Samarra is a city in central Iraq , which served as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate from 836 to 892. Founded by the caliph al-Mu'tasim , Samarra was briefly a major metropolis that stretched dozens of kilometers along the east bank of the Tigris , but was largely abandoned in the latter half of the 9th century, especially following the return of the caliphs to Baghdad .
151-403: Due to the relatively short period of occupation, extensive ruins of Abbasid Samarra have survived into modern times. The layout of the city can still be seen via aerial photography , revealing a vast network of planned streets, houses, palaces and mosques. Studies comparing the archeological evidence with information provided by Muslim historians have resulted in the identification of many of
302-626: A public space is considered outside the realm of privacy in the United States, aerial photography may legally document features and occurrences on private property. The FAA can pursue enforcement action against persons operating model aircraft who endanger the safety of the national airspace system. Public Law 112–95, section 336(b). June 21, 2016, the FAA released its summary of small unmanned aircraft rules (Part 107). The rules established guidelines for small UAS operators including operating only during
453-562: A 624 square miles (1,620 km ) area in Palestine as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front. This was a pioneering use of aerial photography as an aid for cartography . Lieutenants Leonard Taplin , Allan Runciman Brown , H. L. Fraser, Edward Patrick Kenny , and L. W. Rogers photographed a block of land stretching from the Turkish front lines 32 miles (51 km) deep into their rear areas. Beginning 5 January, they flew with
604-404: A balloon between Hammam-Lif and Grombalia . The first use of a motion picture camera mounted to a heavier-than-air aircraft took place on April 24, 1909, over Rome in the 3:28 silent film short, Wilbur Wright und seine Flugmaschine . The use of aerial photography rapidly matured during the war, as reconnaissance aircraft were equipped with cameras to record enemy movements and defenses. At
755-558: A book usually attributed to Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani , she was a Christian and the daughter of a monk at a Syrian monastery in Homs . Al-Mutawakkil encountered her at the monastery. Enchanted by her beauty and grace, he was infatuated with her. This led to poignant moments with her where he sought her companionship and it turned out that she could sing and recite poetry. Al-Mutawakkil then married her, following her conversion to Islam, and she remained his favourite until his death. Al-Mutawakkil
906-801: A business with major contracts in Africa and Asia as well as in the UK. Operations began from the Stag Lane Aerodrome at Edgware, using the aircraft of the London Flying School. Subsequently, the Aircraft Manufacturing Company (later the De Havilland Aircraft Company ), hired an Airco DH.9 along with pilot entrepreneur Alan Cobham . From 1921, Aerofilms carried out vertical photography for survey and mapping purposes. During
1057-545: A corner, the Turkic leadership began a plot to assassinate the Caliph. They were soon joined, or at least had the tacit approval, of al-Muntasir, who smarted from a succession of humiliations: on 5 December, on the recommendation of al-Fath and Ubayd Allah, he was bypassed in favor of al-Mu'tazz for leading the Friday prayer at the end of Ramadan , while three days later, when al-Mutawakkil
1208-484: A few are listed below. Vertical photographs are often used to create orthophotos , alternatively known as orthophotomaps , photographs which have been geometrically "corrected" so as to be usable as a map. In other words, an orthophoto is a simulation of a photograph taken from an infinite distance, looking straight down to nadir . Perspective must obviously be removed, but variations in terrain should also be corrected for. Multiple geometric transformations are applied to
1359-481: A fighter escort to ward off enemy fighters. Using Royal Aircraft Factory BE.12 and Martinsyde airplanes, they not only overcame enemy air attacks, but also had to contend with 65 mph (105 km/h) winds, antiaircraft fire, and malfunctioning equipment to complete their task. The first commercial aerial photography company in the UK was Aerofilms Ltd, founded by World War I veterans Francis Wills and Claude Graham White in 1919. The company soon expanded into
1510-412: A great use of perfume ( attar ). Another concubine was Najla. She was known for her beauty and singing. After al-Mutawakkil's death, caliph al-Musta'in married her to Utamish . Another concubine was Rayya al-Madaniyya. She was a poet. She and another concubine, Zamya al-Hamadaniyya, who was also a poet, were brought from al-Yamama and sold to al-Mutawakkil. Upon seeing them, he requested they recite
1661-431: A group of four hundred slaves. She was one of his favourites. After al-Mutawakkil's death she became the property of Wasif, whom she angered, whereupon Bugha asked for her and freed her. She then went to Baghdad, where she lived in anonymity and eventually passed away due to sorrow. Another concubine was Mulah. She was a poet and was related to the poet Shāriyah . She was known by her epithet al-Attarah because she made
SECTION 10
#17328526710021812-483: A high vantage structures , suspended on cables (e.g. Skycam ) or on top of very tall poles that are either handheld (e.g. monopods and selfie sticks ), fixed firmly to ground (e.g. surveillance cameras and crane shots ) or mounted above vehicles . Aerial photography was first practiced by the French photographer and balloonist Gaspard-Félix Tournachon , known as "Nadar" , in 1858 over Paris , France. However,
1963-923: A mass of more than 20 kg are termed 'Large Model Aircraft' – within the UK, large model aircraft may only be flown in accordance with an exemption from the ANO, which must be issued by the CAA. Photographs taken at an angle are called oblique photographs . If they are taken from a low angle relative to the earth's surface, they are called low oblique and photographs taken from a high angle are called high or steep oblique . Vertical photographs are taken straight down. They are mainly used in photogrammetry and image interpretation . Pictures that will be used in photogrammetry are traditionally taken with special large format cameras with calibrated and documented geometric properties. Aerial photographs are often combined. Depending on their purpose it can be done in several ways, of which
2114-628: A new city in a previously uninhabited area, al-Mu'tasim could reward his followers with land and commercial opportunities without cost to himself and free from any constraints, unlike Baghdad with its established interest groups. In fact, the sale of land seems to have produced considerable profit for the treasury: as Hugh Kennedy writes, it was "a sort of gigantic property speculation in which both government and its followers could expect to benefit". After al-Mu'tasim's death, his successor al-Wathiq (r. 842–847) remained in Samarra. His decision to stay convinced
2265-582: A perception of depth that could aid in cartography and in intelligence derived from aerial images. The Royal Flying Corps recon pilots began to use cameras for recording their observations in 1914 and by the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915, the entire system of German trenches was being photographed. In 1916 the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making. The first purpose-built and practical aerial camera
2416-467: A poem mentioning him and his conquests. Both Rayya and Zamya complied, and Rayya's performance pleased him, leading him to keep her. When Zamya asked why he didn't choose her, he mentioned her freckles, which he saw as a flaw, but her cleverly crafted poetry changed his perception, leading him to ultimately choose her too. Another concubine was Nashib. She was famous for her exceptional singing skills and imaginative talent. Some other concubines were Bunan,
2567-453: A poet, and Zajir. Al-Mutawakkil had three more sons, Abu'l-Hassan, who died in 885, Abu Isa Abdullah, who was a musician and a composer, and who was killed in 892, and Ishaq. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkic statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably the Byzantines. His secretary, al-Fath ibn Khaqan , who was Turkic,
2718-593: A poisoned drink, leading to her demise. Another concubine ( jariya ) was Sahib. She possessed both beauty and impeccable manners. However, a mishap involving a servant resulted in one of her front teeth being broken, which subsequently turned black, diminishing her appeal in al-Mutawakkil's estimation. Consequently, he bestowed her to his close companion Abu Abdullah ibn Hamdun, providing her with all her belongings. Following Abu Abdullah's passing, she married an Alid , Ali ibn Yahya al-Munajjim. Al-Mutwakkil had taken several courtesans ( qiyan ) as concubines. One of them
2869-450: A prison for prominent persons; al-Mu'tazz, al-Mu'ayyad, al-Muwaffaq , al-Muhtadi, and al-Mu'tamid all were incarcerated there at various points in time. On the northern side of the Dar al-Khalifa was a walled cantonment area. This site has been identified as the area allotted by al-Mu'tasim to Khaqan 'Urtuj and his followers, who were said to be segregated from the general populace. At some point,
3020-452: A prophet. He and some followers were arrested in Baghdad. He was imprisoned, and beaten to death on 18 June 850. In A.H. 236 (850), al-Mutawakkil issued a decree requiring all Christians and Jews in his realm, including Jerusalem and Caesarea , to wear a yellow (honey-colored) hood and belt to distinguish them from Muslims. In A.H. 237 (851–852), Armenians rebelled and defeated and killed
3171-415: A residence for himself, and on the caliph's orders, he also constructed a small market, as well as mosques and baths . Following the execution of al-Afshin in 841, al-Matira was granted to the Turkish general Wasif by al-Wathiq. During the reign of al-Mutawakkil, his son al-Mu'ayyad took up residence there. Al-Matira survived the abandonment of Samarra by the caliphs, and remained occupied at least until
SECTION 20
#17328526710023322-500: A special rule for model aircraft. In Section 336, Congress confirmed the FAA's long-standing position that model aircraft are aircraft. Under the terms of the Act, a model aircraft is defined as "an unmanned aircraft" that is "(1) capable of sustained flight in the atmosphere; (2) flown within visual line of sight of the person operating the aircraft; and (3) flown for hobby or recreational purposes." Because anything capable of being viewed from
3473-524: A tax on their gold mines. They ceased paying this, drove out Muslims working in the mines and terrified people in Upper Egypt. Al-Mutawakkil sent al-Qummi to restore order. Al-Qummi sent seven ships with supplies that enabled him to persevere despite the very harsh terrain of this distant territory. He retook the mines, pressed on to the Beja royal stronghold and defeated the king in battle. The Beja resumed payment of
3624-452: A ten-inch lens and took photos from 23,000 feet. Each photo covered two hundred and twenty-five square miles. One of its first government contracts was an aerial survey of New Mexico to study soil erosion. A year later, Fairchild introduced a better high altitude camera with nine-lens in one unit that could take a photo of 600 square miles with each exposure from 30,000 feet. In 1939 Sidney Cotton and Flying Officer Maurice Longbottom of
3775-470: A timer to take photographs from the air. The same year, Cecil Shadbolt devised a method of taking photographs from the basket of a gas balloon , including shots looking vertically downwards. One of his images, taken from 2,000 feet (610 m) over Stamford Hill , is the earliest extant aerial photograph taken in the British Isles. A print of the same image, An Instantaneous Map Photograph taken from
3926-645: A unique style of Islamic architecture, evident in their large dimensions and unique minarets (criteria iv). Aerial photography Aerial photography (or airborne imagery ) is the taking of photographs from an aircraft or other airborne platforms. When taking motion pictures , it is also known as aerial videography . Platforms for aerial photography include fixed-wing aircraft , helicopters , unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or "drones"), balloons , blimps and dirigibles , rockets , pigeons , kites , or using action cameras while skydiving or wingsuiting . Handheld cameras may be manually operated by
4077-510: A very short time. Al-Mutawakkil took up residence in al-Ja'fari in 860 and transferred the government bureaucracies ( diwan s ) from Samarra, but following his assassination in December 861, his son and successor al-Muntasir ordered a return to Samarra and took up residence in the Jawsaq palace instead. Al-Musharrahat was a complex in the vicinity of Qadisiyya, to the south of Samarra. On the north side
4228-468: A video mapping program. This "Spatial Multimedia" is the timely union of digital media including still photography, motion video, stereo, panoramic imagery sets, immersive media constructs, audio, and other data with location and date-time information from the GPS and other location designs. Aerial videos are emerging Spatial Multimedia which can be used for scene understanding and object tracking. The input video
4379-408: Is captured by low flying aerial platforms and typically consists of strong parallax from non-ground-plane structures. The integration of digital video, global positioning systems (GPS) and automated image processing will improve the accuracy and cost-effectiveness of data collection and reduction. Several different aerial platforms are under investigation for the data collection. In film production, it
4530-802: Is common to use a unmanned aerial vehicle with a mounted cine camera. For example, the AERIGON cinema drone is used for low aerial shots in big blockbuster movies. [REDACTED] Media related to Aerial photography at Wikimedia Commons [REDACTED] The dictionary definition of aerial photography at Wiktionary Al-Mutawakkil Ja'far ibn Muḥammad ibn Hārūn al-Mutawakkil ʿalā Allāh ( Arabic : جعفر بن محمد بن هارون , romanized : Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad ibn Hārūn ); March 822 – 11 December 861, commonly known by his regnal name al-Mutawwakil ala Allah ( Arabic : المتوكل على الله , romanized : al-Mutawakkil ʿalā Allāh , lit. 'He who relies on God'),
4681-532: Is featured in the prologue of the video game Assassin's Creed Mirage , in which the caliph is serving as a puppet for the Order of the Ancients, a secret society devoted to restoring humanity to servitude. He initially protects a Precursor relic on their behalf, but when the game's protagonist Basim attempts to steal it, he fights the young thief and his friend Nehal, who stabs the caliph with his own dagger. His death allows
Abbasid Samarra - Misplaced Pages Continue
4832-399: Is identified with al-Ma'shuq, which was built by al-Mu'tamid and served as his residence for part of his caliphate. Qubbat al-Sulaybiyya is a small octagonal building to the south of Qasr al-'Ashiq. An inner octagonal structure that featured a dome was reached by ramps ascending on four sides. Restoration work in the 1970s included the rebuilding of the dome. Originally built circa 862, it is
4983-426: Is reputed to have four thousand concubines, all of whom shared his bed. One of his concubines ( ummahat al-walad ) was Hubshiya. She was a Greek, and was the mother of his eldest son, the caliph al-Muntasir . After her son's death in 862, she commissioned a tomb for him in public view in Samarra, which made him the first Abbasid caliph whose burial place was not a secret. She died in 877. Another of his concubines
5134-422: Is the radio controlled Nitrohawk helicopter developed by Robert Channon between 1988 and 1998. In addition to gyroscopically stabilized footage, the use of RC copters as reliable aerial photography tools increased with the integration of FPV (first-person-view) technology. Many radio-controlled aircraft, in particular drones, are now capable of utilizing Wi-Fi to stream live video from the aircraft's camera back to
5285-417: Is used in cartography (particularly in photogrammetric surveys , which are often the basis for topographic maps ), land-use planning, aerial archaeology . Oblique aerial photography is used for movie production , environmental studies, power line inspection, surveillance , construction progress, commercial advertising, conveyancing , and artistic projects. An example of how aerial photography
5436-518: Is used in the field of archaeology is the mapping project done at the site Angkor Borei in Cambodia from 1995 to 1996. Using aerial photography, archaeologists were able to identify archaeological features, including 112 water features (reservoirs, artificially constructed pools and natural ponds) within the walled site of Angkor Borei. In the United States, aerial photographs are used in many Phase I Environmental Site Assessments for property analysis. In
5587-604: The Greek Suma ( Σουμᾶ ), the Latin Sumere and the Syriac Šumara. The formal name of the Abbasid city was Surra Man Ra'ā ( Arabic : سُرَّ مَنْ رَأَى ), meaning "he who sees it is delighted". This name appeared on coins and was adopted by some medieval writers. Other contemporary sources, however, used Sāmarrā (سَامَرَّا) or Sāmarrā' (سَامَرَّاء) as variants of the pre-Islamic name, and
5738-537: The RAF were among the first to suggest that airborne reconnaissance may be a task better suited to fast, small aircraft which would use their speed and high service ceiling to avoid detection and interception. Although this seems obvious now, with modern reconnaissance tasks performed by fast, high flying aircraft, at the time it was radical thinking. They proposed the use of Spitfires with their armament and radios removed and replaced with extra fuel and cameras. This led to
5889-560: The photographer , while mounted cameras are usually remotely operated or triggered automatically. Aerial photography typically refers specifically to bird's-eye view images that focus on landscapes and surface objects, and should not be confused with air-to-air photography , where one or more aircraft are used as chase planes that "chase" and photograph other aircraft in flight. Elevated photography can also produce bird's-eye images closely resembling aerial photography (despite not actually being aerial shots) when telephotoing from
6040-547: The 13th century. Al-Hayr was a massive hunting reserve to the east of Samarra. Surrounding it was a wall of coursed earth, enclosing an area of 114 km (44 sq mi). The western portion of the wall bordering the central city was repeatedly demolished and rebuilt to make way for new construction, including that of the Great Mosque. Within al-Hayr were a series of racecourses, with each track measuring several kilometers in length. The layout of these racecourses varied; one
6191-513: The 13th century. On the northern end of central Samarra was the Palace of the Caliph ( dar al-khalifa ). This site served as the official seat of government during the reigns of al-Mu'tasim, al-Muntasir, al-Musta'in, al-Mu'tazz, al-Muhtadi and al-Mu'tamid. The palace complex consisted of two primary buildings. The larger one has been identified as the Dar al-'Amma (Public Palace), where the caliph sat in audience and conducted official business, and where
Abbasid Samarra - Misplaced Pages Continue
6342-900: The 1930s, the company pioneered the science of photogrammetry (mapping from aerial photographs), with the Ordnance Survey amongst the company's clients. In 1920, the Australian Milton Kent started using a half-plate oblique aero camera purchased from Carl Zeiss AG in his aerial photographic business. Another successful pioneer of the commercial use of aerial photography was the American Sherman Fairchild who started his own aircraft firm Fairchild Aircraft to develop and build specialized aircraft for high altitude aerial survey missions. One Fairchild aerial survey aircraft in 1935 carried unit that combined two synchronized cameras, and each camera having five six inch lenses with
6493-409: The Abbasid governor. Al-Mutawakkil sent his general Bugha al-Kabir to handle this. Bugha scored successes during this year; the following year, he attacked and burned Tiflis , capturing Ishaq ibn Isma'il . The rebel leader was later executed. That year (A.H. 238) the Byzantines attacked Damietta . In A.H. 240 (854–855), the police chief in Homs killed a prominent person stirring an uprising . He
6644-513: The Apostates until they surrendered; Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz , who made good the abuse of Umayyads and al-Mutawakkil, who abolished heretical innovations and publicly proclaimed Sunnah Ali ibn al-Jahm said: The Caliph al-Mutawakkil sent for me and said, "Ali, I dreamed I saw the Prophet. I rose to greet him, and he said, 'You're rising for me even though you're a caliph?'" "It's a good dream, Commander of
6795-804: The Beveled Style), the Second Style, and the Third Style. While his classification of these styles were generally accepted by his successors, research in this field now contests the source and timeline of these proclaimed styles. The first pattern that Herzfeld observes, appears on fragments of marble that were extracted from the Audience Hall Complex. This pattern is made up of horseshoe shapes which repeat in rows. The next two patterns that he observes are on marble wall and consist of trefoil motifs and petal-shaped symbols. The last motif Herzfeld observes
6946-703: The Caliph's agents found one million gold dinars . He died of thirst in prison on 21 December 849. He released from prison the famous jurist Ahmad ibn Hanbal ibn Hilal ibn Asad al-Shaybani, who opposed the Mutazilites in their opinion that the Quran was created. Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the founder of the Hanbali madhhab , was arrested and tortured throughout the reigns of, respectively, al-Ma'mun (813–833), his brother and al-Mutawakkil's father, al-Mutassim, and his son al-Wathiq. One Mahmud ibn al-Faraj al-Nayshapuri arose claiming to be
7097-473: The Caliph, who was killed next. Al-Muntasir, who now assumed the caliphate, initially claimed that al-Fath had murdered his father and that he had been killed after; within a short time, however, the official story changed to al-Mutawakkil choking on his drink. The murder of al-Mutawakkil began the tumultuous period known as " Anarchy at Samarra ", which lasted until 870 and brought the Abbasid Caliphate to
7248-582: The Car of a Balloon, 2,000 feet high , was shown at the 1882 Photographic Society exhibition. Frenchman Arthur Batut began using kites for photography in 1888, and wrote a book on his methods in 1890. Samuel Franklin Cody developed his advanced 'Man-lifter War Kite' and succeeded in interesting the British War Office with its capabilities. In 1908, Albert Samama Chikly filmed the first ever aerial views using
7399-560: The Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA). Whilst a small RPAS and model aircraft may actually be identical, unlike model aircraft, a RPAS may enter controlled airspace with approval, and operate close to an aerodrome. Due to a number of illegal operators in Australia making false claims of being approved, CASA maintains and publishes a list of approved remote operator's certificate (ReOC) holders. However, CASA has modified
7550-404: The FAA. Small scale model aircraft offer increased photographic access to these previously restricted areas. Miniature vehicles do not replace full-size aircraft, as full-size aircraft are capable of longer flight times, higher altitudes, and greater equipment payloads. They are, however, useful in any situation in which a full-scale aircraft would be dangerous to operate. Examples would include
7701-498: The Faithful," I said. "Your rising for him symbolizes your standing up for the sunnah. And he called you caliph Ali ibn Ismail said: In Tarsus I dreamed that I saw al-Mutawakkil sitting in a place full of light. Al-Mutawakkil nominated his three sons as heir. Al-Muntasir was nominated first, al-Mu'tazz was nominated second heir and third was al-Mu'ayyad . Al-Muntasir became caliph on 11 December 861, after his father al-Mutawakkil
SECTION 50
#17328526710027852-521: The Imām poisoned: al-Hadī is buried at Samarra. The general Shīʻa population faced repression. and this was embodied in the destruction of the shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī , an action that was carried out ostensibly in order to stop pilgrimages to that site, and the flogging and incarceration of the Alid Yahya ibn Umar . The caliph al-Mutawakkil had created a plan of succession that would allow his sons to inherit
8003-457: The Jawsaq palace was entrusted by al-Mu'tasim to the Turk Khaqan 'Urtuj, the father of al-Fath ibn Khaqan and Muzahim ibn Khaqan . It was located within an enclosure wall, and on the eastern side was a maydan or square which overlooked the beginning of a racecourse in al-Hayr. During the violent period following the death of al-Mutawakkil, the Jawsaq palace is frequently mentioned as serving as
8154-410: The Jawsaq palace, but was eventually dissuaded after his advisers informed him of the high costs of the plan. On its own, Samarra had little to incentivize residents to stay; the water supply was problematic and the city seems to have been heavily dependent on supplies from elsewhere. As long as the caliphs were willing to pour vast sums of money into the city, it continued to survive; with the return of
8305-604: The Malwiya, is 52 m (171 ft) high and still stands in the rear of the mosque. Al-Matira was a cantonment located to the south of central Samarra. It was established two farsakh s (12 km) south of the initial city construction, at the site of a preexisting village. Al-Matira was first allotted by al-Mu'tasim to the Ushrusanan general al-Afshin , together with the Ushrusaniyya and others in his service. Al-Afshin built
8456-674: The Qur'an. The caliph also attempted to reconcile with Ahmad ibn Hanbal (died 855) and removed Ahmad ibn Nasr's body from public display, and finally, in March 852, he ordered that all prisoners held on account of the Inquisition be released, thereby largely bringing a close to the mihna period. Al-Mutawakkil appointed the famous Arab Islamic scholar Yahya ibn Aktham as Chief judge (Qadi al-qudat) in 851, and he remained in office until al-Mutawakkil deposed him in 854. Ja'far ibn Abd al-Wahid al-Hashimi
8607-544: The Special Rule for Model Aircraft", banned the commercial use of unmanned aircraft over U.S. airspace. On September 26, 2014, the FAA began granting the right to use drones in aerial filmmaking. Operators are required to be licensed pilots and must keep the drone in view at all times. Drones cannot be used to film in areas where people might be put at risk. The FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012 established, in Section 336,
8758-477: The Tigris, several buildings were also constructed on the west bank. Al-Mu'tasim built a bridge across the Tigris and founded developments, orchards and gardens on the west side. Al-Istablat was a large walled structure located to the south of Samarra. The northern part consisted of a palace that overlooked the Tigris, while the southern area contained a number of housing units. A long outer wall enclosing al-Istablat and
8909-452: The Turks pressured him into removing al-Mu'tazz and al-Mu'ayyad from the succession. When al-Muntasir died, the Turkic officers gathered together and decided to install the dead caliph's cousin al-Musta'in (Son of his brother Muhammad ) on the throne. The new caliph was almost immediately faced with a large riot in Samarra in support of the disenfranchised al-Mu'tazz; the rioters were put down by
9060-501: The Turks, Faraghina , Ushrusaniyya , Maghariba , Ishtakhaniyya , Jund , Shakiriyya , Arabs and Khurasanis . Several bureaucrats, Abbasid princes and other personages also had allotments along the avenues. Besides residences, a number of other buildings were located in this area, including the public and private stables, the office of the Bureau of the Land Tax ( diwan al-kharaj ), and
9211-486: The UK has tight regulations as to where a drone is able to fly. Aerial Photography on Light aircraft under 20 kg (44 lb). Basic Rules for non commercial flying Of a SUA (Small Unmanned Aircraft). Article 241 Endangering safety of any person or property. A person must not recklessly or negligently cause or permit an aircraft to endanger any person or property. Article 94 small unmanned aircraft Article 95 small unmanned surveillance aircraft Model aircraft with
SECTION 60
#17328526710029362-596: The United States, except when necessary for take-off and landing, full-sized manned aircraft are prohibited from flying at altitudes under 1000 feet over congested areas and not closer than 500 feet from any person, vessel, vehicle or structure over non-congested areas. Certain exceptions are allowed for helicopters, powered parachutes and weight-shift-control aircraft. Advances in radio controlled models have made it possible for model aircraft to conduct low-altitude aerial photography. This had benefited real-estate advertising, where commercial and residential properties are
9513-461: The Waziri palace built by Abu al-Wazir . Like the cantonment of Khaqan 'Urtuj, it may have served as housing for the caliphal servants. Al-Karkh and al-Dur were two cantonments located several kilometers to the north of Samarra proper. Built during the reign of al-Mu'tasim, both areas seem to have housed Turkish regiments and are frequently mentioned together. Al-Karkh (sometimes called Karkh Samarra in
9664-514: The account of al-Tabari, on his deathbed al-Ma'mun dictated a letter nominating his brother, rather than al-Abbas , as his successor, and Abu Ishaq was acclaimed as caliph on 9 August, with the laqab of al-Mu'tasim (in full al-Muʿtaṣim bi’llāh , "he who seeks refuge in God"). His father became the eighth Abbasid caliph of the Caliphate in 833. His father ruled the caliphate for eight years and he
9815-415: The avenues were a great number of smaller streets and housing blocks, together with several larger buildings. The residents of this section of the city were a mixture of civilians and military personnel. In some cases, the cantonments of the troops were explicitly segregated from the rest of the populace. Numerous army commanders, together with their regiments, were granted allotments here, including those of
9966-554: The brink of collapse. The Caliphate of al-Mutawakkil is remembered for its many reforms and is viewed as a golden age of the Abbasids. He would be the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty would fall into a decline. After his death, the Caliphate built by Rashidun , Umayyad and Early Abbasids also declined as a world power. Al-Mutawakkil was praised by many contemporary scholars. The famous scholar al-Taymi said: There were three great caliphs: Abu Bakr, who fought
10117-426: The caliph agreed to abdicate. His two successors, al-Mu'tazz (r. 866–869) and al-Muhtadi (r. 869–870), were similarly overthrown by the army. Samarra is solitude now, hugely abandoned to change: ruins; a frog that calls; dismemberment's muffled cry. The city died, is dead like an elephant being untusked. Poem composed by the Abbasid prince Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz , who was born in Samarra, regarding
10268-842: The caliphate after his death; he would be succeeded first by his eldest son, al-Muntasir, then by al-Mu'tazz and third by al-Mu'ayyad. Also during his reign, al-Mutawakkil met the famous Byzantine theologian Cyril the Philosopher , who was sent to tighten the diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate in a state mission by the Emperor Michael III . Of his sons, al-Muntasir succeeded him and ruled until his death in 862, al-Mu'tazz reigned as Caliph from 866 to his overthrow in 869, and al-Mu'tamid reigned as Caliph in 870–892 with his brother al-Muwaffaq serving as an effective regent of
10419-519: The caliphate of his father al-Mutawakkil. Built during al-Mutawakkil's reign, the palace overlooked the Tigris and was surrounded by two enclosure walls, with the outer wall measuring 1,165 m × 1,171 m (3,822 ft × 3,842 ft) and the inner measuring 464 m × 575 m (1,522 ft × 1,886 ft). Excavation work undertaken in the early 20th century revealed decorative elements consisting of stucco , frescoes , colored glass windows and niches . Al-Mutawakkiliyya
10570-401: The caliphs to Baghdad, this investment dried up and soon much of the city was abandoned. In the following centuries, a few isolated settlements survived within the ruins, but the vast portion of the city soon became uninhabited. The known remains of Samarra occupy an area of approximately 58 km (22 sq mi), mostly on the east side of the Tigris. Out of 6,314 registered buildings at
10721-492: The camera parts freezing. Based at RAF Medmenham , the collection and interpretation of such photographs became a considerable enterprise. Cotton's aerial photographs were far ahead of their time. Together with other members of the 1 PRU, he pioneered the techniques of high-altitude, high-speed stereoscopic photography that were instrumental in revealing the locations of many crucial military and intelligence targets. According to R.V. Jones , photographs were used to establish
10872-409: The cantonment appears to have housed the servants who worked in the caliphal palace. A smaller palace (possibly the 'Umari palace built by Khaqan 'Urtuj) and storehouses were located here, and al-Hayr marked the eastern boundary of the area. Immediately to the north of the cantonment of Khaqan 'Urtuj was a second, diamond-shaped area. This cantonment is tentatively identified as al-Waziriyya, containing
11023-509: The capital was frequently beset by palace coups and troop riots. Al-Mutawakkil's son al-Muntasir (r. 861–862) abandoned al-Ja'fari and moved back to the Jawsaq palace, which remained the residence of his successors. Al-Musta'in (r. 862–866), finding it impossible to control the Samarran regiments, left the city and attempted to establish himself in Baghdad in 865, but the Turks and other troops responded by deposing him and besieging Baghdad until
11174-566: The city's residents; it was eventually demolished by al-Mutawakkil, who replaced it by building the Great Mosque of Samarra in the vicinity of al-Hayr. This mosque, the largest in the world at the time, measured 239 m × 156 m (784 ft × 512 ft) and had 17 aisles in the prayer hall. An enclosure wall measuring 443 m × 374 m (1,453 ft × 1,227 ft) featured covered porticoes to accommodate additional worshippers. The spiral minaret , also known as
11325-414: The conspirators decided to act. According to al-Tabari, a story later circulated that al-Fath and Ubayd Allah were forewarned of the plot by a Turkic woman, but had disregarded it, confident that no one would dare carry it out. On the night of 10/11 December, about one hour after midnight, the Turks burst in the chamber where the Caliph and al-Fath were having supper. Al-Fath was killed trying to protect
11476-451: The daytime, a 400 ft (120 m). ceiling and pilots must keep the UAS in visual range. April 7, 2017, the FAA announced special security instructions under 14 CFR § 99.7. Effective April 14, 2017, all UAS flights within 400 feet of the lateral boundaries of U.S. military installations are prohibited unless a special permit is secured from the base and/or the FAA. Aerial photography in
11627-482: The death of his older half-brother, al-Wathiq , in August 847. Al-Mutawakkil was born during his uncle al-Ma'mun's reign. His full name was Jaʽfar ibn Muhammad and his Kunya was Abu al-Fadl. The young prince's early life coincided with what is called the golden age of the Abbasid Caliphate. During his youth his father was an important official of his uncle, caliph al-Ma'mun, who ruled until his death in 833. According to
11778-405: The decline of the city. Al-Mu'tamid (r. 870–892) undertook the last known building projects in Samarra, but in the later period of his reign, he appears to have spent less time in the city. After his death, al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902) formally returned to Baghdad, thus bringing an end to the Samarran interlude. Al-Muktafi (r. 902–908) at one point considered moving back to Samarra and encamped in
11929-498: The development of the Spitfire PR variants. Spitfires proved to be extremely successful in their reconnaissance role and there were many variants built specifically for that purpose. They served initially with what later became No. 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU). In 1928, the RAF developed an electric heating system for the aerial camera. This allowed reconnaissance aircraft to take pictures from very high altitudes without
12080-618: The doors, and that they are allowed little involvement in government or official matters. Further, al-Mutawakkil destroyed the shrine at Kerbala which was the center of Shi'ite pilgrimage. Mutawakkil ordered the ancient sacred Cypress of the Zoroastrians , the Cypress of Kashmar , to be cut down in order to use it in constructing his new palace despite the enormous protests from the Zoroastrian community. The cypress, more than 1400 years old at
12231-457: The east side of the Tigris, near the head of the Nahrawan Canal . After sending men to buy up the local properties, including a Christian monastery , the caliph had his engineers survey the most suitable places for development. By 836, buildings had been erected at the site and al-Mu'tasim moved into the new city. From the start, construction at Samarra was undertaken on a massive scale. Space
12382-467: The emergence of the autonomous dynasties in the Abbasid Caliphate. Finally, unable to meet the financial demands of the Turkic troops, in mid-July a palace coup deposed al-Mu'tazz. He was imprisoned and maltreated to such an extent that he died after three days, on 16 July 869. He was succeeded by his cousin al-Muhtadi . He ruled until 870 until he was murdered on 21 June 870, and replaced by his cousin, al-Mu'tamid ( r. 870–892 ). Al-Mutawakkil
12533-418: The end of the war, aerial cameras had dramatically increased in size and focal power and were used increasingly frequently as they proved their pivotal military worth; by 1918 both sides were photographing the entire front twice a day and had taken over half a million photos since the beginning of the conflict. In January 1918, General Allenby used five Australian pilots from No. 1 Squadron AFC to photograph
12684-457: The establishment of a new regime, while allowing the court to be "at a distance from the populace of Baghdad and protected by a new guard of foreign troops, and amid a new royal culture revolving around sprawling palatial grounds, public spectacle and a seemingly ceaseless quest for leisurely indulgence" (T. El-Hibri), an arrangement compared by Oleg Grabar to the relationship between Paris and Versailles after Louis XIV . In addition, by creating
12835-548: The first years of his reign, al-Mutawakkil continued the policy. Imām ʻAlī al-Hadī 's growing reputation inspired a letter from the Governor of Medina, ʻAbdu l-Lāh ibn Muħammad, suggesting that a coup was being plotted, and al-Mutawakkil extended an invitation to Samarra to the Imām, an offer he could not refuse. In Samarra, the Imām was kept under virtual house arrest and spied upon. However, no excuse to take action against him ever appeared. After al-Mutawakkil's death, his successor had
12986-448: The general populace. Markets, mosques and baths for the people were built, together with a number of palaces for the caliph and other prominent individuals. Materials and laborers were shipped in from various parts of the Muslim world to help with the work; iron-workers, carpenters, marble sculptors and artisans all assisted in the construction. Founding a new capital was a public statement of
13137-400: The government after his ascension. Included among these were his secretary, Ahmad ibn al-Khasib , who became vizier , and Wasif , a senior Turkic general who had likely been heavily involved in al-Mutawakkil's murder. His reign lasted less than half a year; it ended with his death from unknown causes on Sunday, 7 June 862, at the age of 24 years. During al-Muntasir's short reign (r. 861–862),
13288-486: The gracious actions of the engineer, Sind ibn ʻAlī , who vouched for the eventual success of the project, thus risking his own life. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated shortly before the error became public. Al-Mutawakkil was keen to involve himself in many religious debates, something that would show in his actions against different minorities. His father had tolerated the Shīʻa Imām who taught and preached at Medina , and for
13439-501: The great prison. The markets, as laid out by al-Mu'tasim, are described as having broad rows, with each type of merchandise sold in a separate section. Near the markets was the gibbet from which the rebel Babak Khorramdin was hanged ( khashabat Babak ), and which served as a place for displaying executed persons. On the Tigris were a great number of wharves, where provisions from Mosul and other cities were unloaded. The original mosque, laid out by al-Mu'tasim, soon became too small for
13590-540: The ground more closely. Leaf-on photographs are used to measure crop health and yield . For forestry purposes, some species of trees are easier to distinguish from other kinds of trees with leaf-off photography, while other species are easier to distinguish with leaf-on photography. With advancements in video technology, aerial video is becoming more popular. Orthogonal video is shot from aircraft mapping pipelines, crop fields, and other points of interest. Using GPS, video may be embedded with meta data and later synced with
13741-521: The hands of field commanders in record time. Frederick Charles Victor Laws started aerial photography experiments in 1912 with No.1 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps (later No. 1 Squadron RAF ), taking photographs from the British dirigible Beta . He discovered that vertical photos taken with a 60% overlap could be used to create a stereoscopic effect when viewed in a stereoscope, thus creating
13892-591: The image, depending on the perspective and terrain corrections required on a particular part of the image. Orthophotos are commonly used in geographic information systems , such as are used by mapping agencies (e.g. Ordnance Survey ) to create maps. Once the images have been aligned, or "registered", with known real-world coordinates, they can be widely deployed. Large sets of orthophotos, typically derived from multiple sources and divided into "tiles" (each typically 256 x 256 pixels in size), are widely used in online map systems such as Google Maps . OpenStreetMap offers
14043-432: The inspection of transformers atop power transmission lines and slow, low-level flight over agricultural fields, both of which can be accomplished by a large-scale radio-controlled helicopter. Professional-grade, gyroscopically stabilized camera platforms are available for use under such a model; a large model helicopter with a 26cc gasoline engine can hoist a payload of approximately seven kilograms (15 lbs). One example
14194-470: The largest cities of the ancient world; even the archaeological site of its ruins is one of the world's most extensive. The Caliph's building schemes extended in A.H. 245 (859–860) to a new city, al-Jaʻfariyya , which al-Mutawakkil built on the Tigris some eighteen kilometers from Samarra. Al-Mutawakkil ordered a canal to be built to divert water from the Tigris, entrusting the project to two courtiers, who ignored
14345-411: The largest mosque in the world; its minaret is a vast spiraling cone 55 m high with a spiral ramp. The mosque had 17 aisles and its walls were panelled with mosaics of dark blue glass. The Great Mosque was just part of an extension of Samarra eastwards that was built upon part of the walled royal hunting park. Al-Mutawakkil built as many as 20 palaces (the numbers vary in documents). Samarra became one of
14496-459: The latter form eventually became the standard spelling. Samarra was founded by the eighth Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842) in 836. Al-Mu'tasim's immediate motivation for the decision was a need to find housing for his newly formed Turkic and other army regiments. These troops, who were from groups that had previously held only a marginal role in the Islamic world , were deeply unpopular among
14647-445: The military but casualties on both sides were heavy. Al-Musta'in, worried that al-Mu'tazz or al-Mu'ayyad could press their claims to the caliphate, first attempted to buy them off and then threw them in prison. In 866 his nephew al-Musta'in was killed by his son al-Mu'tazz after Fifth Fitna . Al-Mu'tazz's reign marks the apogee of the decline of the Caliphate's central authority, and the climax of centrifugal tendencies, expressed through
14798-637: The mother of caliph al-Mu'tazz , Isma'il and Qurb, known as Umm Abdullah. She was renowned for her poetry and her beauty, and was one of his favourites. She died in November–December 877. Another concubine was Lujayn. She commissioned a mosque in Samarra. Another concubine ( hazaya ) was Shajar. Al-Mutawakkil was devoted to her, preferring her over all his concubines. On one Mehregan Day, Shajar's gift of twenty gazelles with Chinese saddles, each carrying gold-latticed bags of precious scents, impressed him. Envious, his concubines plotted to kill her with
14949-456: The new city of al-Mutawakkiliyya to the north of Samarra. Included in the new area was the palace of al-Ja'fari (Ja'far being his given name), which he moved into in 860. In the following year, however, he was assassinated, and al-Mutawakkiliyya was abandoned soon after. The decade following al-Mutawakkil's assassination was a turbulent period, sometimes known as the Anarchy at Samarra , during which
15100-418: The new city, but this project failed and the canal never functioned properly. The building al-Mutawakkiliyya marked the high point of the expansion of Samarra; al-Ya'qubi reports that there was continuous development between al-Ja'fari and Balkuwara, extending a length of seven farsakh s (42 km). Despite the significant amount of money spent to construct it, however, al-Mutawakkiliyya was occupied for only
15251-547: The oldest surviving example of a domed tomb in Islamic architecture . Ernst Herzfeld , a German archeologist of the twentieth century, conducted a large-scale excavation at the Main Caliphal Palace of Samarra in 1911–13. Herzfeld obtained boards of carved stucco, marble, cermanic decoractive elements, and other materials from his exploration. In Herzfeld's publications, he identifies three styles of carved ornament. Those styles being: First Style (which he referred to as
15402-469: The only remaining Islamic capital that retains its original plan, architecture, and carvings. The site fulfilled several of UNESCO's criteria for the list. Though poorly preserved, the city's historic mosques, urban planning, architectural ornaments, and ceramic industries are uniquely representative of a particular architectural stage in the Abbasid Caliphate, which extended from Tunisia to Central Asia (criteria ii and iii). Its historic mosques present
15553-428: The period leading up to World War I . Aerial photographs were taken between 1924 and 1961, which preserved portions of the site that have since been overrun by new development. The Directorate-General of Antiquities of Iraq restarted excavations between 1936 and 1940, and continued in the 1960s and 1970s. Excavation and restoration work took place between 1980 and 1990. Around the same time, Alastair Northedge surveyed
15704-555: The photographic subject. In 2014 the US Federal Aviation Administration banned the use of drones for photographs in real estate advertisements. The ban has been lifted and commercial aerial photography using drones of UAS is regulated under the FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018. Commercial pilots have to complete the requirements for a Part 107 license, while amateur and non-commercial use is restricted by
15855-510: The photographs he produced no longer exist and therefore the earliest surviving aerial photograph is titled 'Boston, as the Eagle and the Wild Goose See It.' Taken by James Wallace Black and Samuel Archer King on October 13, 1860, it depicts Boston from a height of 630m. Kite aerial photography was pioneered by British meteorologist E.D. Archibald in 1882. He used an explosive charge on
16006-699: The pilot's or pilot in command's (PIC) ground station. In Australia, Civil Aviation Safety Regulation Part 101 (CASR Part 101) allows for commercial use of unmanned and remotely piloted aircraft. Under these regulations, unmanned remotely piloted aircraft for commercial are referred to as Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS), whereas radio-controlled aircraft for recreational purposes are referred to as model aircraft. Under CASR Part 101, businesses/persons operating remotely piloted aircraft commercially are required to hold an operator certificate, just like manned aircraft operators. Pilots of remotely piloted aircraft operating commercially are also required to be licensed by
16157-475: The presence of others, for coming to him seeking assistance. Not only that, but when the dejected prince left, ibn al-Zayyat wrote to the Caliph to complain about his appearance, noting that he was dressed in an effeminate fashion and that his hair was too long. As a result, al-Wathiq had his brother summoned to court. Al-Mutawakkil came in a brand-new court dress, hoping to mollify the Caliph, but instead, al-Wathiq ordered that his hair be shorn off, and al-Mutawakkil
16308-498: The previous caliphs, opting instead to put a stop to the controversy over whether the Qur'an was created or uncreated , ultimately bringing an end to the doctrinal regime that had been in place since 833. Al-Mutawakkil spent the next several years taking hostile steps against the Mu'tazilites , dismissing a number of Ibn Abi Du'ad's qadi s from office and ordering an end to debate over the nature of
16459-466: The public treasury ( bayt al-mal ) was housed. On the western side of the palace was the Bab al-'Amma (Public Gate), whose triple iwan still survives. The Bab al-'Amma was often used as a location for public executions and displaying the remains of those killed. The smaller building to the north has been identified as the Jawsaq al-Khaqani, which served as the private residence of the caliph. Construction of
16610-435: The realm until his death in 891. One of al-Mutawakkil's wives was Farida . She belonged to the household of his brother caliph al-Wathiq, who kept her as a concubine and favorite although she belonged to the singer Amr ibn Banah. When al-Wathiq died, Amr presented her to al-Mutawakkil. He married her, and she became one of his favourites. Another wife was Sa'anin or Sha'anin. According to an anecdote from Adab al-ghuraba ,
16761-448: The regulations and from September 29, 2016, drones under 2 kg (4.4 lb) may be operated for commercial purposes. 2006 FAA regulations grounding all commercial RC model flights have been upgraded to require formal FAA certification before permission is granted to fly at any altitude in the US. June 25, 2014, The FAA, in ruling 14 CFR Part 91 [Docket No. FAA–2014–0396] "Interpretation of
16912-417: The reign of al-Mu'tasim, with further development taking place under al-Wathiq and al-Mutawakkil. The street layout of this area was dominated by a series of long, broad avenues which ran north-to-south and northwest-to-southeast. These avenues are described in detail by the Muslim historian and geographer al-Ya'qubi , who lists the various buildings and allotments which were located along each one. In between
17063-413: The residents of Baghdad, and violent incidents had repeatedly broken out between the soldiers and Baghdadis. Al-Mu'tasim therefore resolved in ca. 835 to depart from Baghdad, the usual seat of the Abbasid caliphs since 762, and create a new capital city of his choosing. Following a period of searching for an ideal spot, al-Mu'tasim settled on a site approximately 80 mi (130 km) north of Baghdad on
17214-592: The residents of the new city's permanence and a fresh round of construction began during his reign. Al-Wathiq himself built a new palace, the Haruni (al-Wathiq's given name was Harun) on the bank of the Tigris, which became his new residence. Al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) aggressively pursued new construction, extending the central city to the east and building the Great Mosque of Samarra , the cantonment of Balkuwara and numerous palaces. After moving to Damascus in 858, he returned to Iraq and undertook his most ambitious project,
17365-517: The settlement of al-Dur, to the north of al-Karkh, are less well known, but it is clear that Turks were settled in this area as well. Al-Ya'qubi describes the building of mosques, baths and markets in al-Karkh and al-Dur. Both areas continued to be populated following the abandonment of Samarra and seem to have been considered as suburbs of Samarra proper; the tenth-century geographer al-Muqaddasi , for example, refers to both localities as dependencies of Samarra. They appear to have survived until at least
17516-423: The site (as of 1991), only nine still have any components of significant height; the vast majority of the ruins consist of collapsed mounds of rammed earth and scattered debris. At ground level, the remains are mostly unimpressive; when viewed from the air, however, the entire plan of the Abbasid city, with its buildings and street pattern, can clearly be seen. The core area of the city was initially constructed in
17667-669: The site, including in 2005 when a bomb was detonated at the top of the minaret of the Great Mosque. The palace complex of Sur Ashinas was the site of fighting between the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and the Iraqi Army and tribal militias during the ISIL offensive in Iraq in 2015. The Samarra Archaeological City was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2007. The agency regards Samarra as
17818-521: The size and the characteristic launching mechanisms for both the V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rocket . Cotton also worked on ideas such as a prototype specialist reconnaissance aircraft and further refinements of photographic equipment. At the peak, the British flew over 100 reconnaissance flights a day, yielding 50,000 images per day to interpret. Similar efforts were taken by other countries. Vertical aerial photography
17969-403: The sources) was built near a preexisting settlement, Shaykh Wali. It was allotted to the Turkish general Ashinas , with strict orders that no strangers (i.e., non-Turks) were to be allowed to live there, and that his followers were not to associate with people of Arab culture. Ashinas built a palace which contained a mosque; after his death, this building was given to al-Fath ibn Khaqan. Details of
18120-407: The start of the conflict, the usefulness of aerial photography was not fully appreciated, with reconnaissance being accomplished with map sketching from the air. Germany adopted the first aerial camera, a Görz , in 1913. The French began the war with several squadrons of Blériot observation aircraft equipped with cameras for reconnaissance. The French Army developed procedures for getting prints into
18271-530: The state. Al-Mutawakkil's first target was the Vizier ibn al-Zayyat, against whom he harboured a deep grudge over the way he had disrespected him in the past. According to al-Tabari , when al-Wathiq had grown angry and suspicious at his brother, al-Mutawakkil had visited the vizier in hopes of persuading him to intercede with the Caliph. Not only had ibn al-Zayyat kept the Abbasid prince waiting until he finished going through his correspondence, but even mocked him, in
18422-406: The surrounding area was also built. Al-Istablat is believed to be al-'Arus, one of the palaces built by al-Mutawakkil. Qasr al-'Ashiq was a palace located opposite al-Haruni and the Dar al-Khalifa. It is the best-preserved of the Samarran palaces and the main building was nearly completely restored in the late 20th century. The plan of the palace appears to have been based on that of the Jawsaq. It
18573-540: The surviving portions of the city, and has since published several works on the subject. Despite these projects, an estimated 80% of the site was still unexcavated around the beginning of the 21st century. Developments in the 20th century, including the completion of the Samarra Barrage in the 1950s and growth of the modern city of Samarra, have resulted in parts of the ruins being overrun by new construction and cultivation. The Iraq War (2003–2011) also caused damage to
18724-408: The talents of a local engineer of repute and entrusted the work to al-Farghanī , the great astronomer and writer. Al-Farghanī, who was not a specialist in public works, made a miscalculation and it appeared that the opening of the canal was too deep so that water from the river would only flow at near full flood. News leaked to the infuriated caliph might have meant the heads of all concerned save for
18875-474: The tax. On 23 February 856, captives were exchanged with the Byzantine Empire . A second such exchange took place some four years later. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for its many reforms and is viewed as a golden age of the Abbasids. He would be the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death, the dynasty would fall into decline. Al-Mutawakkil decided to diverge away from the religious policies of
19026-478: The time, was of legendary value to the Zoroastrians, believed to have been brought from Paradise to the earth by Zoroaster . Al-Mutawakkil was killed before the cypress wood arrived for his new palace. Al-Mutawakkil was unlike his brother and father in that he was not known for having a thirst for knowledge, but he had an eye for magnificence and a hunger to build. The Great Mosque of Samarra was, at its time,
19177-453: The toponyms within the former city. The archeological site of Samarra was named by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 2007, calling it "the best-preserved plan of an ancient large city." The modern city bearing the same name lies within the Abbasid ruins. The toponym Samarra is known to have existed prior to the Islamic period. Classical authors mention the name in various forms, including
19328-417: The use of similar orthophotos for deriving new map data. Google Earth overlays orthophotos or satellite imagery onto a digital elevation model to simulate 3D landscapes. Aerial photography may be labeled as either "leaf-off" or on "leaf-on" to indicate whether deciduous foliage is in the photograph. Leaf-off photographs show less foliage or no foliage at all, and are used to see the ground and things on
19479-506: The vizier Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan . This rivalry extended into the political sphere, as al-Mu'tazz's succession appears to have been backed by the traditional Abbasid elites as well, while al-Muntasir was backed by the Turkic and Maghariba guard troops. In late autumn 861, matters came to a head: in October, al-Mutawakkil ordered the estates of the Turkic general Wasif to be confiscated and handed over to al-Fath. Feeling backed into
19630-578: The western side of the avenue was the Abu Dulaf Mosque . Like the Great Mosque of Samarra, the Abu Dulaf Mosque included a spiral minaret, measuring 34 m (112 ft) high. The avenue ultimately led to the Ja'fari palace, which served as al-Mutawakkil's new residence. It was located in the north of al-Mutawakkiliyya and separated from the rest of the city by a wall. A canal was also dug to supply water to
19781-570: Was Fadl . She was a poet. She was from Basrah and was born in al-Yamama . She was from the Abd al-Qays tribe. She was purchased by Muhammad ibn al-Faraj al-Rukhkhaji, who gave her to al-Mutawakkil. She had a dark complexion, was cultured, articulate, and quick-witted. She died in 870–71. Another concubine was Mahbuba. She was born in Basrah. She was a poet and a singer. She had been given to al-Mutawakkil by Ubaydullah ibn Tahir, when he became caliph, as one of
19932-459: Was Kufan Umm walad called Fityan . As a prince, Jaʿfar lead the pilgrims in 842 (the year of al-Wathiq's accession). Al-Wathiq 's mother Qaratis accompanied him, intending to make the pilgrimage, but she died in al-Hirah on 4th Dhu al-Qadah (14 August 842) and was buried in Kufah in the Abbasid palace of Dawud ibn Isa. Jaʿfar remained a courtier during his brother's reign. Al-Wathiq's death
20083-399: Was Ashar, also known by her teknonym , Umm Ishaq. She was an Andulasian and was one of his favourites. She was the mother of his sons Ibrahim al-Mu'ayyad and Abu Ahmad al-Muwaffaq . She died on 23 December 883 and was buried in al-Rusafa . Another concubine was Fityan. She was from Kufa and was the mother of caliph al-Mu'tamid . Another concubine was Qabiha. She was a Greek, and was
20234-500: Was a famous figure of al-Mutawakkil's era. His reliance on Turkic soldiers would come back to haunt him. Al-Mutawakkil would have his Turkic commander-in-chief killed. This, coupled with his extreme attitudes towards the Shia , made his popularity decline rapidly. Al-Mutawakkil had appointed his oldest son, al-Muntasir , as his heir in 849/50, but slowly had shifted his favor to his second son, al-Mu'tazz , encouraged by al-Fath ibn Khaqan and
20385-401: Was a palace, and on the east and west sides were housing units. A large trapezoidal enclosure branched out from the complex and extended several kilometers to the north into al-Hayr. The site, which evidently served as a hunting palace, is identified with al-Shah, probably built during the reign of al-Mutawakkil. Although the majority of the development in Samarra was located on the east side of
20536-485: Was appointed as chief judge ( qadi al-qudat ) by al-Mutawakkil in July 854 as a replacement for Yahya ibn Aktham. In 850 al-Mutawakkil made a decree ordering Dhimmi (Christians and Jews) to wear the zunnar , honey-coloured outer garments and badge-like patches on their on their servants' clothing to distinguish them from Muslims . Further, he decrees that their places of worship be destroyed and demonic effigies nailed to
20687-411: Was assassinated by members of his Turkic guard. Although he was suspected of being involved in the plot to kill al-Mutawakkil, he was able to quickly take control of affairs in the capital city of Samarra and receive the oath of allegiance from the leading men of the state. Al-Muntasir's sudden elevation to the Caliphate served to benefit several of his close associates, who gained senior positions in
20838-426: Was assassinated on 11 December 861 by the Turkic guard with the support of his son, al-Muntasir , marking the beginning of the period of civil strife known as the " Anarchy at Samarra ". Al-Mutawakkil was born on 31 March 822 to the Abbasid prince Abu Ishaq Muhammad (the future al-Mu'tasim ) and a slave concubine from Khwarazm named Shuja . His early life is obscure, as he played no role in political affairs until
20989-448: Was driven out. Al-Mutawakkil offered another police chief. When the next year saw a revolt against this new police chief, al-Mutawakkil had this firmly suppressed. As Christians had joined in the second round of disturbances, the caliph had Christians expelled from Homs. Also in 241 occurred the firm response to the revolt by the Beja people , who lived beyond Upper Egypt . They had been paying
21140-485: Was feeling ill and chose al-Muntasir to represent him on the prayer, once again Ubayd Allah intervened and persuaded the Caliph to go in person. Even worse, according to al-Tabari , on the next day, al-Mutawakkil alternately vilified and threatened to kill his eldest son, and even had al-Fath slap him on the face. With rumors circulating that Wasif and the other Turkish leaders would be rounded up and executed on 12 December,
21291-605: Was invented by Captain John Moore-Brabazon in 1915 with the help of the Thornton-Pickard company, greatly enhancing the efficiency of aerial photography. The camera was inserted into the floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals. Moore-Brabazon also pioneered the incorporation of stereoscopic techniques into aerial photography, allowing the height of objects on the landscape to be discerned by comparing photographs taken at different angles. By
21442-468: Was made of a five-lobed leaf pattern which were representative of palmettes . The source of inspiration in architectural ornament was found in plants, such as in stems, branches that were overlapping or entangled, leaves that were in twos or threes, or from palm leaves and fruits. Samarra first drew the attention of archeologists around the turn of the 20th century, and excavation work was conducted by Henri Viollet , Friedrich Sarre , and Ernst Herzfeld in
21593-404: Was no object; land was plentiful and cheap, with little in the way of preexisting settlements to hinder expansion. Al-Mu'tasim marked out various allotments in the new city and granted these spaces to various elites of the army and administration for them to develop. Numerous cantonments were established for the army regiments, who in many cases were intentionally segregated from the residences for
21744-418: Was parachute-shaped, another bottle-shaped, and a third shaped as a cloverleaf. Al-Haruni was a palace built by Harun al-Wathiq on the Tigris. Al-Wathiq resided here during his reign, as did al-Mutawakkil prior to the construction of al-Ja'fariyya in 859. Balkuwara was a cantonment located to the south of al-Matira. A major feature of this site was the palace, which served as the residence of al-Mu'tazz during
21895-418: Was passed over, and instead, the council chose the 26-year-old Ja'far, who became the caliph al-Mutawakkil. The officials hoped that the new Caliph would prove a pliable puppet, like al-Wathiq. However, al-Mutawakkil was resolved to restore the authority of the caliphal office and restore its independence by destroying the coterie of civil and military officials, raised by his father, that effectively controlled
22046-422: Was struck in the face with it. In later times, al-Mutawakkil confessed that he had never been so distressed by anything in his life than by this public humiliation. Thus, on 22 September 847, he sent Itakh to summon ibn al-Zayyat as if for an audience. Instead, the vizier was brought to Itakh's residence, where he was placed under house arrest. His possessions were confiscated, and he was tortured to death. This
22197-416: Was succeeded by his elder son al-Wathiq . As a young prince, Jaʿfar's first and elder son Muhammad (the future al-Muntasir ) was born in 837. Al-Muntasir's mother was Hubshiya , a Greek Umm walad . At the time of his birth Jaʿfar was 14 years old. His other sons Ahmad (the future al-Mu'tamid ) and Talha (the future al-Muwaffaq ) were born in 842 and 843, respectively. The future al-Mu'tamid's mother
22348-429: Was the apogee of Itakh's career: he combined the positions of chamberlain ( ḥājib ), head of the Caliph's personal guard, intendant of the palace, and head of the barīd , the public post, which doubled as the government's intelligence network. In 848, however, he was persuaded to go to the hajj , and laid down his powers, only to be arrested on his return. His possessions were confiscated—reportedly, in his house alone
22499-400: Was the largest building project of the caliph Ja'far al-Mutawakkil, who ordered the construction of a new city on the northern border of al-Dur in 859. This city, which was built in the vicinity of the settlement of al-Mahuza, was intended to replace Samarra as the residence of the caliphs. Al-Mutawakkiliyya consisted of an unwalled area, through the center of which ran a north–south avenue. On
22650-567: Was the tenth Abbasid caliph , ruling from 847 until his assassination in 861. He succeeded his brother, al-Wathiq ( r. 842–847 ), and is known for expanding the empire to its maximum extent. He was deeply religious, and is remembered for discarding the Muʿtazila , ending the Mihna (a period of persecution of Islamic scholars), and releasing Ahmad ibn Hanbal . He is also known for his tough rule, especially with respect to non-Muslim subjects. He
22801-419: Was unexpected, and although he had a young son, he had not designated a successor. Consequently, the leading officials, the vizier Muhammad ibn al-Zayyat , the chief qādī , Ahmad ibn Abi Duwad , the Turkish generals Itakh and Wasif al-Turki , and a few others, assembled to determine his successor. Ibn al-Zayyat initially proposed al-Wathiq's son Muhammad (the future al-Muhtadi ), but due to his youth he
#1998