Misplaced Pages

#79920

114-467: (Redirected from Patriarch Photius ) Patriarch Photios/Photius may refer to: Photios I of Constantinople , Ecumenical Patriarch in 858–867 and 877–886 Patriarch Photius of Alexandria , Greek Patriarch of Alexandria in 1900–1925 Photios II of Constantinople , Ecumenical Patriarch in 1929–1935 Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with

228-563: A strategos ("military general") of the theme of Hellas at the end of the eighth century. Constantine Sarantapechos's son, Theophylact, was a spatharios and is mentioned as having been involved in suppressing a revolt in 799. According to Theophanes the Confessor , Irene was related to Theophano of Athens who would become empress consort after her marriage to the Byzantine emperor Staurakios . Another unnamed female relative of Irene

342-470: A Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic) anathematizing Photios, while Eastern Orthodox regard as legitimate a subsequent Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox) , reversing the former. The contested councils mark the end of unity represented by the first seven Ecumenical Councils . Photios was canonized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1847. Most of

456-569: A book of reference to facilitate the reading of old classical and sacred authors, whose language and vocabulary were out of date. For a long time, the only manuscripts of the Lexicon were the Codex Galeanus , which passed into the library of Trinity College, Cambridge and Berolinensis graec. oct. 22, both of which were incomplete. But in 1959, Linos Politis of the University of Thessaloniki discovered

570-752: A collection of extracts and abridgements of 280 volumes of previous authors (usually cited as Codices), the originals of which are now to a great extent lost. The work is especially rich in extracts from historical writers. To Photios, we are indebted for almost all we possess of Ctesias , Memnon of Heraclea , Conon , the lost books of Diodorus Siculus , and the lost writings of Arrian . Theology and ecclesiastical history are also very fully represented, but poetry and ancient philosophy are almost entirely ignored. It seems that he did not think it necessary to deal with those authors with whom every well-educated man would naturally be familiar. The literary criticisms, generally distinguished by keen and independent judgment, and

684-711: A complete manuscript, codex Zavordensis 95, in the Zavorda Monastery (Greek: Ζάβορδα) in Grevena , Greece, where it still resides. His most important theological work is the Amphilochia , a collection of some 300 questions and answers on difficult points in Scripture, addressed to Amphilochius, archbishop of Cyzicus. Other similar works are his treatise in four books against the Manichaeans and Paulicians , and his controversy with

798-448: A council which was approved by Pope John VIII, his ecclesiastical career was viewed in utter disgrace by Catholic authorities and many of his theological opinions were condemned posthumously. Yet it appears that he did not remain reviled for the remainder of his life. Photios continued his career as a writer throughout his exile, and Leo probably rehabilitated his reputation within the next few years; in his Epitaphios on his brothers,

912-700: A daughter of Charlemagne by his third wife Hildegard . During this time Charlemagne was at war with the Saxons , and would later become the new king of the Franks. Irene went as far as to send an official to instruct the Frankish princess in the "language and literature of the Greeks and [...] in Roman imperial ways", according to Theophanes. According to Charlemagne's biographer Einhard , he could not bear to lose his daughter and broke off

1026-465: A fever after putting on the jeweled crown from the Great Church that had been dedicated by either Maurice ( r.  582–602 ) or Heraclius ( r.  610–641 ). It is uncertain whether Irene herself had promoted this rumor, perhaps in an attempt to smear her iconoclast husband's memory. Quickly after Leo IV's death, Irene became regent for their nine-year-old son Constantine VI and secured

1140-428: A full imperial procession. Possibly hoping to placate supporters of her husband's family, Irene is reported to have proposed that Leo IV's sister Anthousa should join her as co-regent, but Anthousa is said to have rejected the offer. From the beginning, Irene seems to have taken more power for herself than was traditionally expected of female regents. Her earliest coins depict both herself and her son Constantine VI on

1254-474: A great figure of Byzantine history [...] Leo [...] certainly did not allow him back into the sphere of politics, and it is surely his absence from this arena that accounts for his quiet passing." After his death, Photius began to be venerated as saint in environs of Constantinople. His name features in a manuscript of the Typicon of the Great Church of Constantinople dated to the middle of the tenth century, where he

SECTION 10

#1732848623080

1368-622: A huge Abbasid army under Harun al-Rashid invaded Anatolia in summer 782, reaching Chrysopolis on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus The stratēgos of the Bucellarian Theme , Tatzates , defected to the Abbasids, and Irene had to agree to pay an embarrassing annual tribute of 100,000 dinars to the Abbasids. In 783, Staurakios , eunuch and logothete of the dromos under Irene led

1482-464: A legation under the spatharios Leo. However the campaign was abandoned and the Franks resumed marriage negotiations with the Byzantines. Relations between the two empires remained difficult. The coronation was viewed by the Byzantines as merely another Italian usurpation against imperial authority. Rather than opting for a military response, Irene maintained her contacts and endeavored to bring about

1596-501: A marriage between herself and Charlemagne, which was reciprocated to some degree by his court. However as reported by Theophanes the Confessor , the scheme was frustrated by Aetios , eunuch and favorite of Irene, who was attempting to usurp her on behalf of his brother Leo. The discussions proved fruitless by the time Irene was overthrown, and Charlemagne remained resolute in his imperial ambitions. In her four-and-a-half years of sole rule (797–802), Irene renewed diplomatic contact with

1710-513: A monk, but chose to be a scholar and statesman instead. In 858, Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) decided to confine Patriarch Ignatius in order to force him into resignation, and Photios, still a layman, was appointed to replace him. Amid power struggles between the pope and the Byzantine emperor, Ignatius was reinstated. Photios resumed the position when Ignatius died (877), by order of the Byzantine emperor. The new pope, John VIII , approved Photios's reinstatement. Catholics regard as legitimate

1824-626: A successful campaign against the Sclaveni of Thessaly , Greece and the Peloponnese , returning with booty and captives. In 784, Irene capitalized on Constantine V's successes in Thrace and ordered Veria and Anchialos to be "rebuilt". By 786, Harun, then the Abbasid Caliph , had made Raqqa his residence in order to secure control over the frontier. In 797/798, the Abbasids were said to have reached

1938-516: A symbolic location as the site of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, to convene the seventh ecumenical council , which formally declared the veneration of icons as an article of faith, reuniting the Eastern church with that of Rome , which was signified by Adrian I's sending of two papal legates . The council determined that the honorary veneration ( timētikē proskynēsis ) of the holy icons

2052-515: A text probably written in 888, the Emperor presents Photios favorably, portraying him as the legitimate archbishop, and the instrument of ultimate unity, an image that jars with his attitude to the patriarch in the previous year. Confirmation that Photios was rehabilitated comes upon his death: according to some chronicles, his body was permitted to be buried in Constantinople. In addition, according to

2166-464: A tribunal headed by senior officials, headed by Andrew the Scythian . Although the sources sympathetic to Photios give the impression that the trial ended without a conviction, the chronicle of Pseudo-Symeon clearly states that Photios was banished to the monastery of Gordon, where he later died. Latin sources confirm that while he did not die in a state of complete excommunication, having been reinstated by

2280-475: Is characteristic: the author argues that Photios was educated after an agreement he concluded with a Jewish magician who offered him knowledge and secular recognition, in case he renounced his faith. ^   c:  David Marshall Lang argues that "Photius [...] was only one of many Byzantine scholars of Armenian descent". Peter Charanis notes that " John the Grammarian , Photius, Caesar Bardas and Leo

2394-603: Is considered "[t]he great systematic compiler of the Eastern Church, who occupies a similar position to that of Gratian in the West ," and whose " collection in two parts...formed and still forms the classic source of ancient Church Law for the Greek Church." Photios was a well-educated man from a noble Constantinopolitan family. Photios's great uncle was a previous patriarch of Constantinople, Saint Tarasius . He intended to be

SECTION 20

#1732848623080

2508-400: Is referred to a saint with a day of commemoration of February 6. According to Francis Dvornik , Photius must have been venerated as a saint in the second half of the tenth century at the very latest. The contemporary Eastern Orthodox Church venerates Photius as a saint, with his feast day being February 6. Photios is one of the most famous figures not only of 9th-century Byzantium but of

2622-657: Is the principal source for the work, which is now lost. The first English translation, by Holy Transfiguration Monastery, of the " Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit " by Photios was published in 1983. Another translation was published in 1987 with a preface by Archimandrite (now Archbishop ) Chrysostomos of Etna . ^   a:  The exact dates of Photios's birth and death are not known. Most sources list circa 810 and others circa 820 as his year of birth. He died some time between 890 and 895 (probably 891 or 893). ^   b:  The case of pseudo-Simeon's Chronicle

2736-501: Is widely regarded as the most powerful and influential church leader of Constantinople subsequent to John Chrysostom 's archbishopric around the turn of the fifth century. He is also viewed as the most important intellectual of his time – "the leading light of the ninth-century renaissance". He was a central figure in both the conversion of the Slavs to Christianity and the Photian schism , and

2850-547: The Caesar Nikephoros (son of Constantine V). Following the advice of Irene and Staurakios, Constantine had his uncle's eyes put out and the tongues of his father's four other half-brothers cut off. His former Armeniac supporters revolted after he had blinded their stratēgos Alexios due to alleged involvement in the plot. They also disapproved of Irene's return as co-ruler. Constantine crushed this revolt with extreme cruelty in 793. In summer 793, Arab raiders captured

2964-489: The dromos ), and Konstantinos (the count of the excubitors ) scourged, tonsured, and banished. She replaced all of them with dignitaries who were loyal to her. She had Nikephoros and his four brothers ordained as priests , a status which disqualified them from ruling, and forced them to serve communion at the Hagia Sophia on Christmas Day 780. On the same day, Irene returned the crown her husband had removed as part of

3078-544: The Arsacid dynasty of Armenia . True or not, this story does reveal Basil's dependence on Photios for literary and ideological matters. Following Photios's recall, Ignatios and the ex-patriarch met, and publicly expressed their reconciliation. When Ignatios died on October 23, 877, it was a matter of course that his old opponent replaced him on the patriarchal throne three days later. Shaun Tougher asserts that from this point on Basil no longer simply depended on Photios, but in fact he

3192-465: The Franks and negotiated a tribute to Harun al-Rashid to cease hostilities, but also brutally crushed rebellions against her rule, blinding four of Constantine V's five sons. Irene's rule was popular due to her financial concessions, but weakened by factionalism, notably between two of her eunuch advisers, Staurakios and Aetios . In 800, Aetios accused Staurakios of plotting against Irene, but he died before

3306-463: The patronal feast of Constantinople's cathedral, Hagia Sophia, Photios's was consecrated a bishop and installed as patriarch. The confinement and removal of Ignatios and the speedy promotion of Photios at first caused only internal controversy within the Church of Constantinople, and in 859 a local council was held, examining the issue and confirming the removal of Ignatios and election of Photios. In

3420-433: The tagmata with soldiers from the thematic corps. Tarasios dealt with the episcopal opposition by allowing notoriously iconoclast bishops to retain their positions so long as they made a public admission of error, and also by disguising two eastern monks as envoys of the patriarchs of Antioch and Jerusalem , to justify the council's claim to ecumenical status. On 1 October 787, the monks and bishops assembled at Nicaea ,

3534-413: The 11th century historian George Kedrenos , who wrote many centuries after Irene's death, this crackdown on iconophiles began after Leo IV discovered two icons hidden underneath Irene's pillow. Leo IV launched an investigation and discovered the courtiers who had brought the icons. He had them tortured and scolded Irene for violating the law and breaking with her faith. Irene insisted that she had not known

Patriarch Photios - Misplaced Pages Continue

3648-479: The Abbasids were interested in works of Greek science and philosophy. However, specialists of this period of Byzantine history, such as Paul Lemerle , have shown that Photios could not have compiled his Bibliotheca in Baghdad because he clearly states in both his introduction and his postscript that when he learned of his appointment to the embassy, he sent his brother a summary of books that he read previously , "since

3762-469: The Abbasids, and in 782 and 798 had to accept the terms of the respective Caliphs al-Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid . As Constantine VI approached maturity he began to grow restless under the autocratic sway of his mother. In 787, the plans for the marriage of Constantine and Rotrude , daughter of Charlemagne , were aborted, and in 788, Irene chose Maria of Amnia as a wife for him, beginning their unhappy marriage. In November 788, Irene suffered losses to

3876-559: The Armenian commander Alexios Mosele to persuade the Armeniacs, but they instead deposed their stratēgos (who was appointed by Irene) and proclaimed Alexios the new stratēgos . When word of this spread throughout Asia Minor , other soldiers followed suit and deposed their commanders, marching into the Opsician Theme outside Constantinople. Irene was pressured to release Constantine, who

3990-512: The Bosphorus again, but agreed to negotiate with the Byzantines due to the threat of the Khazars in the north. Nonetheless, he engaged in a campaign of assiduously strengthening the frontier with new districts and strongholds ( al-Awasim ), specifically from Cilicia through Germanikeia to Melitene . There was significant settlement and economic activity in the frontier region by the Abbasids, which

4104-653: The Bulgars and the failure of the expedition to Calabria , weakening her position. Although Constantine had reached the age of majority, Irene continued to administer the affairs of state in his place and was autocratess of the Romans. Constantine no longer accepted his secondary status and attempted to free himself by force. He plotted with his supporters, including Peter, a magistros and confidant of Constantine V , against Irene's advisers, especially Staurakios , who he planned to exile to Sicily . In early 790, Staurakios discovered

4218-667: The Bulgars in April 791 and the Arabs in September. In a hollow semblance of friendship, Constantine restored Irene's titles and confirmed her position as ruler in 792, even recalling Staurakios from exile. As a result, the official Irene-Constantine duumvirate began. Constantine proved incapable of sound governance, and suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of Kardam of Bulgaria in the Battle of Marcellae of 792. A plot developed in favor of his uncle,

4332-514: The Confessor , one of the few major primary sources of the eighth century, depicts her very unsympathetically due to his dislike of the involvement of women in imperial matters. However, Irene's zeal in restoring the icons and monasteries made Theodore the Studite praise her as a saint . He also commended her for ending the Isaurian policy of demanding payments from soldiers' widows as compensation for

4446-508: The Duke of Benevento sided with the Franks and defeated the Byzantines in Calabria . Alcuin of York claimed that 4,000 Byzantines were killed and 1,000 captured, including Patriarch Tarasios ' brother, Sisinnius. The defeat led to a breakdown of Frankish-Byzantine relations. In 798, Irene diplomatically secured the return of Sisinnius. From 797, Irene once again attempted to normalize relations with

4560-576: The Eastern Roman Empire. Whether he actually desired a coronation at all, remains controversial—Einhard related that Charlemagne had been surprised by the Pope—but the Eastern Empire felt its role as the sole Roman Empire threatened and began to emphasize its superiority and its Roman identity. In 802, there were reports of a possible Frankish invasion of Sicily, to which Irene responded by sending

4674-463: The Franks, and a Byzantine legation arrived in the Frankish court in 798. However on Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor by Pope Leo III . The clergy and nobles attending the ceremony proclaimed Charlemagne Augustus . In support of Charlemagne's coronation, some argued that the imperial position was actually vacant, deeming a woman unfit to be emperor; however, Charlemagne made no claim to

Patriarch Photios - Misplaced Pages Continue

4788-635: The Latins on the Procession of the Holy Spirit . Photios also addressed a long letter of theological advice to the newly converted Boris I of Bulgaria. Numerous other Epistles also survive. Photios is also the writer of two "mirrors of princes", addressed to Boris-Michael of Bulgaria (Epistula 1, ed. Terzaghi) and to Leo VI the Wise (Admonitory Chapters of Basil I). Photios' epitome of Philostorgius ' Church History

4902-504: The Mathematician as Photios's teacher, but Paul Lemerle notes that Leo was not one of the persons with whom Photios had a correspondence. Recent years have seen the first translations into English of a number of primary sources about Photios and his times. Irene of Athens Irene of Athens ( Greek : Εἰρήνη , Eirḗnē ; 750/756 – 9 August 803), surname Sarantapechaena ( Greek : Σαρανταπήχαινα , Sarantapḗchaina ),

5016-571: The Philosopher seem to have been the prime movers. All four were, at least in part, of Armenian descent [...] as for Photius, the fact is that his mother Irene, was the sister of Arshavir , the Arshavir who had married Calomaria the sister of Bardas and the empress Theodora." Nicholas Adontz stresses that "Arshavir, Photius' uncle, must not be confused with Arshavir, the brother of John the Grammarian". ^   d:  G. N. Wilson regards Leo

5130-697: The Saxon tribes in northern Germany for more than thirty years, annexing their territory and compelling them to convert to Christianity, and defeated the Avars in Central Europe . In what is known as the Carolingian Renaissance , Charlemagne increasingly modelled his rule after that of the Roman emperors, sponsoring construction programs in conscious imitation of Roman and Byzantine architecture, as well as intellectual and artistic revival in general. His father Pepin

5244-608: The Short had reformed the currency and standardized weights, tightening royal control over mints. As early as 781, Irene began to seek a closer relationship with the Carolingian dynasty and the Papacy in Rome, and Charlemagne's conquest of Pavia had allowed for renewed relations with the Byzantines. Through the eunuch Elissaeus, Irene negotiated a marriage between her son Constantine and Rotrude ,

5358-487: The Skepi monastery, it appears that the ex-patriarch brought pressure to bear on the Byzantine emperor to restore him. Ignatios's biographer argues that Photios forged a document relating to the genealogy and rule of Basil's family, and had it placed in the imperial library where a friend of his was a librarian. According to this document, the Byzantine emperor's ancestors were not mere peasants as everyone believed but descendants of

5472-527: The anti-Photian biographer of Ignatius, partisans of the ex-patriarch after his death endeavored to claim for him the "honor of sainthood". Furthermore, a leading member of Leo's court, Leo Choirosphaktes , wrote poems commemorating the memory of several prominent contemporary figures, such as Leo the Mathematician and the Patriarch Stephen, and he also wrote one on Photios. Shaun Tougher notes, however, that "yet Photios's passing does seem rather muted for

5586-508: The antiquity of iconodulia and the Incarnation of Christ , which was said to make acceptable the depiction of Christ, were emphasized. The Libri Carolini states that the ruling of the council against iconoclasm led to "civil war" within the Empire, and other ninth-century iconodule sources condemn clergymen and laymen who remained iconoclasts. While the council greatly improved relations with

5700-453: The consent of Boris I of Bulgaria (r. 852–889), the papacy was unable to enforce its claims. Pope Adrian III chose a policy of appeasement and sent between 884 and 885 bishop Theodosius of Oria to transmit notice of his election and a synodal letter to Photios about faith and the filioque . Photios also promoted a policy of religious reconciliation with the Armenian kingdom to the east of

5814-657: The demand of an apology to the Pope, the ecclesiastical jurisdiction over Bulgaria , and the addition of the filioque to the Nicene creed by the Western church. Eventually, Photios refused to apologize or accept the filioque , and the papal legates made do with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria's return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without

SECTION 50

#1732848623080

5928-401: The eighth century. It was Irene's financial laxity and benevolent tax policy that led to the palace coup by the minister of the treasury, Nikephoros , in 802, which was witnessed by Charlemagne 's ambassadors. A female relative of Irene, Theophano , was chosen by Nikephoros ( r.  802–811 ) as the bride of his son and heir Staurakios . Although Irene was an iconodule, Theophanes

6042-475: The emperor in her own right and her name took precedence in the oath of allegiance. Apart from that, she did not allow Constantine any voice in public affairs. At the same time, Irene appears to have been well aware that her position as regent was insecure. The last female regent of the Byzantine Empire had been Empress Martina , who had only managed to survive as regent for less than a year before her tongue

6156-407: The emperor on the battlefield, were supported by Constantine V but demoted and reconstituted by Irene for frustrating the meeting of the iconodule council in 786. She elevated eunuchs to power against the imperial administration, one of the most significant of whom was Staurakios . In contrast, Constantine V supported the imperial office, which proved resilient to the political and military crises of

6270-462: The empire. He sought to bridge the confessional differences between the Greek Orthodox and Armenian churches on two separate occasions, once in 862 and again in 877, but his efforts ultimately proved unsuccessful. During the altercations between Emperor Basil I and his heir Leo VI , Photios took the side of the Byzantine emperor. In 883, Basil accused Leo of conspiracy and confined the prince to

6384-404: The engagement. However it is also possible that the new Frankish-Byzantine border, along with the oscillating allegiance of the powerful Duchy of Benevento , soured relations. In 787, Pope Adrian I informed Charlemagne of reports of Byzantine invasion to restore Adalgis , the deposed Lombard king, with the support of Benevento, and drive the Franks from Italy. The invasion began in 788, but

6498-461: The entire history of the Byzantine Empire. One of the most learned men of his age, and revered – even by some of his opponents and detractors – as the most prolific theologian of his time, he has earned his fame due to his part in ecclesiastical conflicts, and also for his intellect and literary works. Analyzing his intellectual work, Tatakes regards Photios as "mind turned more to practice than to theory". He believes that, thanks to Photios, humanism

6612-559: The excerpts vary considerably in length. The numerous biographical notes are probably taken from the work of Hesychius of Miletus . Some older scholarship speculated that the Bibliotheca was compiled in Baghdad at the time of Photius's embassy to the Abbasid court, since many of the mentioned works were rarely cited during the so-called Byzantine Dark Ages c. 630 – c. 800, and it was known that

6726-677: The first and greatest Isaurian emperors, Leo III and Constantine V , was the rescue of the Empire from destruction at the hands of the Arabs and the Bulgars , while Irene's reign saw increasing losses and threat of war. Her character also departs significantly from her Isaurian predecessors, who were typically warlike, just and populist . She contradicted them in the blinding of her son, abolishing of iconoclasm and military weakness. The tagmata , old guard units stationed in Constantinople who surrounded

6840-632: The guard ( prōtospatharios ) and subsequently chief imperial secretary ( protasēkrētis ). At an uncertain date, Photios participated in an embassy to the Abbasids of Baghdad . Photios achieved a dazzling reputation as a scholar. In a feud with Patriarch Ignatios, Photios invented a fanciful theory that people have two souls, for the sole purpose of tricking Ignatios into embarrassing himself by being seen to take it seriously, whereupon Photius withdrew his proposal and admitted he had not been serious. The historian John Julius Norwich described this as "perhaps

6954-590: The icons in 842. Certain scholars assert that Photios was, at least in part, of Armenian descent while other scholars merely refer to him as a " Greek Byzantine ". Byzantine writers also report that Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) once angrily called Photios " Khazar -faced", but whether this was a generic insult or a reference to his ethnicity is unclear. Although Photios had an excellent education, we have no information about how he received this education. The famous library he possessed attests to his enormous erudition (theology, history, grammar, philosophy, law,

SECTION 60

#1732848623080

7068-574: The icons were there. After the incident, Leo refused to have marital relations with Irene ever again. Lynda Garland , a historian of the Byzantine Empire, states that this story too closely resembles a different story told about the later empress Theodora, wife of Theophilos , to be historically true. Nonetheless, she maintains that it is possible that Irene may have been trying to fill the palace with supporters of iconophilism, which may have triggered Leo IV's crackdown. When Leo IV died on 8 September 780, rumors were circulated claiming that he had died of

7182-514: The important fortresses of Kamachon and Thebasa in Asia Minor, however a larger force accompanied by the rebellious former stratēgos of Sicily, Elpidius retreated due to an early winter in 794, and Constantine defeated an Arab army in 795. Nevertheless, Arab raiders reached Amorion in 796, Ankara and Malagina in 798 and Ephesos in 799. Constantine personally led a force to meet Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid ( r.  786–809 ), but

7296-455: The influence of her retinue. Her reign as sole ruler made her the first ever empress regnant, ruling in her own right, in Roman and Byzantine imperial history. After the death of her husband, Irene secured the throne for her family, setting herself in charge. During her regency with Constantine VI, she became very influential in government policies, largely overshadowing her son. As Constantine VI reached maturity, he began to move out from under

7410-400: The influence of his mother. In the early 790s, several revolts attempted to proclaim him as sole ruler. One of these revolts succeeded, but in 792 Irene was re-established in all imperial powers as co-emperor with Constantine VI. In 797, Irene organized a conspiracy in which her supporters gouged out her son's eyes. Constantine was imprisoned and probably died shortly afterwards. With him out of

7524-543: The island of Lesbos , supplanting her on the throne with Nikephoros I . Irene died in exile less than a year later. Irene was born in Athens sometime between 750 and 756. She was a member of the noble Greek Sarantapechos family, which had significant political influence in central mainland Greece. Although she was an orphan, her uncle or cousin Constantine Sarantapechos was a patrician and possibly also

7638-412: The legitimacy of the succession. His legates were dispatched to Constantinople with instructions to investigate, but finding Photios well ensconced, they acquiesced in the confirmation of his election at a synod in 861. On their return to Rome, they discovered that this was not at all what Nicholas had intended, and in 863 at a synod in Rome the Supreme Pontiff deposed Photios, and reappointed Ignatius as

7752-416: The matter was resolved. In October 802, officers led by the minister of finance ( logothetēs tou genikou ) Nikephoros deposed Irene. They were motivated both by Irene's financial laxity and benevolent tax policy as well as by the implications of a marriage alliance with the Franks. On 31 October, Nikephoros was crowned "Nikephoros I" by Patriarch Tarasios of Constantinople in the Hagia Sophia . Irene

7866-400: The most wonderful men of all the middle ages", and stresses that "had [he] not given his name to the great schism, he would always be remembered as the greatest scholar of his time". Yet, Fortescue is equally adamant of his condemnation of Photios' involvement in the Schism: "And yet the other side of his character is no less evident. His insatiable ambition, his determination to obtain and keep

7980-422: The murder of Photios's patron Bardas in 866 and of Emperor Michael III in 867, by his colleague Basil the Macedonian , who now usurped the throne. Photios was deposed as patriarch, not so much because he was a protégé of Bardas and Michael, but because Basil I was seeking an alliance with the Pope and the western emperor. Photios was removed from his office and banished about the end of September 867, and Ignatios

8094-417: The natural sciences, and medicine). Most scholars believe that he never taught at Magnaura or at any other university; Vasileios N. Tatakes asserts that, even while he was patriarch, Photios taught "young students passionately eager for knowledge" at his home, which "was a center of learning". He was a friend of the renowned Byzantine scholar and teacher Leo the Mathematician . Photios says that, when he

8208-409: The obverse, listing them as co-rulers rather than as ruler and regent. Furthermore, Irene is shown holding the orb, not Constantine, and only Irene's name is listed on the obverse of the coin, with Constantine VI's name only listed on the reverse, the less important side. Also, in all orders, both oral and written, Irene's name took precedence over her son's name, and she signed her orders in the name of

8322-482: The official iconoclasm. During Lent of 780, however, Leo IV's policies on iconophiles became much harsher. He ordered for a number of prominent courtiers to be arrested, scourged, tonsured , and tortured after they were caught venerating icons. Prior to the death of her husband, Irene appears to have accepted the prevailing iconoclasm, regardless of her private beliefs. During this period, her activities are unknown, recorded only in later obscure accounts. According to

8436-570: The official story. Warren T. Treadgold believes that this time the evidence points to a plot on behalf of Leo VI, who became emperor, and deposed Photios, although the latter had been his tutor. Photios was replaced by the Byzantine emperor's brother Stephen , and sent into exile to the monastery of Bordi in Armenia . It is confirmed from letters to and from Pope Stephen that Leo extracted a resignation from Photios. In 887, Photios and his protégé, Theodore Santabarenos , were put on trial for treason before

8550-447: The only really satisfactory practical joke in the whole history of theology." Photios's ecclesiastical career took off spectacularly after Caesar Bardas and his nephew, the youthful Emperor Michael, put an end to the administration of the regent Theodora and the logothete of the drome Theoktistos in 856. In 858, Bardas found himself opposed by the then Patriarch Ignatios , who refused to admit him into Hagia Sophia , since it

8664-589: The palace; he would have even had Leo blinded had he not been dissuaded by Photios and Stylianos Zaoutzes , the father of Zoe Zaoutzaina , Leo's mistress. In 886, Basil discovered and punished a conspiracy by the domestic of the Hikanatoi John Kourkouas the Elder and many other officials. In this conspiracy, Leo was not implicated, but Photios was possibly one of the conspirators against Basil's authority. Basil died in 886 injured while hunting, according to

8778-496: The papacy, it did not prevent the outbreak of a war with the Franks , who took over Istria and Benevento in 788. In spite of these reverses, Irene's military efforts met with some success: in 782 her favoured courtier Staurakios subdued the Slavs of the Balkans and laid the foundations of Byzantine expansion and re-Hellenization in the area. Nevertheless, Irene was constantly harried by

8892-434: The patriarchal see, led him to the extreme of dishonesty. His claim was worthless. That Ignatius was the rightful patriarch as long as he lived, and Photius an intruder, cannot be denied by any one who does not conceive the Church as merely the slave of a civil government. And to keep this place Photius descended to the lowest depth of deceit." The most important of the works of Photios is his Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon ,

9006-498: The plot and informed Irene, who arrested the plotters, confined Constantine to his quarters and demanded that the army across the Empire take an oath of fidelity in her name alone. Irene also tried to convince the army to legitimize her absolute power over the state. The discontent which this caused swelled into open resistance and at first the Armeniacs refused to swear an oath to Irene alone but rather to Constantine and Irene. She sent

9120-458: The popular sources treating Photios's life are written by persons hostile to him. The chief contemporary authority for the life of Photios is his bitter enemy, Nicetas the Paphlagonian, the biographer of his rival Ignatios. Modern scholars are thus cautious when assessing the accuracy of the information these sources provide. Little is known of Photios's origin and early years. It is known that he

9234-651: The position of Patriarch of Constantinople in 784. As he was a layman, Pope Adrian I disapproved of his election. Irene and Tarasios summoned two church councils to solemnize the reversal of imperial policy to iconodulia. The first of these, assembled on 1 August 786 in the Church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople , was dispersed by iconoclast tagmata (battalions stationed in the city) who were backed by iconoclast bishops. In autumn, Irene ordered them to respond to an alleged Arab attack in Asia Minor, then reconstituted

9348-469: The rebels. Elpidius fled to Africa , where he defected to the Abbasid Caliphate . The fact that this revolt appears to reflect personal ambition or political conflicts centring in the capital, rather than local separatism, demonstrates the loyalty of the island to the Empire. After the success of Constantine V 's general, Michael Lachanodrakon , who foiled an Abbasid attack on the eastern frontiers,

9462-520: The rightful patriarch, triggering a schism . Four years later, Photios was to respond on his own part by calling a Council and attempting to excommunicate the Holy Father on grounds of heresy – over the question of the double procession of the Holy Spirit . The situation was additionally complicated by the question of papal authority over the entire Church and by disputed jurisdiction over newly converted Bulgaria . This state of affairs changed with

9576-535: The same time, partisans of Ignatios decided to appeal to the Holy Roman and Catholic Church, thus initiating ecclesiastical controversy on an ecumenical scale as the Pope and the rest of the western bishops took up the cause of Ignatios. The latter's confinement and removal without a formal ecclesiastical trial meant that Photios's election was uncanonical, and eventually Pope Nicholas I sought to involve himself in determining

9690-458: The secular texts in Bibliotheca are histories, grammars or literary works, usually rhetoric, rather than science, medicine or philosophy. This further indicates that the majority of the works cannot have been read while Photios was in the Abbasid empire. The Lexicon (Λέξεων Συναγωγή), published later than the Bibliotheca , was probably in the main the work of some of his pupils. It was intended as

9804-704: The son of emperor Constantine V , on 3 November at the Church of the Virgin of Pharos . The coronation took place the following month, on 17 December, in Augoustaion and was followed by the couple's marriage at the Palace of Daphne within the Great Palace of Constantinople . On 14 January 771, Irene gave birth to a son, the future Constantine VI , who was named after his grandfather, Irene's father-in-law, Constantine V. When Constantine V died in September 775, Leo IV ascended to

9918-496: The throne at the age of twenty-five, and Irene became empress consort. Leo IV, though an iconoclast like his father, pursued a policy of moderation towards iconophiles. He removed the penalties on monasteries that had been imposed by his father and began appointing monks as bishops. When Patriarch Nicetas I of Constantinople died in 780, Leo IV appointed Paul of Cyprus , who had iconophile sympathies, as his successor, although he did force him to swear oaths that he would uphold

10032-475: The throne for him by crushing the usurpation plots in favour of Leo's brothers in the following month. In October, only six weeks after Leo IV's death, Irene was confronted with the conspiracy led by a group of prominent dignitaries that sought to raise Caesar Nikephoros , a half-brother of Leo IV, to the throne. Irene had Bardas (the former strategos of the Armeniac Theme ), Gregory (the logothete of

10146-448: The time I learned how to understand and evaluate literature" i.e. since his youth. Moreover, the Abbasids were interested only in Greek science, philosophy and medicine; they did not have Greek history, rhetoric, or other literary works translated; nor did they have Christian patristic writers translated. Yet the majority of works in Bibliotheca are by Christian patristic authors, and most of

10260-531: The title Patriarch Photios . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patriarch_Photios&oldid=1210945807 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Title and name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Photios I of Constantinople Photios

10374-470: The title "basileus": two legal documents in which she signed herself as "Emperor of the Romans" and a gold coin of hers found in Sicily bearing the title of "basileus". In relation to the coin, the lettering is of poor quality and the attribution to Irene may be problematic. She used the title "basilissa" in all other documents, coins, and seals. Irene's unprecedented position as an empress ruling in her own right

10488-427: The two co-rulers. Irene's faction also returned, with her powerful eunuch minister Staurakios once again at the helm, they began to take revenge on anyone who had opposed them in the past or present. The moechian controversy (from moicheia , "adultery") was begun in 795, when Constantine forced his wife Maria to enter a convent because she allegedly attempted to poison him. He then married his mistress Theodote , which

10602-546: The way, Irene proclaimed herself sole ruler. Pope Leo III —already seeking to break links with the Byzantine East—used Irene's alleged unprecedented status as a female ruler of the Roman Empire to proclaim Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans on Christmas Day of 800 under the pretext that a woman could not rule solely and thus the Roman throne was actually vacant. A revolt in 802 overthrew Irene and exiled her to

10716-484: Was Byzantine empress consort to Emperor Leo IV from 775 to 780, regent during the childhood of their son Constantine VI from 780 until 790, co-ruler from 792 until 797, and finally empress regnant and sole ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire from 797 to 802. A member of the politically prominent Sarantapechos family, she was selected as Leo IV 's bride for unknown reasons in 768. Even though her husband

10830-399: Was a militant iconoclast who was known for persecuting venerators of icons, Irene herself displayed iconophile predilections. This fact, combined with the limited information available about her family, has led some scholars to speculate that Irene may have been selected in a bride-show , in which eligible young women were paraded before the bridegroom until one was finally selected. If this

10944-461: Was added to Orthodoxy as a basic element of the national consciousness of the medieval Byzantines, returning it to the place it had had in the early Byzantine period. Tatakes also argues that, having understood this national consciousness, Photios emerged as a defender of the Greek nation and its spiritual independence in his debates with the Western Church. Adrian Fortescue regards him as "one of

11058-464: Was an iconoclast , she harbored iconophile sympathies. During her rule as regent, she called the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which condemned iconoclasm as heretical and brought an end to the first iconoclast period (730–787). During her 5 year sole reign, her public figure was polarizing, due to the setbacks faced by the Empire and her iconophilic stances, often attributed to her gender and

11172-460: Was believed that he was having an affair with his widowed daughter-in-law. In response, Bardas and Michael engineered Ignatios's confinement and removal on the charge of treason, thus leaving the patriarchal throne empty. The throne was soon filled with a kinsman of Bardas, Photios himself, who was tonsured a monk on December 20, 858, and on the four following days was successively ordained lector, sub-deacon, deacon and priest, and then on Christmas Day,

11286-551: Was blinded and confined to a monastery. It is unknown whether he managed to survive this event. Tarasios was reconciled with Theodore, who was made the abbot of the Monastery of Stoudios and became one of Irene's most loyal supporters. Although it is often asserted that, as monarch, Irene called herself " basileus " ( Greek : βασιλεύς ), "emperor", rather than " basilissa " ( Greek : βασίλισσα ), "empress", in fact there are only three instances where it can be proven that she used

11400-412: Was born into a notable family and that his uncle Saint Tarasius had been the patriarch of Constantinople from 784–806 under both Empress Irene (r. 797–802) and Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811). During the second Iconoclasm , which began in 814, his family suffered persecution since his father, Sergios, was a prominent iconophile . Sergios's family returned to favor only after the restoration of

11514-403: Was cut out and she was exiled to the island of Rhodes . Most people were probably expecting that Irene's reign would come to a similarly swift and bloody end. In 781, Irene accused the stratēgos of Sicily , Elpidius , of participating in the conspiracy involving her brother-in-law Nikephoros . The military in Sicily prevented his arrest, so Irene sent a fleet which succeeded in defeating

11628-566: Was dominated by him. Photios now obtained the formal recognition of the Christian world in a council convened at Constantinople in November 879. The legates of Pope John VIII attended, prepared to acknowledge Photios as legitimate patriarch, a concession for which the pope was much censured by Latin opinion. The patriarch stood firm on the main points contested between the Eastern and Western Churches:

11742-750: Was emphasized by the coincidental rise of the Carolingian Empire in Western Europe , which rivaled Irene's Byzantium in size and power. In 773, Charlemagne invaded Italy , annexing the Kingdom of the Lombards , in order to neutralize a threat to his succession in the form of his late brother Carloman I 's wife and sons, who fled to the Lombard court in Pavia when Charlemagne seized his kingdom. He also campaigned against

11856-454: Was initially exiled to the nearby island of Prinkipo , but was suspected of plotting with Aetios, and was soon banished to Lesbos , where she supported herself by spinning wool . She died in Lesbos the following year, on 9 August 803; her remains were later moved to the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. Irene's reign represents the decline of the Isaurian dynasty. The legacy of

11970-474: Was later married to the Bulgar ruler Telerig in 776. It is unclear why and how Irene was selected as the bride for the young Leo IV. The influence of the prominent Sarantepechos family in the theme of Hellas likely played a part in the selection of Irene as the wife of the emperor's son, indicating the emperor's interest in restoring order in the Greek mainland. Especially unusual is that, while Constantine V

12084-501: Was not typical in the time of the Umayyad Caliphate . Harun proved to be a capable commander and Irene and her successor Nikephoros I struggled to effectively resist his campaigns. Irene's most notable act was the restoration of the veneration of icons (images of Christ or the saints). Upon the death of the iconoclast Patriarch Paul IV of Constantinople , Irene elevated Tarasios , one of her partisans and former secretary, to

12198-456: Was permitted, and that the true adoration ( alēthinē latreia ) was reserved for God alone. It further stated that the honor paid to the icon eventually passes over to the individual that it represents, thus, veneration of an icon could not be idolatrous as the iconoclasts believed. The iconodule position was not justified by Christological arguments (as in the Council of Hieria of 754), rather,

12312-422: Was reinstated on November 23. Photios was condemned by the Council of 869–870 , thus putting an end to the schism. During his second patriarchate, however, Ignatios followed a policy not very different from that of Photios. Not long after his condemnation, Photios had reingratiated himself with Basil, and became tutor to the Byzantine emperor's children. From surviving letters of Photios written during his exile at

12426-444: Was sabotaged by agents of Irene who falsely reported an Arab retreat, prompting Constantine himself to retire. In 796, Constantine partially compensated for his previous losses against the Bulgars by ceasing to pay the tribute extracted after Marcellae and avoiding military defeat thereafter. The Balkan frontier was in general successfully stabilized by the Byzantines in this period. Despite their collaboration, rivalry remained between

12540-425: Was significant. In 797, Irene exploited the controversy to prepare the overthrow of her son. She bribed palace officers to remain neutral and encouraged monastic opposition to the marriage. In August, her agents attempted to capture Constantine as he was travelling by boat from Constantinople to his summer residence. He fled to Pylae , but Irene persuaded her supporters there to capture him. On 19 August, Constantine

12654-479: Was technically an act of adultery . Patriarch Tarasios of Constantinople only offered a light penance for Constantine and Theodote, which caused monks of the monastery of Sakkoudion including Theodore the Stoudite to condemn the union and excommunicate Tarasios. Constantine closed the monastery and banished Theodore to Thessaloniki . Theodore was a prestigious and influential figure, so his opposition to Constantine

12768-431: Was the case, then she would have been the first imperial bride to be selected in this manner. However, there is no solid evidence to support this hypothesis other than the apparent oddity of Irene's selection as Leo IV's bride. Irene arrived in Constantinople on 1 November 769, escorted, per Theophanes , by decorated dromones and chelandia ( warships ang galleys ). She was betrothed to 19-year-old Leo IV ,

12882-437: Was then proclaimed sole ruler in November 790 with the support of the military. Constantine restored his supporters including Michael Lachanodrakon , the famed general of Constantine V, and banished Staurakios and another eunuch and adviser to Irene, Aetios , to the Armeniac Theme . He confined Irene to her palace but did not formally depose her. He began a distinct foreign policy from his mother, beginning campaigns against

12996-409: Was young, he had an inclination for the monastic life, but instead he started a secular career. The way to public life was probably opened for him by (according to one account) the marriage of his brother Sergios to Irene, a sister of Empress Theodora , who upon the death of her husband Emperor Theophilos (r. 829–842) in 842, had assumed the regency of the Byzantine Empire. Photios became a captain of

#79920