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128-447: A parterre is a part of a formal garden constructed on a level substrate, consisting of symmetrical patterns, made up by plant beds, plats, low hedges or coloured gravels, which are separated and connected by paths. Typically it was the part of the garden nearest the house, perhaps after a terrace. The view of a parterre from inside the house, especially from the upper floors, was a major consideration in its design. The word "parterre"

256-517: A frieze . According to Ralph Nicholson Wornum in 1882: "The western arabesque which appeared in the 15th century derived from Roman remains of the early time of the empire, not to any style derived from Arabian or Moorish work. Arabesque and Moresque are really distinct; the latter is from the Arabian style of ornament, developed by the Byzantine Greeks for their new masters, after the conquests of

384-491: A "fote and Couer of siluer and guilt enbossed with Rebeske worke", and William Herne or Heron, Serjeant Painter from 1572 to 1580, was paid for painting Elizabeth I's barge with "rebeske work". The styles so described can only be guessed at, although the design by Hans Holbein for a covered cup for Jane Seymour in 1536 (see gallery) already has zones in both Islamic-derived arabesque/moresque style (see below) and classically derived acanthus volutes . Another related term

512-421: A bed so as that each bed shall be a mass of one colour, and the other is to plant flowers of different colours in the same bed. From the 20th century, apart from a few projects aimed at an authentic restoration, where enough information on the old designs exists, newly planted parterres tend to be small but with complex knot-type designs, much more thickly planted and often with higher box edges than would have been

640-473: A broad central gravel walk dividing paired plats , each subdivided in four, appears to have survived from the Palace's former (pre-1689) existence as Nottingham House. Subsidiary wings have subsidiary parterres, with no attempt at overall integration. At Prince Eugene's Belvedere Palace , Vienna, a sunken parterre before the façade that faced the city was flanked in a traditional fashion with raised walks from which

768-689: A central medallion combined with acanthus and other forms" by Simon Vouet and then Charles Lebrun who used "scrolls of flat bandwork joined by horizontal bars and contrasting with ancanthus scrolls and palmette ." More exuberant arabesque designs by Jean Bérain the Elder are an early "intimation" of the Rococo , which was to take the arabesque into three dimensions in reliefs. The use of "arabesque" as an English noun first appears, in relation to painting, in William Beckford 's novel Vathek in 1786. Arabesque

896-505: A cultural heritage and historical record and for their great value to wildlife and the landscape. Increasingly, they are valued too for the major role they have to play in preventing soil loss and reducing pollution, and for their potential to regulate water supply and to reduce flooding. There is increased earthworm diversity in the soils under hedgerows which also help to store organic carbon and support distinct communities of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. In addition to maintaining

1024-401: A hedge can be roughly estimated by counting the number of woody species in a thirty-yard section and multiplying by 110 years. Max Hooper published his original formula in the book Hedges in 1974. This method is only a rule of thumb, and can be off by a couple of centuries; it should always be backed up by documentary evidence, if possible, and take into account other factors. Caveats include

1152-405: A hedge where hedge laying is not appropriate. The term instant hedge has become known since early this century for hedging plants that are planted collectively in such a way as to form a mature hedge from the moment they are planted together, with a height of at least 1.2 metres. They are usually created from hedging elements or individual plants which means very few are actually hedges from

1280-530: A highly popular, mostly male, sport in England. There were other forms of ground billiards and lawn games , that evolved in the 19th century into sports such as croquet and lawn tennis . Before 1600 plats had already become usual for forecourts, which were left plain so as not to distract from the entrance front of the house. The English gardener Stephen Switzer wrote in 1718: Bowling-green or plain Parterres,

1408-489: A lawn, perhaps with some gravel paths, as at Waddesdon Manor , a new-build of the late 1870s. Jane Loudon 's Gardening for Ladies (1845) says: Parterres of embroidery are now rarely to be met with either in France or England... Parterres of compartments... are at present common both in France and England...In a word, parterres are now assemblages of flowers in beds or groups, either on a ground of lawn or gravel... The shape of

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1536-420: A managed root growth system allowing the hedge to be sold with a continuous rootstrips (rather than individual plants) which then enables year-round planting. During its circa 8-year production time, all stock should be irrigated, clipped and treated with controlled-release nutrients to optimise health. A quickset hedge is a type of hedge created by planting live whitethorn (common hawthorn) cuttings directly into

1664-461: A period of disuse in the nineteenth century, when a more minimal page layout became popular with printers like Bodoni and Didot , the concept returned to popularity with the arrival of the Arts and Crafts movement , Many fine books from the period 1890–1960 have arabesque decorations, sometimes on paperback covers. Many digital serif fonts include arabesque pattern elements thought to be complementary to

1792-423: A place for the most private conversations, as no one else could approach without being seen. The paths are constituted with gravel or (much less often in historical examples) with turf grass . French parterres developed from the patterned compartments of French Renaissance gardens , what are called in England " knot gardens ". Later, in the 17th century Baroque garden , they became more elaborate and stylised, on

1920-429: A single design which can be ' tiled ' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired. Within the very wide range of Eurasian decorative art that includes motifs matching this basic definition, the term "arabesque" is used consistently as a technical term by art historians to describe only elements of the decoration found in two phases: Islamic art from about the 9th century onwards, and European decorative art from

2048-523: A single species or several, typically mixed at random. In many newly planted British hedges, at least 60 per cent of the shrubs are hawthorn , blackthorn , and (in the southwest) hazel , alone or in combination. The first two are particularly effective barriers to livestock. In North America, Maclura pomifera (i.e., hedge apple) was grown to form a barrier to exclude free-range livestock from vegetable gardens and corn fields. Other shrubs and trees used include holly , beech , oak , ash , and willow ;

2176-454: A wide range of often rather complicated designs, many harking back to the knot garden . "Open knots" were complicated designs without interlacing; many gentry owners designed these themselves. These were often more heavily planted with flowering plants, and this style was often used for flower gardens at the side of the house. At its simplest it might just be a group of rectangular flower beds, with alleys around them, or designs in "cutwork". In

2304-594: Is moresque , meaning " Moorish "; Randle Cotgrave 's A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues of 1611 defines this as: "a rude or anticke painting, or carving, wherin the feet and tayles of beasts, &c, are intermingled with, or made to resemble, a kind of wild leaves, &c." and "arabesque", in its earliest use cited in the OED (but as a French word), as "Rebeske work; a small and curious flourishing". In France "arabesque" first appears in 1546, and "was first applied in

2432-410: Is a reflection of unity arising from diversity; a basic tenet of Islam. The arabesque may be equally thought of as both art and science . The artwork is at the same time mathematically precise, aesthetically pleasing, and symbolic. Due to this duality of creation, the artistic part of this equation may be further subdivided into both secular and religious artwork. However, for many Muslims there

2560-418: Is a skilled art. In Britain there are many local hedgelaying traditions, each with a distinct style. Hedges are still being laid today not only for aesthetic and functional purposes but also for their ecological role in helping wildlife and protecting against soil erosion . An alternative to hedge laying is trimming using a tractor-mounted flail cutter or circular saw, or a hedge trimmer . The height of

2688-648: Is also possible to prepare really nice and dense hedge from other deciduous plants, however they do not have decorative flowers as the bushes mentioned before. Hedges of clipped trees forming avenues are a feature of 16th-century Italian gardens such as the Boboli Gardens in Florence , and of formal French gardens in the manner of André Le Nôtre , e.g. in the Gardens of Versailles , where they surround bosquets or areas formalized woodland. The English version of this

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2816-423: Is also used as a term for complex freehand pen flourishes in drawing or other graphic media. The Grove Dictionary of Art will have none of this confusion, and says flatly: "Over the centuries the word has been applied to a wide variety of winding and twining vegetal decoration in art and meandering themes in music, but it properly applies only to Islamic art", so contradicting the definition of 1888 still found in

2944-498: Is any hedge formed of living plants or of living plants combined with a fence. The technique of quicksetting can also be used for many other shrubs and trees. A Devon hedge is an earth bank topped with shrubs. The bank may be faced with turf or stone. When stone-faced, the stones are generally placed on edge, often laid flat around gateways. A quarter of Devon 's hedges are thought to be over 800 years old. There are approximately 33,000 miles (53,000 km) of Devon hedge, which

3072-538: Is behind the Governor's Palace , Colonial Williamsburg , Virginia. Hedges and pruning can both be used to enhance a garden's privacy , as a buffer to visual pollution and to hide fences . A hedge can be aesthetically pleasing, as in a tapestry hedge, where alternate species are planted at regular intervals to present different colours or textures. In America, fences have always been more common than hedges to mark garden boundaries. The English radical William Cobbett

3200-412: Is called, a "live fence ". This may either consist of individual fence posts connected with wire or other fencing material, or it may be in the form of densely planted hedges without interconnecting wire. This is common in tropical areas where low-income farmers can demarcate properties and reduce maintenance of fence posts that otherwise deteriorate rapidly. Many other benefits can be obtained depending on

3328-468: Is controlled by the Hedgerows Regulations 1997 , administered by the local planning authority . Hedges that have existed for hundreds of years are colonised by additional species. This may be useful as a means of determining the age of the hedge. Hooper's rule (or Hooper's law, named after Dr. Max Hooper ) is based on ecological data obtained from hedges of known age, and suggests that the age of

3456-460: Is denominated an " alley of compartiment ". But these remained relatively rare in England, where many earlier knot gardens were replaced with simpler designs of " quincunxes , squares or rectangles of grass set in gravel with perhaps some topiary, statues or plants in pots at the corners". Many parterre designs were only "cutwork" in grass and gravel, often of different colours. Reddish "brick dust", mostly brick waste crushed to gravel-sized pieces,

3584-463: Is disputed. Arabesque art consists of a series of repeating geometric forms which are occasionally accompanied by calligraphy . Ettinghausen et al. describe the arabesque as a "vegetal design consisting of full...and half palmettes [as] an unending continuous pattern...in which each leaf grows out of the tip of another." To the adherents of Islam , the Arabesque is symbolic of their united faith and

3712-551: Is more than any other county. Traditional farming throughout the county has meant that fewer Devon hedges have been removed than elsewhere. Devon hedges are particularly important for wildlife habitat. Around 20% of the UK's species-rich hedges occur within Devon. Over 600 species of flowering plants, 1500 species of insects, 65 species of birds and 20 species of mammals have been recorded living or feeding in Devon hedges. Hedge laying in Devon

3840-478: Is no distinction; all forms of art, the natural world, mathematics and science are seen to be creations of God and therefore reflections of the same thing: God's will expressed through his creation. In other words, man can discover the geometric forms that constitute the arabesque, but these forms always existed before as part of God's creation, as shown in this picture. There is great similarity between arabesque artwork from very different geographic regions. In fact,

3968-420: Is usually referred to as steeping and involves cutting and laying steepers (the stems) along the top of the bank and securing them with crooks (forked sticks). A Cornish hedge is an earth bank with stones. It normally consists of large stone blocks constructed either side of a narrow earth bank, and held in place with interlocking stones. The neat rows of square stones at the top are called "edgers". The top of

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4096-589: The Oxford English Dictionary : "A species of mural or surface decoration in colour or low relief, composed in flowing lines of branches, leaves, and scroll-work fancifully intertwined. Also fig[uratively]. As used in Moorish and Arabic decorative art (from which, almost exclusively, it was known in the Middle Ages), representations of living creatures were excluded; but in the arabesques of Raphael , founded on

4224-623: The Château d'Anet near Dreux , France, where he and Mollet were working. Around 1595, Mollet introduced compartment-patterned parterres to the royal gardens of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and Fontainebleau . The fully developed scrolling embroidery-like parterres en broderie first appear in Alexandre Francini's engraved views of the revised horticultural plans of Fontainebleau and Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1614. Clipped boxwood met with resistance from horticultural patrons for its "naughtie smell" as

4352-451: The Islamic view of the world (see above). The depiction of animals and people is generally discouraged , which explains the preference for abstract geometric patterns. There are two modes to arabesque art. The first mode recalls the principles that govern the order of the world. These principles include the bare basics of what makes objects structurally sound and, by extension, beautiful (i.e.

4480-584: The Medieval field rationalisations; more originated in the industrial boom of the 18th and 19th centuries, when heaths and uplands were enclosed . Many hedgerows separating fields from lanes in the United Kingdom , Ireland and the Low Countries are estimated to have been in existence for more than seven hundred years, originating in the medieval period. The root word of 'hedge' is much older: it appears in

4608-708: The Old English language , in German ( Hecke ), and Dutch ( haag ) to mean 'enclosure', as in the name of the Dutch city The Hague , or more formally 's Gravenhage , meaning The Count 's hedge . Charles the Bald is recorded as complaining in 864, at a time when most official fortifications were constructed of wooden palisades , that some unauthorized men were constructing haies et fertés ; tightly interwoven hedges of hawthorns . In parts of Britain, early hedges were destroyed to make way for

4736-526: The Renaissance onwards. Interlace and scroll decoration are terms used for most other types of similar patterns. Arabesques are a fundamental element of Islamic art. The past and current usage of the term in respect of European art is confused and inconsistent. Some Western arabesques derive from Islamic art, however others are closely based on ancient Roman decorations. In the West they are essentially found in

4864-469: The United Kingdom where they link the country's fractured ancient woodland . They also serve as a habitat for birds and other animals. As the land within a few metres of hedges is difficult to plough, sow, or spray with herbicides , the land around hedges also typically includes high plant biodiversity . Hedges also serve to stabilise the soil and on slopes help prevent soil creep and leaching of minerals and plant nutrients. Removal thus weakens

4992-485: The acanthus , with its emphasis on leafy forms, and the vine, with an equal emphasis on twining stems. The evolution of these forms into a distinctive Islamic type was complete by the 11th century, having begun in the 8th or 9th century in works like the Mshatta Facade . In the process of development the plant forms became increasingly simplified and stylized. The relatively abundant survivals of stucco reliefs from

5120-472: The bosquet part of the garden rather than among the parterres. In French the name is also used for the game of bowls, and the greens it is played on. Several French writers were ready to concede the superiority of English grass, including Andre Mollet and Dezallier d'Argenville ; apart from the climate some attributed it to the selection of the turf and the frequency and quality of the cutting. Plats typically came in pairs, one on each side of an allée down

5248-478: The decorative arts , but because of the generally non-figurative nature of Islamic art, arabesque decoration is often a very prominent element in the most significant works, and plays a large part in the decoration of architecture . Claims are often made regarding the theological significance of the arabesque and its origin in a specifically Islamic view of the world; however, these are without support from written historical sources since, like most medieval cultures,

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5376-470: The gentry rather than noble magnates. Among the royal palaces, Somerset House was converted by Inigo Jones in the 1630s, and the Privy Gardens at Hampton Court Palace and Whitehall Palace by 1640. Whitehall had 16 relatively small plats with statues in the middle, and in 1662 a much larger bowling-green was added alongside. A plat could double as a bowling-green for early versions of lawn bowls ,

5504-411: The goldwork embroidery on diplomatic uniforms which some, mostly European, countries continue to use to the present day. At the time this style of ornament was used in many media in the decorative arts . The main motifs are usually wreaths and strapwork , more rarely they are in the shape of monograms and figures. Generally any hedging was very low, to enable the patterns to be readable from

5632-450: The 1630s, elaborate parterres de broderie appeared at Wilton House in Wilton , England, that were so magnificent that they were engraved, which engraving is the only remaining trace of them. " Parterres de pelouse " or " parterres de gazon " denominate cutwork parterres of low growing herbs ( e.g. , camomile ) as much as closely scythed turf grass . The separation of plant beds of a parterre

5760-429: The 16th and early 17th centuries. Generally they were appreciated from a raised position, either the windows of a house, or a terrace . Clipped hedges above eye level may be laid out in the form of a labyrinth or garden maze . Few such mazes survived the change of fashion towards more naturalistic plantings in the 18th and 19th centuries, but many were replanted in 20th-century restorations of older gardens. An example

5888-447: The 18th century and were superseded, within the naturalistic English landscape garden style, which emerged in England from the 1720s by flower gardens, or shrubberies from the mid-century, both very often planned round a snake-like serpentine path. In particular, Capability Brown , the most prolific garden designer of the mid-century, often brought a wide lawn right up to the terrace of the main garden front, to give Neoclassical houses

6016-492: The 19th century parterres were revived in a somewhat different form, coinciding with the availability of carpet bedding , the annual mass planting of non-hardy flowers as segments of colour which constituted a design. Level substrates and a raised vantage point from which to view the design were required, and so the parterre was revived in a modified style. By now a parterre often meant a collection of flower beds in fairly formal shapes, but often avoiding straight lines, arranged on

6144-537: The English Manner are the plainest and meanest of all. They should consist only of large Grass-plots all of a Piece, or cut but little, and be encompassed with a Border of Flowers, separated from the Grass-work by a Path of Two or Three Foot wide, laid smooth and sanded over, to make the greater Distinction As well as grass, English writers including Samuel Pepys and Sir William Temple also congratulated themselves on

6272-480: The English landscape and valuable habitats for wildlife. Many hedgerow trees are veteran trees and therefore of great wildlife interest. The most common species are English oak ( Quercus robur ) and ash ( Fraxinus excelsior ), though in the past field elm ( Ulmus minor 'Atinia') would also have been common. Around 20 million elm trees, most of them hedgerow trees, were felled or died through Dutch elm disease in

6400-473: The Environment , based on age and other factors. Hedgerow removal is part of the transition of arable land from low-intensity to high-intensity farming . The removal of hedgerows gives larger fields making the sowing and harvesting of crops easier, faster and cheaper, and giving a larger area to grow the crops, increasing yield and profits. Hedgerows serve as important wildlife corridors , especially in

6528-618: The European past as the Islamic world, with "grotesque" gradually acquiring its main modern meaning, related more to Gothic gargoyles and caricature than to either Pompeii -style Roman painting or Islamic patterns. Meanwhile, the word "arabesque" was now being applied to Islamic art itself, by 1851 at the latest, when John Ruskin uses it in The Stones of Venice . Writers over the last decades have attempted to salvage meaningful distinctions between

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6656-410: The Islamic world has not left us documentation of their intentions in using the decorative motifs they did. At the popular level such theories often appear uninformed as to the wider context of the arabesque. In similar fashion, proposed connections between the arabesque and Arabic knowledge of geometry remains a subject of debate; not all art historians are persuaded that such knowledge had reached, or

6784-668: The Method of which they [the French] own to have receiv’d from England, .... [are] of the most Use, and is, above all, the beautifullest with us in England, on Account of the Goodness of our Turf, and that Decency and unaffected Simplicity which it affords to the Eye of the Beholder. On the continent a boulingrin (a mangled French version of "bowling-green") was a sunken compartment of fine lawn, typically found in

6912-826: The UK, modern parterres exist at Trereife House in Penzance (Cornwall), at Drumlanrig Castle in Dumfriesshire and at Bodysgallen Hall near Llandudno . Examples can also be found in Ireland , such as at Birr Castle . One of the largest in Britain is at Cliveden in Buckinghamshire , which covers an area of 4 acres (1.6 ha; 160 a; 16,000 m; 170,000 sq ft); it consists of symmetrical wedge-shaped beds filled with Nepeta ("catmint"), Santolina and Senecio , edged with box hedges. Sentinel pyramids of yew stand at

7040-421: The action to take for a heavily over trimmed hedge, '5' is a healthy dense hedgerow more than 2 metres in height, and '10' is a hedge that has not been managed at all and has become a line of trees. The RSPB suggest that hedges in Britain not be cut between March and August. This is to protect nesting birds, which are protected by law. The techniques of coppicing and hard pollarding can be used to rejuvenate

7168-554: The ancient Græco-Roman work of this kind, and in those of Renaissance decoration, human and animal figures, both natural and grotesque, as well as vases, armour, and objects of art, are freely introduced; to this the term is now usually applied, the other being distinguished as Moorish Arabesque, or Moresque." A major use of the arabesque style has been artistic printing, for example of book covers and page decoration. Repeating geometric patterns worked well with traditional printing, since they could be printed from metal type like letters if

7296-403: The angle and the fixed/static shapes that it creates—esp. the truss ). In the first mode, each repeating geometric form has a built-in symbolism ascribed to it. For example, the square, with its four equilateral sides, is symbolic of the equally important elements of nature: earth , air , fire and water . Without any one of the four, the physical world, represented by a circle that inscribes

7424-462: The appearance of classical buildings in paintings by artists such as Claude Lorrain . Many English parterres were dug up as a result. The flowering plants were often moved to the side of the house. The parterre en broderie took its name from contemporary styles of metalwork embroidery ( broderie in French), then used in the most formal clothes of both men and women at court. Similar styles live on in

7552-491: The assimilation of Chinese motifs into Persian art after the Mongol invasion harmonious and productive. Many arabesque patterns disappear at (or "under", as it often appears to a viewer) a framing edge without ending and thus can be regarded as infinitely extendable outside the space they actually occupy; this was certainly a distinctive feature of the Islamic form, though not without precedent. Most but not all foliage decoration in

7680-425: The beds in either case depends on the style of architecture of the house to which the parterre belongs, or to the taste and fancy of the owner. Whatever shapes are adopted, they are generally combined into a symmetrical figure; for when this is not the case the collection of beds ceases to be a parterre, or a flower-garden...In planting parterres there are two different systems; one is to plant only one kind of flower in

7808-500: The branches, generally of a linear character, were turned into straps or bands. ... It is characteristic of the moresque, which is essentially a surface ornament, that it is impossible to locate the pattern's beginning or end. ... Originating in the Middle East, they were introduced to continental Europe via Italy and Spain ... Italian examples of this ornament, which was often used for bookbindings and embroidery, are known from as early as

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7936-453: The case in the originals. Claude Mollet , from a dynasty of nurserymen-designers that lasted into the 18th century, developed the parterre in France . His inspiration in developing the 16th-century patterned compartimens ( i.e. , simple interlaces formed of herbs, either open and infilled with sand, or closed and filled with flowers) was the painter Etienne du Pérac, who returned from Italy to

8064-441: The case in the originals. A much larger number of Victorian parterres have survived in something like their original state, both in houses and public parks and other gardens, and these remain attractive to modern visitors. Many restored parterres are increasingly threatened by fungi and insects, especially the box tree moth , and alternative species are being explored, for example at RHS Wisley . Parterres tended to survive better

8192-406: The central axis. The garden at Ham House near London has been restored, following extensive research, to have a parterre of eight plats, four wide and two deep, facing the main garden front, with a replanted wilderness beyond. At the side of the house is a smaller and more complicated parterre in compartments, with flowers, now called the "Cherry Garden". Perhaps as a concession to modern taste,

8320-484: The classical world to the Islamic arabesque. While the Kunstwollen has few followers today, his basic analysis of the development of forms has been confirmed and refined by the wider corpus of examples known today. Jessica Rawson has recently extended the analysis to cover Chinese art , which Riegl did not cover, tracing many elements of Chinese decoration back to the same tradition, the shared background helping make

8448-544: The continent often using the parterre en broderie style of spreading and curving branches, derived from embroidery . The French formal garden parterre inspired many similar parterres throughout Europe, though the parterres in the gardens of Versailles are rather muted; those in palace gardens in the Holy Roman Empire and in eventually Russian-controlled eastern Europe, are often more extensive and extravagant. Parterre-style areas reappeared in many large gardens from

8576-567: The corners. Some early knot gardens have been covered over by lawn or other landscaping but the traces are visible as undulations in the present day landscape. An example of this phenomenon is the early 17th-century garden of Muchalls Castle in Scotland . At Charlecote Park in Warwickshire the original parterre from the 1800s has been recreated on the terrace overlooking the river. Hedge (gardening) A hedge often operates as, and sometimes

8704-407: The cutting can be increased a little every year. Trimming a hedge helps to promote bushy growth. If a flail cutter is used, then the flail must be kept sharp to ensure that the cutting is effective on the hedge. The disadvantage of this is that the hedge species takes a number of years before it will flower again and subsequently bear fruit for wildlife and people. If the hedge is trimmed repeatedly at

8832-558: The decoration of some of the corridors of the Loggie of the Vatican at Rome: grotesque is thus a better name for these decorations than Arabesque. This technical Arabesque, therefore, is much more ancient than any Arabian or Moorish decoration, and has really nothing in common with it except the mere symmetrical principles of its arrangement. Pliny and Vitruvius give us no name for the extravagant decorative wall-painting in vogue in their time, to which

8960-568: The development of traditional skills and works with Cornwall Council , FWAG (Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group), Stone Academy Bodmin, Cornwall AONB, Country Trust and professional hedgers to ensure the future of Cornish Hedges in the landscape. Hedges, both clipped and unclipped, are often used as ornament in the layout of gardens . Typical woody plants for clipped hedges include privet , hawthorn , beech , yew , leyland cypress , hemlock , arborvitae , barberry , box , holly , oleander , lavender , among others. An early 20th-century fashion

9088-532: The development, categorization and meaning of the arabesque. The detailed study of Islamic arabesque forms was begun by Alois Riegl in his formalist study Stilfragen: Grundlegungen zu einer Geschichte der Ornamentik ( Problems of style: foundations for a history of ornament ) of 1893, who in the process developed his influential concept of the Kunstwollen . Riegl traced formalistic continuity and development in decorative plant forms from ancient Egyptian art and other ancient Near Eastern civilizations through

9216-399: The distances should vary so as to create a more natural landscape. The distance allows the young trees to develop full crowns without competing or producing too much shade. It is suggested that hedgerow trees cause gaps in hedges but it has been found that cutting some lower branches off lets sufficient light through to the hedge below to allow it to grow. Hedges are recognised as part of

9344-463: The early Italian revivers of it seem to have given the designation of grotesque, because it, was first discovered in the arched or underground chambers (grotte) of Roman ruins—as in the golden house of Nero, or the baths of Titus. What really took place in the Italian revival was in some measure a supplanting of the Arabesque for the classical grotesque, still retaining the original Arabian designation, while

9472-459: The earth (hazel does not sprout from cuttings). Once planted, these cuttings root and form new plants, creating a dense barrier. The technique is ancient, and the term quickset hedge is first recorded in 1484. The word quick in the name refers to the fact that the cuttings are living (as in " the quick and the dead "), and not to the speed at which the hedge grows, although it will establish quite rapidly. An alternative meaning of quickset hedging

9600-550: The effects of tree roots, burrowing rabbits, rain, wind, farm animals and people. How often repairs are needed depends on how well the hedge was built, its stone, and what has happened to it since it was last repaired. Typically a hedge needs a cycle of repair every 150 years or so, or less often if it is fenced. Building new hedges, and repairing existing hedges, is a skilled craft, and there are professional hedgers in Cornwall. The Cornish Hedge Research and Education Group (CHREG) supports

9728-434: The environmental impact of farming features more highly and in many places hedgerow conservation and replanting is taking place. In England and Wales agricultural hedgerow removal is controlled by the Hedgerows Regulations 1997 , administered by the local planning authority . If hedges are not maintained and trimmed regularly, gaps tend to form at the base over many years. In essence, hedgelaying consists of cutting most of

9856-473: The extent to which these too are described as arabesque varies between different writers. The Islamic arabesque was probably invented in Baghdad around the 10th century. It first appeared as a distinctive and original development in Islamic art in carved marble panels from around this time. What makes Islamic arabesque unique and distinct from vegetal decorations of other cultures is its infinite correspondence and

9984-519: The fact that it can be extended beyond its actual limits. The arabesque developed out of the long-established traditions of plant-based scroll ornament in the cultures taken over by the early Islamic conquests . Early Islamic art, for example in the famous 8th-century mosaics of the Great Mosque of Damascus , often contained plant-scroll patterns, in that case by Byzantine artists in their usual style. The plants most often used are stylized versions of

10112-525: The fact that planted hedgerows, hedgerows with elm , and hedgerows in the north of England tend not to follow the rule as closely. The formula also does not work on hedges more than a thousand years old. Hooper's scheme is important not least for its potential use in determining what an important hedgerow is, given their protection in The Hedgerows Regulations (1997; No. 1160) of the Department of

10240-462: The first, comprises modern ornaments: moresques, interlaced bands, strapwork, and elements such as cartouches"—categories he goes on to discuss individually. The moresque or arabesque style was especially popular and long-lived in the Western arts of the book: bookbindings decorated in gold tooling, borders for illustrations, and printer's ornaments for decorating empty spaces on the page. In this field

10368-405: The followers of Mahomet; and the former is a term pretty well restricted to varieties of cinquecento decoration, which have nothing in common with any Arabian examples in their details, but are a development derived from Greek and Roman grotesque designs, such as we find them in the remains of ancient palaces at Rome, and in ancient houses at Pompeii. These were reproduced by Raphael and his pupils in

10496-531: The further east one went in Europe, and the imperial Russian palaces have many of the best remaining examples. At Kensington Palace, the planting of the parterres was by Henry Wise , whose nursery was nearby at Brompton . In an engraving from 1707 to 1708, the up-to-date Baroque designs of each section are clipped scrolling designs, symmetrical around a centre, in low hedging punctuated by trees formally clipped into cones; however, their traditional 17th century layout,

10624-446: The gardens and meadows and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set hedges, what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real value too, of those gardens, meadows and fields! In the US, some local jurisdictions may strictly regulate the placement or height of a hedge, such as the case where a Palo Alto city resident

10752-579: The genuine Arabian art, the Saracenic, was distinguished as Moresque or Moorish." The book Opera nuova che insegna a le donne a cuscire … laqual e intitolata Esempio di raccammi (A New Work that Teaches Women how to Sew … Entitled "Samples of Embroidery"), published in Venice in 1530, includes "groppi moreschi e rabeschi", Moorish knots and arabesques. From there it spread to England, where Henry VIII owned, according to an inventory of 1549, an agate cup with

10880-441: The health of the environment, hedgerows also play a huge role in providing shelter for smaller animals like birds and insects. A recent study by Emma Coulthard mentioned the possibility that hedgerows may act as guides for moths, like Acronicta rumicis , when flying from one location to another. As moths are nocturnal, it is highly unlikely that they use visual aids as guides, but rather are following sensory or olfactory markers on

11008-472: The hedge is planted with grass turf. Sometimes hedging plants or trees are planted on the hedge to increase its windbreaking height. A rich flora develops over the lifespan of a Cornish hedge. The Cornish hedge contributes to the distinctive field-pattern of the Cornish landscape and its semi-natural wildlife habitat. There are about 30,000 miles (48,000 km) of hedges in Cornwall today. Hedges suffer from

11136-402: The hedgerows. Larkin et al. 2013 find 100% of northwest European farms have hedges, providing 43% of the wildlife habitat there. Historically, hedges were used as a source of firewood, and for providing shelter from wind, rain and sun for crops, farm animals and people. Today, mature hedges' uses include screening unsightly developments. In England and Wales agricultural hedgerow removal

11264-617: The herbalist Gervase Markham described it. By 1638, Jacques Boyceau described the range of designs in boxwood that a horticulturist should be able to cultivate: Parterres are the low embellishments of gardens, which have great grace, especially when seen from an elevated position: they are made of borders of several shrubs and sub-shrubs of various colours, fashioned in different manners, as compartments, foliage, embroideries ( passements ), moresques , arabesques , grotesques , guilloches , rosettes, sunbursts ( gloires ), escutcheons , coats-of-arms , monograms and emblems ( devises ). By

11392-464: The king is said to have arrived for dinner with the garden in one colour of flowers, which had all been changed to another colour by the time he left. The relatively small and enclosed garden of the Trianon, originally called the "Palace of Flora", was in effect the flower garden of Versailles, and Le Notre said in 1694 that 2,000,000 flower pots were used there over a year. Parterre gardens lost favour in

11520-417: The large and feathery leaves called saz became very popular, and were elaborated in drawings showing just one or more large leaves. Eventually floral decoration mostly derived from Chinese styles, especially those of Chinese porcelain , replaces the arabesque in many types of work, such as pottery, textiles and miniatures. The arabesques and geometric patterns of Islamic art are often said to arise from

11648-587: The last three can become very tall. Of the hedgerows in the Normandy region of France, Martin Blumenson said The hedgerow is a fence, half earth, half hedge. The wall at the base is a dirt parapet that varies in thickness from one to four or more feet and in height from three to twelve feet. Growing out of the wall is a hedge of hawthorn, brambles, vines, and trees, in thickness from one to three feet. Originally property demarcations, hedgerows protect crops and cattle from

11776-510: The late 1960s. Many other species are used, notably including common beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) and various nut and fruit trees . The age structure of British hedgerow trees is old because the number of new trees is not sufficient to replace the number of trees that are lost through age or disease. New trees can be established by planting but it is generally more successful to leave standard trees behind when laying hedges. Trees should be left at no closer than 10 metres (33 ft) apart and

11904-498: The late fifteenth century. Fuhring notes that grotesques were "confusingly called arabesques in eighteenth century France", but in his terminology "the major types of ornament that appear in French sixteenth century etchings and engraving ... can be divided into two groups. The first includes ornaments adopted from antiquity: grotesques, architectural ornaments such as the orders, foliage scrolls and self-contained elements such as trophies, terms and vases. A second group, far smaller than

12032-422: The latter part of the 17th century" to grotesque ornament, "despite the classical origin of the latter", especially if without human figures in it—a distinction still often made, but not consistently observed. Over the following centuries, the three terms "grotesque", "moresque", and "arabesque" were used largely interchangeably in English, French, and German for styles of decoration derived at least as much from

12160-691: The main rooms facing the garden of the bel étage of the house. New houses were often given wide high terraces, from which the parterre could be admired; these were filled in summer with greenhouse plants in pots. No Baroque broderie parterres have been preserved in their entirety in the original, but in the late 20th century there have been increasing attempts to reconstruct them. In Germany, for example, those of Schloss Augustusburg in Brühl (around 1730) or Schwetzingen (1753–1758) have been reconstructed. In England parterres en broderie were always rare, "probably there were never more than twenty examples of it in

12288-533: The manorial open-field system . Many were replaced after the Enclosure Acts , then removed again during modern agricultural intensification, and now some are being replanted for wildlife. As of 2024 in a study using Lidar by the UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology England alone was found to have a total of 390,000 km of hedgerows, which would span the circumference of the earth 10 times. A hedge may consist of

12416-455: The material world, they believe, is a mere ghostly approximation of the spiritual world, which for many Muslims is the place where the only true reality exists. Discovered geometric forms, therefore, exemplify this perfect reality because God's creation has been obscured by the sins of man. Mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only Allah can produce perfection, although this theory

12544-462: The mid-19th century, now much more lavishly planted with bedded-out flowers, and with less strictly geometrical designs. From around the mid-20th century, as interest in Baroque gardens revived, garden designers have made many attempts to recreate or to restore Baroque parterres, at least as regards the layout; planting often continues to be much thicker, and the height of hedges higher, than would have been

12672-583: The nobler Diversions of the Country take place ... [after the end of May]... when the Beauty of Flowers is gone, and Borders are like Graves, and rather a Blemish than Beauty to our finest gardens. In top gardens flowers in parterres were typically grown in pots in the greenhouse, and placed into the parterre only for as long as their blooms lasted. This was the system at the Grand Trianon sub-palace at Versailles, where

12800-848: The ocean winds that sweep across the land. The hedgerows of Normandy became barriers that slowed the advance of Allied troops following the D-Day invasion during World War II. Allied armed forces modified their armored vehicles to facilitate breaking out of their beachheads into the Normandy bocage . Formal, or modern garden hedges are grown in many varieties, including the following species: Hedgerow trees are trees that grow in hedgerows but have been allowed to reach their full height and width. There are thought to be around 1.8 million hedgerow trees in Britain (counting only those whose canopies do not touch others) with perhaps 98% of these being in England and Wales. Hedgerow trees are both an important part of

12928-468: The pattern could best be appreciated. To either side, walls with busts on herm pedestals backed by young trees screen the parterre from the flanking garden spaces. Formal baroque patterns have given way to symmetrical paired free scrolling rococo arabesques, against the gravel ground. Little attempt seems to have been made to fit the framework to the shape of the parterre. Beyond (in the shadowed near foreground) paired basins have central jets of water. In

13056-421: The pattern, and an allée of medium-sized trees often ran along the side. Otherwise, the parterre was normally an area of openness, with the various elements very low, contrasting with the height of the house, and with the taller areas of the garden beyond. This made the parterre both a place to be seen - typically everyone walking in the parterre, and observers from around it, could see everyone else - but also

13184-427: The plats are now planted with 500,000 spring bulbs and wild flowers, which are unlikely to have been an original feature. To the French a parterre anglais (or a la anglais or a la angloise ) meant in the Baroque period a plat edged with a thin border ( plate-bande ) of low flowers. Antoine Dezallier d’Argenville 's English translation, The Theory and Practice of Gardening (1712) described these: PARTERRES after

13312-405: The preceding cultures terminated at the edge of the occupied space, although infinitely repeatable patterns in foliage are very common in the modern world in wallpaper and textiles . Typically, in earlier forms there is no attempt at realism; no particular species of plant is being imitated, and the forms are often botanically impossible or implausible. "Leaf" forms typically spring sideways from

13440-511: The same height, a 'hard knuckle' will start to form at that height – similar to the shape of a pollarded tree. Additionally, hedge trimming causes habitat destruction to species like the small eggar moth which spend nearly their entire life cycle in blackthorn and hawthorn hedgerow. This has led to a decline in the moth's population. It is now nationally scarce in Britain. A 'hedgerow management' scale has been devised by an organisation called Hedgelink UK ranging from 1 to 10. '1' describes

13568-481: The similarities are so pronounced that it is sometimes difficult for experts to tell where a given style of arabesque comes from. The reason for this is that the science and mathematics that are used to construct Arabesque artwork are universal. Therefore, for most Muslims, the best artwork that can be created by man for use in the Mosque is artwork that displays the underlying order and unity of nature. The order and unity of

13696-639: The soil and leads to erosion. In the United Kingdom hedgerow removal has been occurring since World War I as technology made intensive farming possible, and the increasing population demanded more food from the land. The trend has slowed down somewhat since the 1980s when cheap food imports reduced the demand on British farmland, and as the European Union Common Agricultural Policy made environmental projects financially viable. Under reforms to national and EU agricultural policies,

13824-583: The species chosen. The development of hedges over the centuries is preserved in their structure. The first hedges enclosed land for cereal crops during the Neolithic Age (4000–6000 years ago). The farms were of about 5 to 10 hectares (12 to 25 acres), with fields about 0.1 hectares (0.25 acres) for hand cultivation. Some hedges date from the Bronze and Iron Ages , 2000–4000 years ago, when traditional patterns of landscape became established. Others were built during

13952-501: The spiritual world), Islam considers calligraphy a visible expression of the highest art of all; the art of the spoken word (the transmittal of thoughts and of history). In Islam, the most important document to be transmitted orally is the Qur'an . Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an can be seen today in Arabesque art. The coming together of these three forms creates the Arabesque, and this

14080-416: The square, would collapse upon itself and cease to exist. The second mode is based upon the flowing nature of plant forms. This mode recalls the feminine nature of life giving. In addition, upon inspection of the many examples of Arabesque art, some would argue that there is in fact a third mode, the mode of Islamic calligraphy . Instead of recalling something related to the 'True Reality' (the reality of

14208-833: The start, as the plants need time to grow and entwine to form a real hedge. An example of an instant hedge can be seen at the Elveden Hall Estate in East Anglia, where fields of hedges can be seen growing in cultivated rows, since 1998. The development of this type of mature hedge has led to such products being specified by landscape architects, garden designers, property developers, insurance companies, sports clubs, schools and local councils, as well as many private home owners. Demand has also increased from planning authorities in specifying to developers that mature hedges are planted rather than just whips (a slender, unbranched shoot or plant). A 'real' instant hedge could be defined as having

14336-687: The stem, in what is often called a "half- palmette " form, named after its distant and very different looking ancestor in ancient Egyptian and Greek ornament. New stems spring from leaf-tips, a type often called honeysuckle , and the stems often have no tips, winding endlessly out of the space. The early Mshatta Facade is recognisably some sort of vine, with conventional leaves on the end of short stalks and bunches of grapes or berries, but later forms usually lack these. Flowers are rare until about 1500, after which they appear more often, especially in Ottoman art, and are often identifiable by species. In Ottoman art

14464-458: The superiority of the native gravels. From about 1670, perhaps under the influence of Versailles, those English owners who could afford them began to install fountains, generally where alleys between plats met up. Statues in or around 17th-century English parterres tended to be castings in lead from the Low Countries, painted to resemble marble or bronze. The third main type of parterre covered

14592-694: The technique of gold tooling had also arrived in the 15th century from the Islamic world, and indeed much of the leather itself was imported from there. Small motifs in this style have continued to be used by conservative book designers up to the present day. According to Harold Osborne, in France, the "characteristic development of the French arabesque combined bandwork deriving from the moresque with decorative acanthus foliage radiating from C-scrolls connected by short bars". Apparently starting in embroidery , it then appears in garden design before being used in Northern Mannerist painted decorative schemes "with

14720-432: The type was placed together; as the designs have no specific connection to the meaning of a text, the type can be reused in many different editions of different works. Robert Granjon , a French printer of the sixteenth century, has been credited with the first truly interlocking arabesque printing, but other printers had used many other kinds of ornaments in the past. The idea was rapidly used by many other printers. After

14848-486: The walls of palaces (but not mosques) in Abbasid Samarra , the Islamic capital between 836 and 892, provide examples of three styles, Styles A, B, and C, though more than one of these may appear on the same wall, and their chronological sequence is not certain. Though the broad outline of the process is generally agreed, there is a considerable diversity of views held by specialist scholars on detailed issues concerning

14976-525: The way in which traditional Islamic cultures view the world. Arabesque is a French term derived from the Italian word arabesco , meaning "in the Arabic style". The term was first used in Italian, where rabeschi was used in the 16th century as a term for " pilaster ornaments featuring acanthus decoration", specifically "running scrolls" that ran vertically up a panel or pilaster, rather than horizontally along

15104-426: The way through the stem of each plant near the base, bending it over and interweaving or pleaching it between wooden stakes. This also encourages new growth from the base of each plant. Originally, the main purpose of hedgelaying was to ensure the hedge remained stock-proof. Some side branches were also removed and used as firewood. The maintenance and laying of hedges to form an impenetrable barrier for farm animals

15232-522: The whole of England". However, Hampton Court was one prominent example. A plat (in America entangled with the same word as used for a plot of building land ) was a parterre section of plain grass lawn, perhaps with a central feature such as a fountain or statue, and small clipped trees at the corners. A stretch of good lawn was much admired, and these were rather surprisingly popular, especially in England, where year-round rainfall usually meant summer watering

15360-438: The words from the confused wreckage of historical sources. Peter Fuhring, a specialist in the history of ornament, says that (also in a French context): The ornament known as moresque in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (but now more commonly called arabesque) is characterized by bifurcated scrolls composed of branches forming interlaced foliage patterns. These basic motifs gave rise to numerous variants, for example, where

15488-476: Was a popular addition to stone. These required less maintenance, and looked good from the upper storeys of the house. In country houses the owner was often only in residence in the summer, when the relatively small range of flowers available at the time had mostly finished their display. Stephen Switzer , an English gardener of the early 18th century, advised against using flowers at all in country house gardens for this reason, an extreme position, not often followed:

15616-474: Was already complaining about this in 1819: And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the Haw-Thorn ]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English Hedges, instead of post-and-rail and board fences? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures

15744-570: Was and is used both for the whole part of the garden containing parterres and for each individual section between the "alleys". The pattern or the borders of the beds may be marked by low, tightly pruned, evergreen hedging , and their interiors may be planted with flowers or other plants or filled with mulch or gravel. Parterres need not have any flowers at all, and the originals from the 17th and 18th centuries had far fewer than modern survivals or reconstructions. Statues or small evergreen trees, clipped as pyramids or other shapes, often marked points in

15872-526: Was arrested for allowing her xylosma hedge to grow above two feet. Arabesque (European art) The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, used in the Islamic world, typically using leaves, derived from stylised half-palmettes , which were combined with spiralling stems". It usually consists of

16000-631: Was for tapestry hedges , using a mix of golden, green and glaucous dwarf conifers , or beech and copper beech. Unclipped hedges take up more space, generally at a premium in modern gardens, but compensate by flowering. Rosa multiflora is widely used as a dense hedge along the central reservation of dual-carriageway roads , such as parkways in the United States. In mild climates , more exotic flowering hedges are formed, using Ceanothus , Hibiscus , Camellia , orange jessamine ( Murraya paniculata ), [1] or lillypilly ( Syzygium species). It

16128-446: Was needed by, those creating arabesque designs, although in certain cases there is evidence that such a connection did exist. The case for a connection with Islamic mathematics is much stronger for the development of the geometric patterns with which arabesques are often combined in art. Geometric decoration often uses patterns that are made up of straight lines and regular angles that somewhat resemble curvilinear arabesque patterns;

16256-588: Was the wilderness , normal in large gardens until the English landscape garden style and the rise of the shrubbery began to sweep them away from about 1750. The 'hedge on stilts' of clipped hornbeams at Hidcote Manor Garden , Gloucestershire , is famous and has sometimes been imitated; it is fact a standard French and Italian style of the bosquet. Hedges below knee height are generally thought of as borders. Elaborately shaped and interlaced borders forming knot gardens or parterres were fashionable in Europe during

16384-472: Was unnecessary to keep a green surface. Other terms included tapis vert ("green carpet"), the name given to the huge one in the Gardens of Versailles . In French plat means "flat". The placing of plats in the most prominent positions of the "best garden" seems to have begun in England in the 1630s, and over the rest of the century a parterre section entirely consisting of plats became a distinct English style, probably used in most gardens, especially those of

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