined jet fighter aircraft . The W.2 was intended to be produced by the car manufacturer Rover , however, in late 1942, Rover agreed to exchange their jet engine factory at Barnoldswick , Lancashire for Rolls-Royce 's Meteor tank engine factory in Nottingham, with no money changing hands. At the behest of the British government, Rolls-Royce thereupon assumed control of the W.2 project, with Frank Whittle and his small team at Power Jets acting in an advisory capacity. The engine, which entered production as
2600-420: A non-flightworthy version of the W.1, installed in the E.28/39, begun on 7 April 1941; the aircraft flew under jet power for the first time on 15 May 1941. Increasingly refined versions of the W.1 engine were provisioned and installed upon the E.28/39 prototypes throughout the flight test programme. The success of the E.28/39 proved the viability of jet propulsion, encouraging Gloster to press ahead with designs for
2730-432: A pale yellowish-green flame. Ignition occurs when chlorine is passed into ammonia, forming nitrogen and hydrogen chloride ; if chlorine is present in excess, then the highly explosive nitrogen trichloride ( NCl 3 ) is also formed. The combustion of ammonia to form nitrogen and water is exothermic : The standard enthalpy change of combustion , Δ H ° c , expressed per mole of ammonia and with condensation of
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#17328477745342860-722: A physical training instructor at Halton to build up his physique, only to fail again six months later, when he was told that he could not be given a second chance, despite having added three inches to his height and chest. Undeterred, he applied again under an assumed name and presented himself as a candidate at the No 2 School of Technical Training RAF Cranwell . This time he passed the physical and, in September that year, 364365 Boy Whittle, F, started his three-year training as an aircraft mechanic in No. 1 Squadron of No. 4 Apprentices Wing, RAF Cranwell, because RAF Halton No. 1 School of Technical Training
2990-414: A place on the officer training course at Cranwell . He excelled in his studies and became an accomplished pilot. While writing his thesis he formulated the fundamental concepts that led to the creation of the turbojet engine, taking out a patent on his design in 1930. His performance on an officers' engineering course earned him a place on a further course at Peterhouse , Cambridge , where he graduated with
3120-402: A production fighter aircraft. In 1941, experiments with boosting the W.1's thrust by introducing a liquid coolant were initiated, the first fluid tried being liquid ammonia which proved too effective, resulting in the engine over-speeding and pushing the thrust and rpm indicators off the scales, before later trials changed to using water, and water-methanol . A system to trial the technique in
3250-519: A promotion to wing commander . On 19 July 1940, Power Jets abandoned effort to vaporize fuel, and adopted the controlled atomising burner for the combustion chamber, developed by Isaac Lubbock of Asiatic Petroleum Company (a joint venture of Shell and Royal Dutch) In the words of Whittle, "the introduction of the Shell system may be said to mark the point where combustion ceased to be an obstacle to development." The size of Power Jets also increased with
3380-408: A report noting the limitations his concept. The report said "the internal combustion turbine will not be rendered practical by the revolutionary design of some lucky inventor. The steam turbine engineer and the metallurgist ... are the people with whom the future development of the turbine rests" Whittle recorded that he found the response depressing. Pat Johnson remained convinced of the validity of
3510-497: A salt named hammoniacum , so called because of the proximity of its source to the Temple of Jupiter Amun ( Greek Ἄμμων Ammon ) in the Roman province of Cyrenaica . However, the description Pliny gives of the salt does not conform to the properties of ammonium chloride . According to Herbert Hoover 's commentary in his English translation of Georgius Agricola 's De re metallica , it
3640-473: A scholarship to a secondary school which in due course became Leamington College for Boys , but when his father's business faltered there was not enough money to keep him there. He quickly developed practical engineering skills while helping in his father's workshop, and being an enthusiastic reader spent much of his spare time in the Leamington reference library, reading about astronomy, engineering, turbines, and
3770-462: A shallow dive it would be capable of transonic flight. In order to get the M.52 to achieve supersonic speeds, further development of the W.2/700 engine would have been undertaken. However, neither this engine nor the aircraft would be completed as intended as the government ordered work to be halted in February 1946. In January 1944, the existing of the jet engine, and Power Jets' role in its development,
3900-581: A single stage was about 2.5:1. By the end of 1936, total expenditure on design and manufacture of the engine amounted to £2,000. The WU was test run for the first time on 12 April 1937. While the WU engine was undertaking began running trials in early 1937; support for its development emerged from both Sir Henry Tizard , chairman of the Aeronautical Research Committee , and the Air Ministry . Work on
4030-468: A surprise for he had never previously flown a seaplane, but he nevertheless increased his reputation as a pilot by flying some 20 different types of floatplanes, flying boats, and amphibians. While at Felixstowe, Whittle met with the firm of Armstrong Siddeley , and their technical advisor W.S. Farren . The firm rejected Whittle's proposal, doubting material was available to sustain the required very high temperatures. Whittle's turbojet proposal required
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4160-559: A total of eight electrons, or four electron pairs that are arranged tetrahedrally . Three of these electron pairs are used as bond pairs, which leaves one lone pair of electrons. The lone pair repels more strongly than bond pairs; therefore, the bond angle is not 109.5°, as expected for a regular tetrahedral arrangement, but 106.8°. This shape gives the molecule a dipole moment and makes it polar . The molecule's polarity, and especially its ability to form hydrogen bonds , makes ammonia highly miscible with water. The lone pair makes ammonia
4290-438: A useful analogy is an umbrella turning itself inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this inversion is 24.7 kJ/mol, and the resonance frequency is 23.79 GHz , corresponding to microwave radiation of a wavelength of 1.260 cm. The absorption at this frequency was the first microwave spectrum to be observed and was used in the first maser . One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia
4420-472: A version of Power Jet's set-up at Waterloo Mill, associated with their Barnoldswick factory, near Clitheroe . Rover was working on an alternative to Whittle's "reverse-flow" combustion chambers, by developing a "straight-through" combustion chamber and turbine wheel. Rover referred to the engine as the B.26, sanctioned by the Directorate of Engine Development, but kept secret until April 1942, from Power Jets,
4550-492: A well-known independent consulting aeronautical engineer and patent engineer. Bramson was initially sceptical but after studying Whittle's ideas became an enthusiastic supporter. Bramson introduced Whittle and his two associates to the investment bank O.T. Falk & Partners, where discussions took place with Lancelot Law Whyte and occasionally Sir Maurice Bonham-Carter . The firm had an interest in developing speculative projects that conventional banks would not touch. Whyte
4680-491: A year he was posted to the Central Flying School , then at RAF Wittering , for a flying instructor's course. He became a popular and gifted instructor, and was selected as one of the entrants in a competition to select a team to perform the "crazy flying" routine in the 1930 Royal Air Force Air Display at RAF Hendon . He destroyed two aircraft in accidents during rehearsals but remained unscathed on both occasions. After
4810-514: Is 40.65 kJ/mol, methane 8.19 kJ/mol and phosphine 14.6 kJ/mol) and can be transported in pressurized or refrigerated vessels; however, at standard temperature and pressure liquid anhydrous ammonia will vaporize. Ammonia readily dissolves in water. In an aqueous solution, it can be expelled by boiling. The aqueous solution of ammonia is basic , and may be described as aqueous ammonia or ammonium hydroxide . The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a saturated solution ) has
4940-811: Is a protic substance and is capable of formation of amides (which contain the NH − 2 ion). For example, lithium dissolves in liquid ammonia to give a blue solution ( solvated electron ) of lithium amide : Like water, liquid ammonia undergoes molecular autoionisation to form its acid and base conjugates : Ammonia often functions as a weak base , so it has some buffering ability. Shifts in pH will cause more or fewer ammonium cations ( NH + 4 ) and amide anions ( NH − 2 ) to be present in solution . At standard pressure and temperature, Ammonia does not burn readily or sustain combustion , except under narrow fuel-to-air mixtures of 15–28% ammonia by volume in air. When mixed with oxygen , it burns with
5070-455: Is a colourless gas with a characteristically pungent smell . It is lighter than air , its density being 0.589 times that of air . It is easily liquefied due to the strong hydrogen bonding between molecules. Gaseous ammonia turns to a colourless liquid , which boils at −33.1 °C (−27.58 °F), and freezes to colourless crystals at −77.7 °C (−107.86 °F). Little data is available at very high temperatures and pressures, but
5200-402: Is a measure used mainly for quantifying values in waste treatment and water purification systems, as well as a measure of the health of natural and man-made water reserves. It is measured in units of mg/L ( milligram per litre ). The ancient Greek historian Herodotus mentioned that there were outcrops of salt in an area of Libya that was inhabited by a people called the 'Ammonians' (now
5330-537: Is an ionising solvent, although less so than water, and dissolves a range of ionic compounds, including many nitrates , nitrites , cyanides , thiocyanates , metal cyclopentadienyl complexes and metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amides . Most ammonium salts are soluble and act as acids in liquid ammonia solutions. The solubility of halide salts increases from fluoride to iodide . A saturated solution of ammonium nitrate ( Divers' solution , named after Edward Divers ) contains 0.83 mol solute per mole of ammonia and has
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5460-437: Is an irritant and irritation increases with concentration; the permissible exposure limit is 25 ppm , and lethal above 500 ppm by volume. Higher concentrations are hardly detected by conventional detectors, the type of detector is chosen according to the sensitivity required (e.g. semiconductor, catalytic, electrochemical). Holographic sensors have been proposed for detecting concentrations up to 12.5% in volume. In
5590-403: Is formed. Pentavalent ammonia is known as λ -amine, nitrogen pentahydride decomposes spontaneously into trivalent ammonia (λ -amine) and hydrogen gas at normal conditions. This substance was once investigated as a possible solid rocket fuel in 1966. Ammonia is also used to make the following compounds: Ammonia is a ligand forming metal ammine complexes . For historical reasons, ammonia
5720-582: Is generated via the Ostwald process by oxidation of ammonia with air over a platinum catalyst at 700–850 °C (1,292–1,562 °F), ≈9 atm. Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are intermediate in this conversion: Nitric acid is used for the production of fertilisers , explosives , and many organonitrogen compounds. The hydrogen in ammonia is susceptible to replacement by a myriad substituents. Ammonia gas reacts with metallic sodium to give sodamide , NaNH 2 . With chlorine, monochloramine
5850-519: Is its basicity . Ammonia is considered to be a weak base. It combines with acids to form ammonium salts ; thus, with hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac); with nitric acid , ammonium nitrate , etc. Perfectly dry ammonia gas will not combine with perfectly dry hydrogen chloride gas; moisture is necessary to bring about the reaction. As a demonstration experiment under air with ambient moisture, opened bottles of concentrated ammonia and hydrochloric acid solutions produce
5980-646: Is likely to have been common sea salt. In any case, that salt ultimately gave ammonia and ammonium compounds their name. Traces of ammonia/ammonium are found in rainwater. Ammonium chloride ( sal ammoniac ), and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts. Crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been found in Patagonia guano . Ammonia is found throughout the Solar System on Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , Neptune , and Pluto , among other places: on smaller, icy bodies such as Pluto, ammonia can act as
6110-440: Is named ammine in the nomenclature of coordination compounds . One notable ammine complex is cisplatin ( Pt(NH 3 ) 2 Cl 2 , a widely used anticancer drug. Ammine complexes of chromium (III) formed the basis of Alfred Werner 's revolutionary theory on the structure of coordination compounds. Werner noted only two isomers ( fac - and mer -) of the complex [CrCl 3 (NH 3 ) 3 ] could be formed, and concluded
6240-404: Is only +0.04 V. In practice, both oxidation to dinitrogen and reduction to dihydrogen are slow. This is particularly true of reducing solutions: the solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days, slowly decomposing to the metal amide and dihydrogen. Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions; although oxidation of liquid ammonia
6370-543: Is the precursor to nitric acid, which is the source for most N-substituted aromatic compounds. Amines can be formed by the reaction of ammonia with alkyl halides or, more commonly, with alcohols : Its ring-opening reaction with ethylene oxide give ethanolamine , diethanolamine , and triethanolamine . Amides can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with carboxylic acid and their derivatives. For example, ammonia reacts with formic acid (HCOOH) to yield formamide ( HCONH 2 ) when heated. Acyl chlorides are
6500-410: Is today referred to as a motorjet ; an air compressor using a conventional piston engine to provide compressed air to a combustion chamber whose exhaust was used directly for thrust – essentially an afterburner attached to a piston engine driven air compressor. The idea was not new and had been talked about for some time in the industry, but Whittle's aim was to demonstrate that at increased altitudes
6630-464: Is transported by road in tankers , by rail in tank wagons , by sea in gas carriers , or in cylinders . Ammonia boils at −33.34 °C (−28.012 °F) at a pressure of one atmosphere , but the liquid can often be handled in the laboratory without external cooling. Household ammonia or ammonium hydroxide is a solution of ammonia in water. Pliny , in Book XXXI of his Natural History , refers to
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#17328477745346760-438: Is usually slow, there is still a risk of explosion, particularly if transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts. The ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape, as predicted by the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) with an experimentally determined bond angle of 106.7°. The central nitrogen atom has five outer electrons with an additional electron from each hydrogen atom. This gives
6890-461: Is very difficult in the absence of a catalyst (such as platinum gauze or warm chromium(III) oxide ), due to the relatively low heat of combustion , a lower laminar burning velocity, high auto-ignition temperature , high heat of vapourization , and a narrow flammability range . However, recent studies have shown that efficient and stable combustion of ammonia can be achieved using swirl combustors, thereby rekindling research interest in ammonia as
7020-426: Is very low." This led to three provisional specifications being filed, as the group sought to develop a jet-propelled aeroplane. The arrangement was that Williams and Tinling would have a quarter share each of the commercial rights but they would not approach any existing company in the aircraft industry. The agreement soon bore fruit, and in 1935, through Tinling's father, Whittle was introduced to Mogens L. Bramson,
7150-492: The Air Ministry enough to fund development with a contract for £5,000 to develop a flyable version. However, it was not until March 1938 that a contract was signed, when Power Jets became subject to the Official Secrets Act , limiting the ability to raise additional funds. In January 1938, BTH invested £2,500. In December 1937, Victor Crompton became Power Jets’ first employee, as an assistant to Whittle. Because of
7280-574: The Heinkel He 178 , powered by the Heinkel HeS 3 . There is little doubt that Whittle's efforts would have been at the same level or even more advanced had the Air Ministry taken a greater interest in the design. When war broke out in September 1939, Power Jets had a payroll of only 10 and Griffith's operations at the RAE and Metropolitan-Vickers were similarly small. Whittle's smoking increased to three packs
7410-670: The Hispano-Suiza aircraft factory in Madrid in 1936, but Leret was executed months later by Francoist Moroccan troops after commanding the defence of his seaplane base near Melilla at the onset of the Spanish Civil War . His plans were hidden from the Francoists and secretly handed to the British embassy in Madrid a few years later when his wife, Carlota O'Neill , was released from prison. Despite lengthy delays in their own programme,
7540-670: The Luftwaffe beat the British efforts into the air by nine months. A lack of cobalt for high-temperature steel alloys meant the German designs were always at risk of overheating and damaging their turbines. The low-grade alloy production versions of the Junkers Jumo 004 , designed by Dr. Anselm Franz and which powered the Messerschmitt Me 262 would typically last only 10–25 hours (longer with an experienced pilot) before burning out; if it
7670-412: The National Gas Turbine Establishment (NGTE Pyestock). During February 1946, around the same time as the termination of the M.52's development, Whittle resigned from Power Jets and stated that it was due to his disagreement with the British government's official policies. The last remnants of the company were disestablished in 1948. During 1951, Power Jets' successor received $ 4,000,000 (£1,428,600) from
7800-473: The Siwa oasis in northwestern Egypt, where salt lakes still exist). The Greek geographer Strabo also mentioned the salt from this region. However, the ancient authors Dioscorides , Apicius , Arrian , Synesius , and Aëtius of Amida described this salt as forming clear crystals that could be used for cooking and that were essentially rock salt . Hammoniacus sal appears in the writings of Pliny , although it
7930-713: The Welland , would be a key milestone for jet propulsion, powering early versions of the Gloster Meteor , the Allies' first operational jet fighter. The W.2B/500 design was modified by Rover as the Rover B.26 ; following its transfer to Rolls-Royce and further re-design, entered service as the Derwent , which was the effective successor to the Welland. Power Jets and Rolls-Royce closely collaborated on
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#17328477745348060-438: The liquid-vapor critical point occurs at 405 K and 11.35 MPa. The crystal symmetry is cubic, Pearson symbol cP16, space group P2 1 3 No.198, lattice constant 0.5125 nm . Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionising powers reflecting its high ε of 22 at −35 °C (−31 °F). Liquid ammonia has a very high standard enthalpy change of vapourization (23.5 kJ/mol ; for comparison, water 's
8190-460: The nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to fertilisers . Around 70% of ammonia produced industrially is used to make fertilisers in various forms and composition, such as urea and diammonium phosphate . Ammonia in pure form is also applied directly into the soil. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many chemicals. Ammonia occurs in nature and has been detected in
8320-439: The 1920s, having been awarded his first patent on such an engine design in 1930. On 27 January 1936, Power Jets was founded; it initially consisted of Whittle, Rolf Dudley-Williams , James Collingwood Tinling , and Lancelot Law Whyte of investment bankers O T Falk & Partners. At this point, there was no official backing of the company from any government ministry. Securing funding was a persistently worrying issue throughout
8450-492: The 36 Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses . Earlier, in January, when the company formed, Henry Tizard , the rector of Imperial College London and chairman of the Aeronautical Research Committee (ARC), had prompted the Air Ministry's Director of Scientific Research to ask for a write-up of the design. The report was once again passed on to Griffith for comment, but was not received back until March 1937 by which point Whittle's design
8580-715: The Air Ministry refused to pay it the patent was allowed to lapse. Shortly afterwards, in May, he received mail from Rolf Dudley-Williams , who had been with him at Cranwell in the 1920s and Felixstowe in 1930. Williams arranged a meeting with Whittle, himself, and another by-then-retired RAF serviceman, James Collingwood Tinling . The two proposed a partnership that allowed them to act on Whittle's behalf to gather public financing so that development could go ahead. Whittle thought improvements to his original idea could be patented, noting, "Its virtue lies entirely in its extremely low weight, and that it will work at heights where atmospheric density
8710-452: The Air Ministry, Whittle and, together, Williams and Tinling. Falk was represented on the board of Power Jets by Whyte as chairman and Bonham-Carter as a director (with Bramson acting as alternate ). Whittle, Williams and Tinling retained a 49% share of the company in exchange for Falk and Partners putting in £2,000 with the option of a further £18,000 within 18 months. As Whittle was still a full-time RAF officer and currently at Cambridge, he
8840-535: The Controller of Research and Development, and the Director of Scientific Research. Ammonia Ammonia is an inorganic chemical compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula N H 3 . A stable binary hydride and the simplest pnictogen hydride , ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinctive pungent smell. Biologically, it is a common nitrogenous waste , and it contributes significantly to
8970-569: The Derwent's development; such was the confidence of Rolls-Royce's engineers in the performance of the Derwent 5 that the engine proceeded to production straight from the drawing board in advance of any practice testing. The Derwent engine, and the re-designed Derwent V based on the Nene , was installed on many of the later production Gloster Meteors; the adoption of this new powerplant led to considerable performance increases. After initial suggestions in 1939 by
9100-673: The E.28/39 was devised but never fitted. The W.1 was also the first jet engine built in the United States where, as the General Electric I-A , it was the first US-built jet engine to run, and as the production General Electric J31 it powered the Bell P-59A Airacomet . Development of the Power Jets W.2 was authorised in 1940 in coordination with the Air Ministry's issuing of Specification F.9/40 , which called for prototypes of
9230-544: The Engine Department of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), the latter's Pyestock Section experimented with the technique of injecting fuel into the engine's exhaust nozzle, later known as reheat , and this technique was further refined after Power Jets and the personnel from Pyestock had been amalgamated. Reheat was later flight trialled in the W.2/700 engines in a Meteor I . The technique increased
9360-402: The F.9/40, but the engine was replaced with the W.2B, having a designed static thrust of 1,800 pounds-force (8,000 N). An experimental version of the W.1, designated W.1X, was used as a mock-up for the E.28 installation. A second E.28 was powered by the W.1A, that incorporated W.2 features such as air cooling of the turbine and a different compressor intake. On 26 March 1940, the jet engine
9490-698: The Meteor's speed by 30-40 mph. The same engine was also trialled with an aft ducted fan . During late 1943, the British government initiated a supersonic research programme aimed at producing an aircraft that would attain speeds of up to 1,000 MPH. This aircraft, the Miles M.52 , was intended to be powered by a version of the Power Jets W.2/700. This engine was estimated to be initially capable of providing 2,000 lb of thrust, while calculated to be only capable of providing subsonic performance in level flight, when flown in
9620-531: The Model Aircraft Society, where he built working replicas. The quality of these attracted the eye of the Apprentice Wing commanding officer, who noted that Whittle was also a mathematical genius. He was so impressed that in 1926 he recommended Whittle for officer training at RAF College Cranwell. For Whittle, this was the chance of a lifetime, not only to enter the commissioned ranks but also because
9750-502: The US Government in advance payment for American use of some 200 Power Jets Whittle gas turbine patents for the next 20 years. Previously, patent fees payable by the US had been waived by Power Jets for the duration of the war. Frank Whittle Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle , OM , KBE , CB , FRS , FRAeS (1 June 1907 – 8 August 1996)
9880-470: The W.1-powered E.28/39 took off from Cranwell at 7:40 pm, flying for 17 minutes and reaching a maximum speed of around 340 mph (545 km/h). At the end of the flight, Pat Johnson, who had encouraged Whittle for so long said to him, "Frank, it flies." Whittle replied, "Well, that's what it was bloody well designed to do, wasn't it?" Within days the aircraft was reaching 370 mph (600 km/h) at 25,000 feet (7,600 m), exceeding
10010-522: The W.U. and then lend it back to them, injecting cash, and placed an order for a flyable version of the engine, referred to as the Power Jets W.1 and Power Jets W.2 . By then, the Ministry had a tentative contract with the Gloster Aircraft Company for a simple aircraft specifically to flight-test the W.1, the single-engine Gloster E.28/39 . Whittle had already studied the problem of turning
10140-532: The WU engine was discontinued in 1941, by which point it had already been superseded by a newer engine design, the Power Jets W.1 , which (amongst other attributes) was to be flightworthy. It was selected to power the Gloster E.28/39 , the first jet aircraft to fly in the United Kingdom. Power Jets and Gloster had quickly formed a good working relationship around mid-1939 to produce such an aircraft. Ground testing of
10270-443: The addition of Nessler's solution , which gives a distinct yellow colouration in the presence of the slightest trace of ammonia or ammonium salts. The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated quantitatively by distillation of the salts with sodium (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH), the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known volume of standard sulfuric acid and the excess of acid then determined volumetrically ; or
10400-443: The ammonia may be absorbed in hydrochloric acid and the ammonium chloride so formed precipitated as ammonium hexachloroplatinate , [NH 4 ] 2 [PtCl 6 ] . Sulfur sticks are burnt to detect small leaks in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems. Larger quantities can be detected by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with quicklime , when the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent. Ammonia
10530-443: The beginning of 1940, the company had a total workforce of about twenty five. A major breakthrough for the company came in 1940 when at the prompting of Stanley Hooker , Ernest Hives , chairman of Rolls-Royce , visited Lutterworth, and offered to make any parts Whittle required at Rolls-Royce's Derby experimental shop. Prior to this, Power Jets had often been dismissed by potential British industrial suppliers; when Whittle discussed
10660-458: The commanding officer of the base. This set in motion a chain of events that almost led to the engines being produced much sooner than actually occurred. Earlier, in July 1926, A. A. Griffith had published a paper on compressors and turbines, which he had been studying at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE). He showed that such designs up to this point had been flying "stalled", and that by giving
10790-632: The company an emergency loan of £250. On 27 July, Falk's option expired, but they agreed to continue financing Power Jets by loan. Also in July, Whittle's post-graduate stay at Cambridge was over, but then he was placed on the Special Duty List so he could work full-time on the engine. On 1 November, Williams, Tinling and Whittle took control of Power Jets. Whittle was promoted to squadron leader in December. Tizard pronounced it "streaks ahead" of any other advanced engine he had seen, and managed to interest
10920-499: The compressed air for the burner, a turbine could be used to extract some power from the exhaust and drive a compressor, similar as in a turbocharger . The remaining exhaust thrust would power the aircraft. On 27 August 1928, Pilot Officer Whittle joined No. 111 Squadron , Hornchurch, flying Siskin IIIs . His continuing reputation for low flying and aerobatics provoked a public complaint that almost led to his being court-martialled. Within
11050-418: The compressor blades an aerofoil-shaped cross-section their efficiency could be dramatically improved. The paper went on to describe how the increased efficiency of these sorts of compressors and turbines would allow a jet engine to be produced, although he felt the idea was impractical, and instead suggested using the power as a turboprop . At the time most superchargers used a centrifugal compressor , so there
11180-464: The course was that each student had to produce a thesis for graduation: Whittle decided to write his on potential aircraft design developments, notably flight at high altitudes and speeds over 500 mph (800 km/h). In Future Developments in Aircraft Design he showed that incremental improvements in existing propeller engines were unlikely to make such flight routine. Instead he described what
11310-458: The degree to which range would depend on height with turbojet aircraft." Every officer with a permanent commission was expected to take a specialist course, and as a result Whittle attended the Officers School of Engineering at RAF Henlow in 1932. He obtained an aggregate of 98% in all subjects in his entrance exam, which allowed him to complete a shortened one-year course. Whittle received
11440-548: The early development of the engine. Initial premises for the firm were hired from British Thomson-Houston (BTH) at Rugby, Warwickshire . In addition to the founder members, the company initially 'borrowed' some fitters from BTH to assist in the project; later on, Power Jets was able to get 'one or two' people on loan from the Royal Air Force . During 1938, Power Jets had relocated from Rugby to BTH's works in Lutterworth . By
11570-450: The effort (they regarded it as long-range research and set up work on an axial flow turbine at the RAE with Hayne Constant in 1937 ), and having no production facilities of its own, Power Jets entered into an agreement with steam turbine specialists British Thomson-Houston (BTH) to build an experimental engine facility at a BTH factory in Rugby, Warwickshire . Work progressed quickly, and by
11700-485: The end of the year 1936 the prototype detail design was finalised and parts for it were well on their way to being completed, all within the original £2,000 budget. However, by 1936, Germany had also started working on jet engines ( Herbert A. Wagner at Junkers and Hans von Ohain at Heinkel ) and, although they too had difficulty overcoming conservatism, the German Ministry of Aviation (Reichsluftfahrtministerium)
11830-432: The engine although intensive development was started on all features of the new combustion chambers. By this point it was clear that Gloster's first airframe would be ready long before Rover could deliver an engine. Unwilling to wait, Whittle cobbled together an engine from spare parts, creating the W.1X ("X" standing for "experimental") which ran for the first time on 14 December 1940. Shortly afterwards an application for
11960-437: The first "experimental" engine, and the "1st edition", was the first turbojet engine to be built and run in the world. As an experimental proof-of-concept engine, it was never intended for flight, and was designed to be very light in comparison to typical engineering standards. Whittle designed the centrifugal compressor to develop about 4:1 pressure ratio when, as far as he was aware, the best previously demonstrated performance in
12090-513: The future must produce 2,000 hp with one moving part: a spinning turbine and compressor.' However O.T. Falk & Partners specified they would only invest in Whittle's engine if they had independent verification that it was feasible. They financed an independent engineering review from Bramson (the historic "Bramson Report" ), which was issued in November 1935. It was favourable and together with
12220-536: The hazardous nature of the work being carried out, development was moved largely from Rugby to BTH's lightly used Ladywood foundry at nearby Lutterworth in Leicestershire in 1938. Tests with a reconstructed W.U. engine commenced on 16 April 1938, and proceeded until a catastrophic failure of the turbine on 6 May. Yet, the engine ran for 1 hour and 45 minutes, and generated a thrust of 480 pounds-force (2,100 N) at 13,000 rpm . Another W.U. engine reconstruction
12350-476: The high temperatures. Griffith did say "the internal combustion turbine will almost certainly be developed into a successful engine, but before this can be done the performance of both compressors and turbines will have to be greatly improved. However it has been of real interest to investigate your scheme and I can assure you that any suggestion submitted by people in the Service is always welcome." Whittle received
12480-417: The idea, and had Whittle patent the idea in January 1930. Since the RAF was not interested in the concept they did not declare it secret, meaning that Whittle was able to retain the rights to the idea, which would have otherwise been their property. Johnson arranged a meeting with British Thomson-Houston (BTH), whose chief turbine engineer seemed to agree with the basic idea. However, BTH did not want to spend
12610-466: The interstellar medium. In many countries, it is classified as an extremely hazardous substance . Ammonia is produced biologically in a process called nitrogen fixation , but even more is generated industrially by the Haber process . The process helped revolutionize agriculture by providing cheap fertilizers. The global industrial production of ammonia in 2021 was 235 million tonnes. Industrial ammonia
12740-511: The ligands must be arranged around the metal ion at the vertices of an octahedron . Ammonia forms 1:1 adducts with a variety of Lewis acids such as I 2 , phenol , and Al(CH 3 ) 3 . Ammonia is a hard base (HSAB theory) and its E & C parameters are E B = 2.31 and C B = 2.04. Its relative donor strength toward a series of acids, versus other Lewis bases, can be illustrated by C-B plots . Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very minute traces, by
12870-401: The lights on when yet another visit was made by Air Ministry personnel. This time Whittle was able to run the third reconstructed W.U. at 16,000 rpm for 20 minutes without any difficulty. One of the members of the team was the Director of Scientific Research, David Randall Pye , who walked out of the demonstration utterly convinced of the importance of the project. The Ministry agreed to buy
13000-740: The low air density would greatly reduce resistance in proportion to speed." Of the few apprentices accepted into the Royal Air Force College, Whittle graduated in 1928 at the age of 21 and was commissioned as a pilot officer in July. He ranked second in his class in academics, won the Andy Fellowes Memorial Prize for Aeronautical Sciences for his thesis, and was described as an "exceptional to above average" pilot. However, his flight logbook also showed numerous red ink warnings about showboating and overconfidence, and because of dangerous flying in an Armstrong Whitworth Siskin he
13130-437: The lower outside air density would increase the design's efficiency. For long-range flight, using an Atlantic-crossing mailplane as his example, the engine would spend most of its time at high altitude and thus could outperform a conventional powerplant. According to Whittle, "...I came to the general conclusion that if very high speeds were to be combined with long range, it would be necessary to fly at very great height, where
13260-438: The massive W.U. into a flyable design, with what he described as very optimistic targets, to power a little aeroplane weighing 2,000 lb with a static thrust of 1,389 lb. The designed maximum thrust for the W.1 was 1,240 pounds-force (5,500 N), while that for the W.2, was 1,600 pounds-force (7,100 N) The W.2 was to be flown in the twin-engine Gloster Meteor fighter, at the time known by its Air Ministry specification as
13390-474: The most reactive, but the ammonia must be present in at least a twofold excess to neutralise the hydrogen chloride formed. Esters and anhydrides also react with ammonia to form amides. Ammonium salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides by heating to 150–200 °C as long as no thermally sensitive groups are present. Other organonitrogen compounds include alprazolam , ethanolamine , ethyl carbamate and hexamethylenetetramine . Nitric acid
13520-523: The oldest college of Cambridge University , graduating in 1936 with a First in the Mechanical Sciences Tripos . The Ministry gave him permission to spend a further year after graduation working with the aerodynamicist Melvill Jones . On 1 February 1934, he was promoted to the rank of flight lieutenant . Still at Cambridge, Whittle could ill afford the £5 renewal fee for his jet engine patent when it became due in January 1935, and because
13650-577: The performance of the contemporary Supermarine Spitfire fighters. Success of the design was now evident, and in 1941, Rolls-Royce , Hawker Siddeley , the Bristol Aeroplane Company , and de Havilland became interested in gas turbine aircraft propulsion. Under Harold Roxbee Cox , the Gas Turbine Collaboration Committee was created to give a forum for all the companies for exchange of information. The stress on Whittle
13780-399: The physical properties of NH 3 with those of water shows NH 3 has the lower melting point, boiling point, density, viscosity , dielectric constant and electrical conductivity . These differences are attributed at least in part to the weaker hydrogen bonding in NH 3 . The ionic self- dissociation constant of liquid NH 3 at −50 °C is about 10 . Liquid ammonia
13910-656: The position of NAVAIR Research Professor at the United States Naval Academy from 1977 to 1979. In August 1996, Whittle died of lung cancer at his home in Columbia, Maryland. In 2002, Whittle was ranked number 42 in the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons . Whittle was born in a terraced house in Newcombe Road, Earlsdon , Coventry, England, on 1 June 1907, the eldest son of Moses Whittle and Sara Alice Garlick. When he
14040-631: The requirements for his combustion chamber with various exhibitors at the British Industries Fair , many were simply unprepared to tackle the difficult problem of combustion. One British company, called High Duty Alloys, produced special aluminium alloys under the trade name Hiduminium that proved to be ideal for operating within the conditions inside a jet compressor. For his part, Whittle also sought to keep his engine designs as simple as possible in order to reduce manufacturing complexity. The Power Jets WU "First Model", also known by Whittle as
14170-401: The second incident an enraged Flight Lieutenant Harold W. Raeburn said furiously, "Why don't you take all my bloody aeroplanes, make a heap of them in the middle of the aerodrome and set fire to them – it's quicker!" Whittle showed his engine concept around the base, where it attracted the attention of Flying Officer Pat Johnson, formerly a patent examiner. Johnson, in turn, took the concept to
14300-494: The team pressed ahead, and the Power Jets WU (Whittle Unit, or W.U.) engine began test runs on 12 April 1937. Initially, the W.U. showed an alarming tendency to race out of control, due to issues with the fuel injection, before stable speeds were reached. However, by August, Whittle acknowledged a major reconstruction effort was needed to solve the combustion problem and compressor efficiency. On 9 July, Falk & Partners gave
14430-558: The theory of flight. At the age of 15, determined to be a pilot, Whittle applied to join the RAF . In January 1923, having passed the RAF entrance examination with a high mark, Whittle reported to RAF Halton in Buckinghamshire as an Aircraft Apprentice . He lasted only two days: just five feet tall and with a small chest measurement, he failed the medical. He then put himself through a vigorous training programme and special diet devised by
14560-570: The training included flying lessons on the Avro 504 . While at Cranwell he lodged in a bungalow at Dorrington . Being an ex-apprentice amongst a majority of ex- public schoolboys , life as an officer cadet was not easy for him, but he nevertheless excelled in the courses and went solo in 1927 after only 13.5 hours’ instruction, quickly progressing to the Bristol Fighter and gaining a reputation for daredevil low flying and aerobatics. A requirement of
14690-435: The war effort, increasing from 25 employees in January 1940 to 70 in September 1940. Meanwhile, work continued with the W.U., which eventually went through nine rebuilds in an attempt to solve the combustion problems that had dominated the testing. On 9 October the W.U. ran once again, this time equipped with Lubbock or "Shell" atomising-burner combustion chambers. Combustion problems ceased to be an obstacle to development of
14820-488: The water formed, is −382.81 kJ/mol. Dinitrogen is the thermodynamic product of combustion : all nitrogen oxides are unstable with respect to N 2 and O 2 , which is the principle behind the catalytic converter . Nitrogen oxides can be formed as kinetic products in the presence of appropriate catalysts , a reaction of great industrial importance in the production of nitric acid : A subsequent reaction leads to NO 2 : The combustion of ammonia in air
14950-593: The £60,000 it would cost to develop it, and this potential brush with early success went no further. In January 1930, Whittle was promoted to flying officer . In Coventry, on 24 May 1930, Whittle married his fiancée, Dorothy Mary Lee, with whom he later had two sons, David and Ian. Then, in 1931, he was posted to the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment at Felixstowe as an armament officer and test pilot of seaplanes, where he continued to publicise his idea. This posting came as
15080-472: Was accelerated too quickly, the compressor would stall and power was immediately lost, and sometimes it exploded on their first startup. Over 200 German pilots were killed during training. Nevertheless, the Me 262 could fly far faster than allied planes and had very effective firepower. Although Me 262s were introduced late in the war they shot down 542 or more allied planes and in one allied bombing raid downed 32 of
15210-545: Was an English engineer, inventor and Royal Air Force (RAF) air officer . He is credited with co-creating the turbojet engine. A patent was submitted by Maxime Guillaume in 1921 for a similar invention which was technically unfeasible at the time. Whittle's jet engines were developed some years earlier than those of Germany's Hans von Ohain , who designed the first-to-fly turbojet engine as well as Austria’s Anselm Franz . Whittle demonstrated an aptitude for engineering and an interest in flying from an early age. At first he
15340-409: Was disqualified from the end-of-term flying contest. Whittle continued working on the motorjet principle after his thesis work but eventually abandoned it when further calculations showed it would weigh as much as a conventional engine of the same thrust. Pondering the problem he thought: "Why not substitute a turbine for the piston engine?" Instead of using a piston engine driven compressor to provide
15470-590: Was expressed in a 27 May 1941 letter to Henry Tizard : The responsibility that rests on my shoulders is very heavy indeed. We are faced with two alternatives – either we place a powerful weapon in the hands of the Royal Air Force or, if we fail to get our results in time, we may have falsely raised hopes and caused action to be taken which may deprive the Royal Air Force of hundreds of aeroplanes that it badly needs. In mid-1941, relations between Power Jets and Rover had continued to deteriorate. Rover had established
15600-435: Was given the title "Honorary Chief Engineer and Technical Consultant". Needing special permission to work outside the RAF, he was placed on the Special Duty List and allowed to work on the design as long as it was for no more than six hours a week. However he was allowed to continue at Cambridge for a year doing post-graduate work which gave him time to work on the turbojet. The Air Ministry still saw little immediate value in
15730-481: Was impressed by the 28-year-old Whittle and his design when they met on 11 September 1935: The impression he made was overwhelming, I have never been so quickly convinced, or so happy to find one's highest standards met... This was genius, not talent. Whittle expressed his idea with superb conciseness: 'Reciprocating engines are exhausted. They have hundreds of parts jerking to and fro, and they cannot be made more powerful without becoming too complicated. The engine of
15860-416: Was limited interest in the paper. Encouraged by his commanding officer, in late 1929 Whittle sent his concept to the Air Ministry to see if it would be of any interest to them. Whittle was invited to the Ministry and met an officer of the Ministry's Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) and Griffith (at the time a member of the Aeronautical Research Committee). Afterwards, Whittle received
15990-404: Was listed as a potential war winner by Air Marshal Tedder , and given the associated priority. Power Jets also spent some time in May 1940 drawing up the W.2Y, a similar design with a "straight-through" airflow that resulted in a longer engine and, more critically, a longer driveshaft but having a somewhat simpler layout. To reduce the weight of the driveshaft as much as possible, the W.2Y used
16120-559: Was made public for the first time in the printed press. On 28 March 1944, following discussions with the Air Ministry , Whittle reluctantly agreed to the nationalisation of Power Jets Ltd. for £135,000, and the company became Power Jets (Research and Development) Ltd. Shortly after the end of the Second World War , the company was merged with the Turbine Division of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) at Farnborough , to form
16250-417: Was more supportive than their British counterpart. Von Ohain applied for a patent for a turbojet engine in 1935 but having earlier reviewed and critiqued Whittle's patents, had to narrow the scope of his own filing. In Spain, air-force pilot and engineer Virgilio Leret Ruiz had been granted a patent for a jet engine in March 1935, and Republican president Manuel Azaña arranged for initial construction at
16380-544: Was nine years old, the family moved to the nearby town of Royal Leamington Spa where his father, a highly inventive practical engineer and mechanic, purchased the Leamington Valve and Piston Ring Company, which comprised a few lathes and other tools and a single-cylinder gas engine , on which Whittle became an expert. Whittle developed a rebellious and adventurous streak, together with an early interest in aviation. After two years attending Milverton School, Whittle won
16510-435: Was started on 30 May 1938, but using ten combustion chambers to match the ten compressor discharge ducts. Avoiding a single large combustion chamber made the engine lighter and more compact. Tests commenced with this third W.U. on 26 October 1938. These delays and the lack of funding slowed the project. In Germany, Hans von Ohain had filed for a patent in 1935, which in 1939, led to the world's first flyable jet aircraft ,
16640-399: Was turned down by the RAF but, determined to join the force, he overcame his physical limitations and was accepted and sent to No. 2 School of Technical Training to join No 1 Squadron of Cranwell Aircraft Apprentices. He was taught the theory of aircraft engines and gained practical experience in the engineering workshops. His academic and practical abilities as an Aircraft Apprentice earned him
16770-476: Was unable to accommodate all the aircraft apprentices at that time. Whittle hated the strict discipline imposed on apprentices and, convinced there was no hope of ever becoming a pilot, he at one time seriously considered deserting. However, throughout his early days as an aircraft apprentice (and at the Royal Air Force College Cranwell ), he maintained his interest in model aircraft and joined
16900-531: Was well along. Griffith had already started construction of his own turbine engine design and, perhaps to avoid tainting his own efforts, he returned a somewhat more positive review. However, he remained highly critical of some features, notably the use of jet thrust. The Engine Sub-Committee of ARC studied Griffith's report, and decided to fund Griffith's effort instead. Given this astonishing display of official indifference, Falk and Partners gave notice that they could not provide funding beyond £5,000. Nevertheless,
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