Misplaced Pages

#721278

143-462: The Paraguay expedition (1858–1859) was an American diplomatic mission and nineteen-ship squadron ordered by President James Buchanan to South America to demand redress for certain wrongs alleged to have been done by Paraguay , and seize its capital Asunción if it was refused. The expedition was sent without an adequate investigation of the facts; most modern scholars have considered Buchanan's complaints were probably unjustified. The real cause of

286-502: A "dangerous" and "geographical" party that had unfairly attacked the South. He also declared, "the object of my administration will be to destroy sectional party, North or South, and to restore harmony to the Union under a national and conservative government." He set about this initially by feigning a sectional balance in his cabinet appointments. Buchanan was inaugurated on March 4, 1857, taking

429-419: A 22-foot beam, and drew only 7 feet 10 inches, important for navigating rivers that were liable to shoal . She carried an experimental propulsion system (Morgan eccentric feathering paddle wheels). Rigged as a topsail schooner, she was armed with three small bronze howitzers. She was commanded by Lieutenant Thomas Jefferson Page USN, who afterward wrote an accessible account of her voyages. Born into one of

572-819: A congressional censure of Jackson stemming from the Bank War . Buchanan served in the Senate until March 1845 and was twice confirmed in office. To unite Pennsylvania Democrats at the State Convention, he was chosen as their candidate for the National Convention . Buchanan maintained a strict adherence to the Pennsylvania State Legislature 's guidelines and sometimes voted against positions in Congress which he promoted in his own speeches, despite open ambitions for

715-521: A demand for redress, "in a firm but conciliatory manner", but backed up by force if necessary. On 2 June 1858 a joint resolution of Congress authorized the President to obtain satisfaction, using force if necessary. Edward Augustus Hopkins was an adventurer who caused trouble with the government of Paraguay. As will appear, insofar as a single person could be to blame for the Paraguayan debacle, that person

858-519: A dent in American-Paraguayan relations. López no longer trusted Page. In September 1854 President López informed Lieutenant Page that Edward Hopkins was no longer accepted as U.S. Consul in Paraguay. The Rhode Island company could send another representative and that would be fine, but Paraguay would have no more dealings with Hopkins. As mentioned, Hopkins had in his possession certain papers he

1001-430: A few months and was still on good terms with President López. Lieutenant Page wrote that López received them very well, concluding the reception of the expedition in his waters, and his entire course towards us, until his outbreak with [consul Edward Hopkins], was characterized throughout by generous hospitality. Since Paraguay sought American friendship, it was understandable. Page wanted to take Water Witch up

1144-565: A legitimate reason for war. During the Mexican-American War , Buchanan initially advised against claiming territory south of the Rio Grande, fearing war with Britain and France. However, as the war came to an end, Buchanan changed his mind and argued for the annexation of further territory, arguing that Mexico was to blame for the war and that the compensation negotiated for the American losses

1287-414: A lively imagination that Hopkins resorted to whenever reality became too cumbersome — which was most of the time! Hopkins managed to combine these characteristics in such an unusual manner that he antagonized everyone who had the misfortune of dealing with him. In 1845 James Buchanan, at that time Secretary of State, needed to appoint a confidential agent to visit Paraguay, so he could determine whether it

1430-583: A log cabin on a farm called Stony Batter , near Cove Gap , Peters Township , in the Allegheny Mountains of southern Pennsylvania . He was the last president born in the 18th century and, until the election of Joe Biden in 2020, the only one born in Pennsylvania. Buchanan was the second of eleven children with six sisters and four brothers, and the eldest son of James Buchanan Sr. (1761–1821) and his wife Elizabeth Speer (1767–1833). James Buchanan Sr.,

1573-532: A longstanding dispute between Paraguay and Buenos Aires dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas — falsely claiming he had U.S. authorization to do it — but making wild and intemperate proposals. When Rosas paid no attention, Hopkins wrote him a letter that was so insulting the United States felt constrained to apologize. Hopkins was recalled. Hopkins was a persuasive optimist. He persuaded prominent Rhode Island investors, including Governor Samuel G. Arnold , that Paraguay

SECTION 10

#1732858255722

1716-531: A majority vote. He was appointed to the Agriculture Committee in his first year, and he eventually became chairman of the Judiciary Committee . In 1831, Buchanan declined a nomination for the 22nd United States Congress from his constituency consisting of Dauphin , Lebanon , and Lancaster counties. He still had political ambitions and some Pennsylvania Democrats put him forward as a candidate for

1859-772: A militia during the War of 1812, during the British occupation he joined a group of young men who stole horses for the United States Army in the Baltimore area. He was the last president involved in the War of 1812 . In 1814, he was elected for the Federalists to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives , where he was the youngest member, and held this seat until 1816. Since the sessions in

2002-503: A million dollars. It was in reference to this claim that President Buchanan said Paraguay had "seized and appropriated the property of American citizens residing in Paraguay, in a violent and arbitrary manner". The company lobbied to get the Paraguay expedition, spending a lot of money to get the joint resolution through Congress, where there was strong opposition. The claim by the Rhode Island company that they were arbitrarily ruined by

2145-478: A nativist Federalist bill. During the 1824 presidential election , Buchanan initially supported Henry Clay , but switched to Andrew Jackson (with Clay as a second choice) when it became clear that the Pennsylvanian public overwhelmingly preferred Jackson. After Jackson lost the 1824 election, he joined his faction, but Jackson had contempt for Buchanan due to his misinterpretation of his efforts to mediate between

2288-399: A new constitution, which changed the head of state's title from consul to president and elected López to the new post for a 10-year term. The constitution vested López with powers almost as sweeping as those Francia had held for most of his 26-year rule, effectively codifying the dictatorial powers he had seized just months earlier. The document included no guarantees of civil rights; indeed,

2431-557: A result, anti-slavery residents boycotted the referendum since it did not provide a meaningful choice. Despite the protests of Walker and two former Kansas governors, Buchanan decided to accept the Lecompton Constitution. In a December 1857 meeting with Stephen A. Douglas , the chairman of the Senate Committee on Territories, Buchanan demanded that all Democrats support the administration's position of admitting Kansas under

2574-417: A slave state to a free territory by his owner, John Sanford . After Scott returned to the slave state, he filed a petition for his freedom based on his time in the free territory. Associate Justice Robert C. Grier leaked the decision in the "Dred Scott" case early to Buchanan. In his inaugural address, Buchanan declared that the issue of slavery in the territories would be "speedily and finally settled" by

2717-729: A state required a constitution be submitted to Congress with the approval of a majority of its residents. Under President Pierce, a series of violent confrontations escalated over who had the right to vote in Kansas. The situation drew national attention, and some in Georgia and Mississippi advocated secession should Kansas be admitted as a free state. Buchanan chose to endorse the pro-slavery Lecompton government. Buchanan appointed Robert J. Walker to replace John W. Geary as Territorial Governor, and there ensued conflicting referendums from Topeka and Lecompton, where election fraud occurred. In October 1857,

2860-420: A trade and shipping treaty with Russia. While Buchanan was successful with the former, negotiating an agreement on free merchant shipping with Foreign Minister Karl Nesselrode proved difficult. He had denounced Tsar Nicholas I as a despot merely a year prior during his tenure in Congress; many Americans had reacted negatively to Russia's reaction to the 1830 Polish uprising . Buchanan returned home and lost

3003-464: A troubled relationship with his vice president from the beginning, when he did not receive him during his inaugural visit but referred him to his niece and First Lady, which Breckinridge never forgave him for and saw as disrespectful. He left out the influential Stephen A. Douglas , who had made Buchanan's nomination possible by resigning at the National Convention the previous year, when filling

SECTION 20

#1732858255722

3146-458: A wrong legal decision was determined by the ruling parties' preferences and the popularity of the judge's decision. Buchanan persuaded the senators that only judicial crimes and clear violations of the law justified impeachment. In the congressional elections of 1820, Buchanan ran for a seat in the House of Representatives . Shortly after his election victory, his father died in a carriage accident. As

3289-634: A young Representative, Buchanan was one of the most prominent leaders of the "Amalgamator party" faction of Pennsylvanian politics, named that because it was made up of both Democratic-Republicans and former Federalists, which transitioned from the First Party System to the Era of Good Feelings . During this era, the Democratic-Republicans became the most influential party. Buchanan's Federalist convictions were weak, and he switched parties after opposing

3432-534: Is called the Lower Paraná. The Upper Paraná — which Jeffers was to explore — was (and is) is the international boundary between Argentina and Paraguay, and at that time was at least two miles wide. A few miles upstream the Upper Paraná there was a long island called Carayá that divided the river into two channels. The southern channel was international, but so far as Paraguay was concerned the northern channel, called

3575-538: The Bedford Springs Hotel in Pennsylvania , expressing hope that the newly laid cable would prove "an additional link between the nations whose friendship is founded on their common interest and reciprocal esteem". Queen Victoria's message took 16 hours to send. Buchanan responded: "It is a triumph more glorious, because far more useful to mankind, than was ever won by conqueror on the field of battle. May

3718-455: The Canal Privado was in Paraguayan territorial waters, was indeed a sensitive military zone. The reason was that, mostly, the Paraguayan coast was swampy and not easily invaded, but an exception occurred around the village of Paso de Patria , where there was a firm beach where a landing could be made. This vulnerable spot was defended by a military camp at Paso de Patria, and the entrance to

3861-426: The Canal Privado . He must have known he was risking confrontation, because he moved the starboard gun to the port side, cleared for action, and ordered forty shrapnel , twelve regular shells, and thirty stand of grape prepared. He knew López had banned foreign warships from Paraguayan waters — with Water Witch in mind — and he was carrying a pilot who knew the river. His excuse was that he had tried to go through

4004-505: The Dred Scott decision and its repudiation of federal interference with slavery in the territories. Douglas's Senate term was coming to an end in 1859, with the Illinois legislature, elected in 1858, determining whether Douglas would win re-election. The Senate seat was the primary issue of the legislative election, marked by the famous debates between Douglas and his Republican opponent for

4147-520: The Federalist Party . Like his father, he supported their political program, which provided federal funds for building projects and import duties as well as the re-establishment of a central bank after the First Bank of the United States ' license expired in 1811. He became a strong critic of Democratic-Republican President James Madison during the War of 1812 . Although he did not himself serve in

4290-563: The First Families of Virginia , his grandfather had signed the Declaration of Independence. However, Page was wanting in tact, and was no diplomat. In touchy Paraguay misunderstandings could occur, yet according to the southern gentleman honor code , insult literally could not be tolerated. Water Witch arrived at Asunción in October 1853. At this time consul Hopkins had only been in Paraguay

4433-489: The Gulf of Mexico ". President Pierce hoped for re-nomination, while Senator Stephen A. Douglas also loomed as a strong candidate. He won the nomination after seventeen ballots after Douglas' resignation. He was joined on the ticket by John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky in order to maintain regional proportional representation, placating supporters of Pierce and Douglas, also allies of Breckinridge. Buchanan faced two candidates in

Paraguay expedition - Misplaced Pages Continue

4576-614: The Missouri Compromise and welcomed Congress's rejection of the Wilmot Proviso , which prohibited slavery in all territories gained in the Mexican-American War. Buchanan criticized abolitionism as a fanatical attitude and believed that slavery should be decided by state legislatures, not Congress. He disliked abolitionist Northerners due to his party affiliation, and became known as a " doughface " due to his sympathy toward

4719-916: The Monroe Doctrine , which had been under attack from the Spanish, French, and especially the British in the 1850s. He hoped to re-negotiate the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty to counter European imperialism in the Western Hemisphere, which he thought limited U.S. influence in the region. He also sought to establish American protectorates over the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora to secure American citizens and investments, and most importantly, he hoped to achieve his long-term goal of acquiring Cuba. However, Buchanan's ambitions in Cuba and Mexico were largely blocked by

4862-554: The Oregon Treaty and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , which included territory that is now Texas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Colorado. In negotiations with Britain over Oregon, Buchanan initially favored the 49th parallel as the boundary of Oregon Territory, while Polk called for a more northerly boundary line. When Northern Democrats rallied around the popular slogan Fifty-Four Forty or Fight ("54°40′ or war") in

5005-555: The Pennsylvania General Assembly lasted only three months, Buchanan continued practicing law at a profit by charging higher fees, and his service helped him acquire more clients. In 1815, Buchanan defended District Judge Walter Franklin in an impeachment trial before the Pennsylvania Senate , over alleged judicial misconduct. Impeachments were more common at the time because the line between abuse of office and

5148-517: The Plantation of Ulster in the seventeenth century and, later, largely because of poverty and persecution by the Crown due to their Presbyterian faith, had further emigrated in large numbers from Ulster to America from the early eighteenth century onwards. Shortly after Buchanan's birth, the family relocated to a farm near Mercersburg, Pennsylvania , and later settled in the town in 1794. His father became

5291-788: The Salt Lake City area. In September 1857, the Utah Territorial Militia , associated with the Latter-day Saints, perpetrated the Mountain Meadows massacre , in which Young's militia attacked a wagon train and killed 125 settlers. Buchanan was offended by the militarism and polygamous behavior of Young. With reports of violence against non-Mormons, Buchanan authorized a military expedition into Utah Territory in late March 1857 to replace Young as governor. The force consisted of 2,500 men, including Alfred Cumming and his staff, and

5434-721: The Supreme Court of the United States . He appointed seven other federal judges to United States district courts . He also appointed two judges to the United States Court of Claims . The case of Dred Scott v. Sandford , to which Buchanan referred to in his inaugural address, dated back to 1846. Scott sued for his release in Missouri , claiming he lived in service to the proprietor in Illinois and Wisconsin Territory . The case reached

5577-579: The election . Buchanan was offered the position of Secretary of State in the Polk administration or, as the alternative, a seat on the Supreme Court , to compensate him for his support in the election campaign but also in order to eliminate him as an internal party rival. He accepted the State Department post and served for the duration of Polk's single term in office. During his tenure, the United States recorded its largest territorial gain in history through

5720-526: The " Bleeding Kansas " period. The antislavery settlers, with the help of Northern abolitionists, organized their own territorial government in Topeka . The more numerous proslavery settlers, many from the neighboring slave state Missouri, established a government in Lecompton , giving the Territory two different governments for a time, with two distinct constitutions, each claiming legitimacy. The admission of Kansas as

5863-497: The 1828 presidential election, he secured Pennsylvania, while the " Jacksonian Democrats ", an independent party after splitting from the National Republican Party , won an easy victory in the parallel congressional election. Buchanan gained most attention during an impeachment trial where he acted as prosecutor for federal district judge James H. Peck ; however, the Senate rejected Buchanan's plea and acquitted Peck by

Paraguay expedition - Misplaced Pages Continue

6006-619: The 1844 election campaign, Buchanan adopted this position, but later followed Polk's direction, leading to the Oregon Compromise of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary in the Pacific Northwest . In regards to Mexico, Buchanan maintained a dubious view that its attack on American troops on the other side of the Rio Grande in April 1846 constituted a border violation and

6149-404: The 1858 English Bill , which offered Kansas immediate statehood and vast public lands in exchange for accepting the Lecompton Constitution. In August 1858, Kansans by referendum strongly rejected the Lecompton Constitution. The territory received an abolitionist constitution, which was bitterly opposed in Congress by representatives and senators from the southern states until Kansas was admitted to

6292-569: The American Civil War, has been widely criticized. He simultaneously angered the North by not stopping secession and the South by not yielding to their demands. He supported the Corwin Amendment in an effort to reconcile the country. He made an unsuccessful attempt to reinforce Fort Sumter , but otherwise refrained from preparing the military. In his personal life, Buchanan never married and was

6435-611: The Atlantic telegraph, under the blessing of Heaven, prove to be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between the kindred nations, and an instrument destined by Divine Providence to diffuse religion, civilization, liberty, and law throughout the world." The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 created the Kansas Territory and allowed the settlers there to decide whether to allow slavery. This resulted in violence between " Free-Soil " (antislavery) and pro-slavery settlers, which developed into

6578-461: The Clay and Jackson camps. In Washington, Buchanan became an avid defender of states' rights , and was close with many southern Congressmen, viewing some New England Congressmen as dangerous radicals . Buchanan's close proximity to his constituency allowed him to establish a Democratic coalition in Pennsylvania, consisting of former Federalist farmers, Philadelphia artisans, and Ulster-Scots-Americans. In

6721-463: The Democratic platform. In the election, he carried every slave state except for Maryland, as well as five slavery-free states, including his home state of Pennsylvania. He won 45 percent of the popular vote and decisively won the electoral vote, taking 174 of 296 votes. His election made him the first president from Pennsylvania. In a combative victory speech, Buchanan denounced Republicans, calling them

6864-478: The Homestead Act was very popular, even many Democrats condemned the president's policies, while many Americans who considered education an important asset resented Buchanan's veto of agricultural colleges. Buchanan took office with an ambitious foreign policy, designed to establish U.S. hegemony over Central America at the expense of Great Britain. Buchanan sought to revitalize Manifest Destiny and to enforce

7007-620: The House of Representatives. After long negotiations with the British, he convinced them to cede the Bay Islands to Honduras and the Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua . Carlos Antonio L%C3%B3pez López was born at Manorá (Asunción) on November 4, 1792, as one of eight children. He graduated from Real Colegio y Seminario de San Carlos and then began a law practice, a profession which allowed him to develop influential connections. He attracted

7150-415: The Latter-day Saints had frequently defied federal authority, some historians consider Buchanan's action was an inappropriate response to uncorroborated reports. Buchanan was the first recipient of an official telegram transmitted across the Atlantic. Following the dispatch of test and configuration telegrams, on August 16, 1858 Queen Victoria sent a 98-word message to Buchanan at his summer residence in

7293-545: The Lecompton Constitution. On February 2, he transmitted the Lecompton Constitution to Congress. He also transmitted a message that attacked the "revolutionary government" in Topeka, conflating them with the Mormons in Utah. Buchanan made every effort to secure congressional approval, offering favors, patronage appointments, and even cash for votes. The Lecompton Constitution won the approval of

SECTION 50

#1732858255722

7436-516: The Lecompton government framed the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution that agreed to a referendum limited solely to the slavery question. However, the vote against slavery, as provided by the Lecompton Convention, would still permit existing slaves, and all their issue, to be enslaved, so there was no referendum that permitted the majority anti-slavery residents to prohibit slavery in Kansas. As

7579-441: The Mato Grosso were continually encroaching into and appropriating Paraguayan territory, yet López could not persuade Brazil to sign a definitive boundary agreement. He felt very bitter about this. López feared to make a precedent whereby Brazil would demand the right to navigate via the River Paraguay into the Mato Grosso. What was really at issue was Lopez's fears that free navigation would lead to an enormous Brazilian buildup in

7722-589: The Mato Grosso which would threaten Paraguay militarily, and, through its commercial impact on the North, would especially increase smuggling. It would seem that López had an almost morbid premonition that formal war with Brazil was on the cards. Accordingly, López issued Lieutenant Page with a passport to explore the Paraguay River up to a certain point which he considered Paraguayan territory; but no further. When Water Witch arrived there, however, Page persuaded himself he could ignore López's prohibition and he pushed on deep into Brazilian territory. Scientifically, this

7865-495: The Paraguay River into the Mato Grosso , owned by Brazil, and applied to López for permission. However, there was a highly sensitive political situation that Page did not fully understand: Paraguay had a tense relationship with the Empire of Brazil ; the two countries had a 300-year old, shifting boundary dispute going back deep into colonial times. Where Paraguay ended and Brazil began was strongly disputed, and had led to firefights. Paraguay considered that Brazilian settlers from

8008-417: The Paraguayan government, later adjudicated as worthless, was, therefore, one of the three official causes for sending the Paraguay expedition. Paraguay had a history of feeling disrespected by its larger neighbors Brazil and Argentina` and welcomed recognition by third countries. Recently, in 1853, Paraguay had negotiated treaties of friendship, commerce and navigation with Great Britain, France, Sardinia and

8151-448: The Senate in March, but a combination of Know-Nothings, Republicans, and Northern Democrats defeated the bill in the House. Buchanan never forgave Douglas, as the Northern Democrats' rejection was the deciding factor in the House's decision, and he removed all Douglas supporters from his patronage in Illinois and Washington, D.C., installing pro-administration Democrats, including postmasters. Rather than accepting defeat, Buchanan backed

8294-429: The Senate. In that year's elections, Douglas forces took control throughout the North, except in Buchanan's home state of Pennsylvania. Buchanan's support was otherwise reduced to a narrow base of southerners. The division between northern and southern Democrats allowed the Republicans to win a plurality of the House in the 1858 elections , and allowed them to block most of Buchanan's agenda. Buchanan, in turn, added to

8437-405: The South, as we have to touch the right of petition." Buchanan thought that the issue of slavery was the domain of the states, and he faulted abolitionists for exciting passions over the issue. In the lead-up to the 1844 Democratic National Convention , Buchanan positioned himself as a potential alternative to former President Martin Van Buren , but the nomination went to James K. Polk , who won

8580-429: The South. Buchanan emerged as a promising candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination, alongside Lewis Cass, Stephen Douglas , and William L. Marcy ; however, the Pennsylvania convention did not vote unanimously in his favor, with over 30 delegates protesting against him. At the 1852 Democratic National Convention , he won the support of many southern delegates but failed to win the two-thirds support needed for

8723-444: The Supreme Court and gained national attention by 1856. Buchanan consulted with Judge John Catron in January 1857, inquiring about the outcome of the case and suggesting that a broader decision, beyond the specifics of the case, would be more prudent. Buchanan hoped that a broad decision protecting slavery in the territories could lay the issue to rest, allowing him to focus on other issues. Catron replied on February 10, saying that

SECTION 60

#1732858255722

8866-473: The Supreme Court's Southern majority would decide against Scott, but would likely have to publish the decision on narrow grounds unless Buchanan could convince his fellow Pennsylvanian, Justice Robert Cooper Grier , to join the majority of the court. Buchanan then wrote to Grier and prevailed upon him, providing the majority leverage to issue a broad-ranging decision sufficient to render the Missouri Compromise of 1820 unconstitutional. Two days after Buchanan

9009-525: The Supreme Court. According to historian Paul Finkelman : Buchanan already knew what the Court was going to decide. In a major breach of Court etiquette, Justice Grier, who, like Buchanan, was from Pennsylvania, had kept the President-elect fully informed about the progress of the case and the internal debates within the Court. When Buchanan urged the nation to support the decision, he already knew what Taney would say. Republican suspicions of impropriety turned out to be fully justified. Historians agree that

9152-421: The U.S. Senate required these be corrected. A corrected version was prepared for Paraguay to ratify. By the time the document arrived in South America consul Hopkins had departed, and no American diplomat was available to formally present it to the Paraguayan government. So the responsibility was given to Lieutenant Thomas Jefferson Page , commander of USS Water Witch Following the Hopkins incident in which he

9295-422: The U.S.-Paraguay treaty of friendship, above). In January 1855, while Water Witch was in Argentine waters, Lieutenant Page led off a small expedition to explore an Argentine river, leaving his executive officer , Lieutenant William Nicholson Jeffers , in charge of the ship, with orders to explore the Upper Paraná river. The Upper Paraná flows west until it encounters the Paraguay River, when it turns south and

9438-505: The Union as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution , and angered not only Republicans but also Northern Democrats. Buchanan honored his pledge to serve only one term and supported Breckinridge's unsuccessful candidacy in the 1860 presidential election . He failed to reconcile the fractured Democratic Party amid the grudge against Stephen Douglas , leading to the election of Republican and former Congressman Abraham Lincoln . Buchanan's leadership during his lame duck period, before

9581-422: The Union in January 1861. The dispute over Kansas became the battlefront for control of the Democratic Party. On one side were Buchanan, the majority of Southern Democrats, and the "doughfaces". On the other side were Douglas and the majority of northern Democrats, as well as a few Southerners. Douglas's faction continued to support the doctrine of popular sovereignty, while Buchanan insisted that Democrats respect

9724-410: The United Kingdom, as he demanded the entire Aroostook River Valley for the United States. In the Oregon Boundary Dispute , Buchanan adopted the maximum demand of 54°40′ as the northern border and spoke out in favor of annexing the Republic of Texas . During the contentious 1838 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election , Buchanan chose to support the Democratic challenger, David Rittenhouse Porter , who

9867-399: The United States, and looked forward to the ratification of the latter by the U.S. Senate. These four treaties were almost word-for-word the same, and contained most favored nation clauses. Owing to the carelessness of a visiting American diplomat, many formal mistakes got into the wording of the U.S.-Paraguay treaty, e.g. the U.S.A. was referred to as "United States of North America"; so

10010-485: The United States, even if they had full civil rights in a state. Buchanan's letters were not made public at the time, but he was seen conversing quietly with the Chief Justice during his inauguration. When the decision was issued, Republicans began spreading the word that Taney had informed Buchanan of the impending outcome. Rather than destroying the Republican platform as Buchanan had hoped, the decision infuriated Northerners, who condemned it. The Panic of 1857 began in

10153-452: The White House. Buchanan was known for his commitment to states' rights and the Manifest Destiny ideology. He rejected President Martin Van Buren 's offer to become United States Attorney General and chaired prestigious Senate committees such as the Committee on the Judiciary and the Committee on Foreign Relations . Buchanan was one of only a few senators to vote against the Webster–Ashburton Treaty for its "surrender" of lands to

10296-626: The acquisition of Cuba. A memorandum draft resulted, called the Ostend Manifesto , which proposed the purchase of Cuba from Spain, then in the midst of revolution and near bankruptcy. The document declared the island "as necessary to the North American republic as any of its present ... family of states". Against Buchanan's recommendation, the final draft of the manifesto suggested that "wresting it from Spain", if Spain refused to sell, would be justified "by every law, human and Divine". The manifesto

10439-653: The area's wealthiest resident, working as a merchant, farmer, and real estate investor. Buchanan attributed his early education primarily to his mother, whereas his father had a greater influence on his character. His mother had discussed politics with him as a child and had an interest in poetry, quoting John Milton and William Shakespeare to Buchanan. Buchanan attended the Old Stone Academy in Mercersburg and then Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania . In 1808, he

10582-402: The cattle stampeded. Enraged, the soldier struck Hopkins' brother with the flat of his sword. Whereupon, wrote Professor Ynsfran Consul Hopkins, instead of lodging a reasonable complaint with the police on behalf of his brother, presented himself in riding boots and flourishing a whip in the hand at the government house, where he was admitted as usual with every consideration, and confronted

10725-603: The channel was protected by a Paraguayan fort called Itapirú. The map, drawn by colonel George Thompson of the Paraguayan army just few years later for another purpose, shows the scene. Itapirú was only a small semicircular brick fort, but it had six large cannon, and its gunners were accurate. Ten years later, in the War of the Triple Alliance , the fort defied a strong Brazilian naval force for 40 days. On 1 February 1855 USS Water Witch , Lieutenant Jeffers, carrying an Argentine pilot, approached Fort Itapirú where it guarded

10868-583: The city. His income rapidly rose after he established his practice, and by 1821 he was earning over $ 11,000 per year (equivalent to $ 250,000 in 2023). At this time, Buchanan became a Freemason , and served as the Worshipful Master of Masonic Lodge No. 43 in Lancaster and as a District Deputy Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania . Buchanan also served as chairman of the Lancaster chapter of

11011-576: The constitution adopted in 1844 that legitimized López’s presidency, Paraguay had no official document of sovereignty; López’s influence led to the recognition of Paraguay as an independent nation. However, his approach to foreign affairs several times involved him in diplomatic disputes with the Empire of Brazil , the United States , and the British Empire , which nearly resulted in war. His government

11154-468: The country in the slavery dispute. While he did not overtly seek the presidency, he assented to the movement on his behalf. While still in England, he campaigned by praising John Joseph Hughes , who was Archbishop of New York , to a Catholic archbishop. The latter campaigned for Buchanan among high-ranking Catholics as soon as he heard about it. When Buchanan arrived home at the end of April 1856, he led on

11297-404: The country through the establishment of a new railroad line and steamship river routes. López also encouraged public education through the expansion of primary schools and the reopening of the seminary he attended as a young man, which increased literacy throughout the country. His eldest son, Francisco Solano López (1827–1870), succeeded him as president after his death. A barrio of Asuncion

11440-606: The court decision was a major disaster because it dramatically inflamed tensions, leading to the Civil War. In 2022, historian David W. Blight argued that the year 1857 was, "the great pivot on the road to disunion...largely because of the Dred Scott case, which stoked the fear, distrust and conspiratorial hatred already common in both the North and the South to new levels of intensity." As his inauguration approached, Buchanan sought to establish an obedient, harmonious cabinet to avoid

11583-522: The election in the State Legislature for a full six-year term in the 23rd Congress , but was appointed by the Pennsylvania state legislature to succeed William Wilkins in the U.S. Senate. Wilkins, in turn, replaced Buchanan as the ambassador to Russia. The Jacksonian Buchanan, who was re-elected in 1836 and 1842, opposed the re-chartering of the Second Bank of the United States and sought to expunge

11726-474: The expedition cost perhaps $ 3 million for which Paraguay paid $ 9,412 for the sake of peace and quiet. Nevertheless Buchanan claimed a foreign policy success. There was disinformation , some of whose effects persist to this day. In Buchanan's own words, the government of Paraguay had:- The honor, as well as the interest of the United States, concluded Buchanan, demanded satisfaction. In his first annual message to Congress (8 December 1857) he said he would make

11869-547: The fashion of the time, Buchanan studied the United States Code and the Constitution of the United States as well as legal authorities such as William Blackstone during his education. In 1812, Buchanan passed the bar exam and after being admitted to the bar, he remained in Lancaster, even when Harrisburg became the new capital of Pennsylvania. Buchanan quickly established himself as a prominent legal representative in

12012-555: The federal troops at a peaceable distance for the balance of his administration. Buchanan did not comment on the conflict again until his State of the Union Address in December 1857, leaving open the question of whether it was a rebellion in Utah. One of Buchanan's last official acts in March 1861 was to reduce the size of Utah Territory in favor of Nevada , Colorado , and Nebraska . While

12155-586: The first ballot, supported by powerful Senators John Slidell , Jesse Bright , and Thomas F. Bayard , who presented Buchanan as an experienced leader appealing to the North and South. The 1856 Democratic National Convention met in June 1856, producing a platform that reflected Buchanan's views, including support for the Fugitive Slave Law , which required the return of escaped slaves. The platform also called for an end to anti-slavery agitation and U.S. "ascendancy in

12298-504: The general election: former Whig President Millard Fillmore ran as the candidate for the anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant American Party (or " Know-Nothing "), while John C. Frémont ran as the Republican nominee. The contrast between Buchanan and Frémont was particularly stark, with opposing caricaturists drawing the Democratic candidate as a fussy old man in drag. Buchanan did not actively campaign, but he wrote letters and pledged to uphold

12441-592: The goodwill of López. President López was an irascible, corpulent dictator; furthermore, a micromanager . Even so, he is now acknowledged as one of Paraguay's better rulers — a modernizer. López was gradually bringing Paraguay out of its long period of isolation. Because their country had an insecure history, Paraguayans were said to be xenophobic and touchy. In colonial times Paraguay had had to struggle against endemic Indian and Portuguese raids; after its independence, with Brazilian and Buenos Aires bullying. Dealing with López called for diplomatic tact and patience; yet

12584-636: The ground that it was in Spanish. Jeffers did this, not because there was nobody on board who knew Spanish — there was — but in retaliation for Paraguay's earlier refusal to receive the friendship treaty in English. Thus Jeffers was navigating in waters claimed by Paraguay while refusing to communicate with its officials. When within 300 yards of the fort Jeffers received a hail in Spanish. "Not understanding", he continued. James Buchanan James Buchanan Jr. ( / b j uː ˈ k æ n ə n / bew- KAN -ən ; April 23, 1791 – June 1, 1868)

12727-486: The hostility of the dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia , his reputed uncle, which caused him to go into hiding for several years. López was briefly secretary of the military junta led by Colonel Mariano Roque Alonso that ruled the country from 1840 to 1841, after the death of Francia. On March 12, 1841, Congress chose López and Roque to be joint consuls for three years. In 1844, he exiled Roque and assumed dictatorial powers. A few months later, Congress adopted

12870-542: The hostility with his veto of six substantial pieces of Republican legislation. Among these measures were the Homestead Act , which would have given 160 acres of public land to settlers who remained on the land for five years, and the Morrill Act , which would have granted public lands to establish land-grant colleges . Buchanan argued that these acts were unconstitutional. In the western and northwestern United States, where

13013-422: The implication was that Water Witch , a guest of Paraguay, was prepared to fight its way out of the country to remove a person defying the Paraguayan government. It seems that each side thought the other might be planning on violence, and Water Witch trained her guns on the presidential palace. A furious López responded by banning all foreign vessels of war from Paraguayan waters. (It was why he refused to ratify

13156-738: The in-fighting that had plagued Andrew Jackson 's administration. The cabinet's composition had to do justice to the proportional representation within the party and between the regions of the country. Buchanan first worked on this task in Wheatland until he traveled to the capital in January 1857. There, like many other guests at the National Hotel , he contracted severe dysentery , from which he did not fully recover until several months later. Dozens of those who fell ill died, including Buchanan's nephew and private secretary Eskridge Lane. The cabinet selection

13299-409: The insurance payout to fund the venture.) Salvaging the cargo as best as he could, Hopkins arrived in Paraguay and borrowed 11,500 pesos from its president, Carlos Antonio López . Hopkins started a sawmill and a cigar factory which — thanks to López — were allowed to operate on favorable terms, e.g. they were manned by cheap conscript labor. The commercial viability of the venture entirely depended on

13442-469: The job and "a military bluff carried off with commendable skill". However, because of the conciliatory attitude of the U.S. diplomatic representative Judge James B. Bowlin — who to get an equitable resolution deviated from his instructions — and to the fact that Paraguay needed international friends, normal relations between the two countries were restored. Until that happened, only one ship entered Paraguayan waters, by mutual agreement. In financial terms,

13585-403: The latter had no alternative but to leave the country. This meant the shattering of the inchoate emporium of the Rhode Island company. A different source found that Hopkins boasted that he "forcibly entered the audience chamber of President López, in his riding dress, whip in hand, despite the remonstrance of the guard". Hopkins made it worse. According to one source, though López had ordered

13728-422: The main channel but had run on a sandbar. One source says the move was probably a calculated insult to López. It was, at least, bad timing, because there was a tense political situation: Paraguay was expecting an invasion by a large Brazilian fleet. At about 1:20 pm the fort sent a Paraguayan canoe alongside and a man offered Jeffers a copy of López's decree banning foreign vessels. Jeffers refused to accept it on

13871-412: The man entrusted with the task was Edward A. Hopkins, whose arrogance began to irritate the President. Hopkins "made no secret of his mission to 'civilize' Paraguay". Thus, according to John Hoyt Williams, he asked to be made an admiral in the Paraguayan navy. He would build a ship to his own design. He and a crew of Americans would sail the ship to Buenos Aires and kidnap dictator Rosas. "All he needed

14014-462: The military action by mustering a two-week expedition, destroying wagon trains, oxen, and other Army property. Buchanan then dispatched Thomas L. Kane as a private agent to negotiate peace. The mission was successful, a peaceful agreement to replace Governor Young with Cumming was reached, and the Utah War ended. The President granted amnesty to inhabitants affirming loyalty to the government, and placed

14157-418: The misunderstandings was that neither country had employed a competent diplomatic service. Buchanan may have had an ulterior motive, such as to distract public opinion from the domestic concerns that afflicted his presidency; even more sinister explanations have been suggested; but possibly Buchanan may have meant to emulate the success of the earlier Perry Expedition , which had "opened up" isolated Japan. At

14300-502: The oath of office from Chief Justice Roger B. Taney . In his lengthy inaugural address, Buchanan committed himself to serving only one term, as his predecessor had done. He abhorred the growing divisions over slavery and its status in the territories, saying that Congress should play no role in determining the status of slavery in the states or territories. He proposed a solution based on the Kansas-Nebraska Act , which stated that

14443-594: The old-fashioned style of his adolescence, earning him the nickname " Old Public Functionary " from the press. Slavery opponents in the North mocked him as a relic of prehistoric man because of his moral values. He bought the house of Wheatland on the outskirts of Lancaster and entertained various visitors while monitoring political events. During this period, Buchanan became the center of a family network consisting of 22 nieces, nephews and their descendants, seven of whom were orphans. He found public service jobs for some through patronage, and for those in his favor, he took on

14586-438: The only U.S. president to remain a lifelong bachelor, leading some historians and authors to question his sexual orientation. His failure to forestall the American Civil War has been described as incompetence, and he spent his last years defending his reputation. Historians and scholars rank Buchanan as among the worst presidents in American history. James Buchanan Jr. was born into a Scottish-Irish family on April 23, 1791, in

14729-410: The population due to his refusal to implement an economic stimulus program . While the government was "without the power to extend relief", it would continue to pay its debts in specie, and while it would not curtail public works, none would be added. In hopes of reducing paper money supplies and inflation, he urged the states to restrict the banks to a credit level of $ 3 to $ 1 of specie and discouraged

14872-495: The post. Concentrating on foreign policy, he appointed the aging Lewis Cass as Secretary of State. Buchanan's appointment of Southerners and their allies alienated many in the North, and his failure to appoint any followers of Douglas divided the party. Outside of the cabinet, he left in place many of Pierce's appointments but removed a disproportionate number of Northerners who had ties to Democratic opponents Pierce or Douglas. Buchanan appointed one Justice, Nathan Clifford , to

15015-407: The president with a shower of vituperations and threats. The flabbergasted ruler was for the moment speechless. After a few minutes he recovered his calm and dismissed Hopkins with the admonition that if he had any remonstrances he should present them through the proper channel. Hopkins had conjured up his own Nemesis . President López, incensed at this gross conduct, withdrew Hopkins' exequatur , and

15158-577: The presidential nomination, which went to Franklin Pierce . Buchanan declined to serve as the vice presidential nominee, and the convention instead nominated his close friend, William R. King . Pierce won the election in 1852 , and six months later, Buchanan accepted the position of United States Minister to the United Kingdom , a position that represented a step backward in his career and that he had twice previously rejected. Buchanan sailed for England in

15301-402: The principle of popular sovereignty was decisive, and Congress had no say in the matter. Buchanan recommended that a federal slave code be enacted to protect the rights of slaveowners in federal territories. He alluded to a then-pending Supreme Court case, Dred Scott v. Sandford , which he said would permanently settle the issue of slavery. Dred Scott was a slave who was temporarily taken from

15444-556: The role of surrogate father. He formed the strongest emotional bond with his niece Harriet Lane , who later became First Lady for Buchanan in the White House. In 1852, he was named president of the Board of Trustees of Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, and he served in this capacity until 1866. Buchanan did not completely leave politics. He intended to publish a collection of speeches and an autobiography, but his political comeback

15587-527: The seat, Abraham Lincoln . Buchanan, working through federal patronage appointees in Illinois, ran candidates for the legislature in competition with both the Republicans and the Douglas Democrats. This could easily have thrown the election to the Republicans, and showed the depth of Buchanan's animosity toward Douglas. In the end, Douglas Democrats won the legislative election and Douglas was re-elected to

15730-424: The soldier to receive 300 lashes for exceeding his authority, Hopkins demanded that Paraguay apologise in its official newspaper. Another source — a resident Spanish journalist — wrote that Hopkins had demanded that the soldier be shot, but he was only sentenced to a spell in jail. Hopkins possessed certain documents which he was supposed to deliver up before leaving the country. He refused, and in defiance of López

15873-488: The state's House of Representatives as a Federalist . He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1820 and retained that post for five terms, aligning with Andrew Jackson 's Democratic Party . Buchanan served as Jackson's minister to Russia in 1832. He won the election in 1834 as a U.S. senator from Pennsylvania and continued in that position for 11 years. He was appointed to serve as President James K. Polk 's secretary of state in 1845, and eight years later

16016-442: The summer of 1853, and he remained abroad for the next three years. In 1850, the United States and Great Britain signed the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty , which committed both countries to joint control of any future canal that would connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through Central America. Buchanan met repeatedly with Lord Clarendon , the British foreign minister, in hopes of pressuring the British to withdraw from Central America. He

16159-667: The summer of that year, when the New York branch of Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company announced its insolvency. The crisis spread rapidly, and by the fall, 1,400 state banks and 5,000 businesses had gone bankrupt. Unemployment and hunger became common in northern cities, but the agricultural south was more resilient. Buchanan agreed with the southerners who attributed the economic collapse to over-speculation. Buchanan acted in accordance with Jacksonian Democracy principles, which restricted paper money issuance, and froze federal funds for public works projects, causing resentment among some of

16302-458: The time it was the largest naval squadron ever sent from the United States, and it caused a great impression in the Platine basin . Even so, had it come to war, the strategic position of Paraguay in the heart of South America was strong. Further, owing to shore-based administrative incompetence, the squadron had serious deficiencies. Hence the expedition has been described as "woefully inadequate" for

16445-447: The treaty "on frivolous and even insulting pretexts". But strictly speaking Paraguay was not bound to ratify a document not in its national language; more to the point, it was not bound to ratify a treaty of friendship at all; still less, if there was not friendship enough. The upshot, however, was that while France, Great Britain and Sardinia had gained commercial and navigation advantages, the United States had yet to do so. That, then,

16588-662: The use of federal or state bonds as security for bank note issues. The economy recovered in several years, though many Americans suffered as a result of the panic. Buchanan had hoped to reduce the deficit, but by the time he left office the federal budget grew by 15%. In the spring of 1857, the Latter-day Saints and their leader Brigham Young had been challenging federal representatives in Utah Territory , causing harassment and violence against non-Mormons. Young harassed federal officers and discouraged outsiders from settling in

16731-434: The vice presidency in the 1832 election . After Jackson was re-elected in 1832, he offered Buchanan the position of United States Ambassador to Russia . Buchanan was reluctant to leave the country, as the distant St. Petersburg was a kind of political exile, which was the intention of Jackson, who considered Buchanan to be an "incompetent busybody" and untrustworthy, but he ultimately agreed. His work focused on concluding

16874-443: The word "liberty" was not even in the text. He was re-elected for a three-year term in 1854 and again in 1857 for ten more years, with the power to nominate his own successor. His government was directed towards developing Paraguay's primary resource extraction and strengthening Paraguay's armed forces. He contracted numerous foreign technicians, most of whom were British, and built up the formidable Fortress of Humaitá . Before

17017-452: Was 100,000 pesos." López was not impressed. Ill-feeling had been brewing for some time when an incident brought it to a head. One day Hopkins' brother and the wife of the French consul were out riding in the countryside when they encountered three Paraguayan soldiers herding cattle. The soldier in charge ordered the couple to move aside so as not to frighten the animals, but he was ignored and

17160-536: Was Hopkins. A former midshipman in the U.S. Navy who had been court-martialled three times and dismissed from his squadron, he has been described as "undisciplined, imprudent, arrogant, aggressive", "unruly, quarrelsome, pugnacious, and arrogant", and "swaggering, bullying and tyranical". According to yet another scholar, Edward A. Hopkins was an unusual man and therein lay his difficulties. His outstanding characteristics were presumptuousness, egotism and marvellously bad judgment. These characteristics were combined with

17303-557: Was able to reduce British influence in Honduras and Nicaragua while also raising the kingdom's awareness of American interests in the region. He also focused on the potential annexation of Cuba , which had long interested him. At Pierce's prompting, Buchanan met in Ostend, Belgium , with U.S. Ambassador to Spain Pierre Soulé and U.S. Ambassador to France John Mason , to work out a plan for

17446-471: Was afterwards adjudicated, see below, by a two-person international commission comprising an American and a Paraguayan arbitrator. The arbitrators agreed that the Rhode Island company's claim was worthless. However, this was not determined until August 1860. Meantime, the Rhode Island company started a campaign. It asserted that it had been wronged and damaged by the Republic of Paraguay to an amount in excess of

17589-401: Was also the general agent of the Rhode Island company in Paraguay. The business venture of the United States and Paraguay Navigation Company was a failure. Its main asset, a steamship loaded with machinery and merchandise, was shipwrecked well before it could get to Paraguay. (According to a pro-Paraguayan source, not necessarily reliable, the shipwreck was intentional, the object being to use

17732-577: Was an Ulster-Scot from just outside Ramelton , a small town in the north-east of County Donegal in the north-west of Ulster , the northern province in Ireland , who emigrated to the newly formed United States in 1783, having sailed from Derry . He belonged to the Clan Buchanan , whose members had emigrated in large numbers from the Scottish Highlands to Ulster in the north of Ireland during

17875-412: Was an excellent business opportunity. They incorporated the United States and Paraguay Navigation Company. With a capital of $ 100,000, it would build and sail ships on the rivers of South America as well as conduct other business. Hopkins had himself appointed U.S. Consul in Paraguay, a diplomatic post he secured despite his calamitous record: he was the only applicant. He assumed office in June 1853. He

18018-691: Was another of the three reasons Buchanan gave for sending the Paraguay expedition. Water Witch was a ship of the United States Navy that explored the rivers of the River Plate basin . These rivers drain an area of land equal to one-fourth of the surface of South America. Amongst the most important are the Paraná River and the Paraguay River . They are accessible through Argentine territory. In 1852 dictator Rosas — who used to block access to them —

18161-497: Was commanded by General William S. Harney . Complicating matters, Young's notice of his replacement was not delivered because the Pierce administration had annulled the Utah mail contract, and Young portrayed the approaching forces as an unauthorized overthrow. Buchanan's personnel decision incited resistance from the Mormons around Young, as Harney was known for his volatility and brutality. In August 1857, Albert S. Johnston replaced him for organizational reasons. Young reacted to

18304-399: Was conveyed out of Paraguay aboard a visiting American vessel USS Water Witch . An infuriated López banned all foreign warships from entering Paraguayan waters. This incident, and the role of Water Witch in further exacerbating American-Paraguayan relations, will be described later. Back in the United States the company that Hopkins represented got up a claim against Paraguay. This claim

18447-439: Was conveyed out of Paraguay by USS Water Witch (September 1854), an angry President López was in no mood to ratify, and Water Witch had been banned from Paraguayan waters. Lieutenant Page sent an officer to Asunción by commercial steamer to hand-deliver the corrected version of the treaty. However, an upset Paraguayan government refused to receive it because it was not in Spanish. Buchanan complained Paraguay refused to ratify

18590-620: Was disastrous, with four Southern ministers being large-scale slaveholders who later became loyal to the Confederate States of America . Secretary of the Treasury Howell Cobb was considered the greatest political talent in the Cabinet, while the three department heads from the northern states were all considered to be doughfaces . His objective was to dominate the cabinet, and he chose men who would agree with his views. Buchanan had

18733-462: Was elected by fewer than 5,500 votes as Pennsylvania's first governor under the state's revised Constitution of 1838. Buchanan also opposed a gag rule sponsored by John C. Calhoun that would have suppressed anti-slavery petitions. He joined the majority in blocking the rule, with most senators of the belief that it would have the reverse effect of strengthening the abolitionists . He said, "We have just as little right to interfere with slavery in

18876-453: Was interesting; politically, reckless. Page established his 450 ton ship could steam up to Corumbá in the Mato Grosso, 1,870 miles (3,010 km) from Buenos Aires, further than had ever been done before; his achievement opened up the Mato Grosso to steam navigation (far and away the best means of access to the province); but he upset López. Although López tried to be polite about it, it was

19019-580: Was met with a divided response and was never acted upon. It weakened the Pierce administration and reduced support for Manifest Destiny. In 1855, as Buchanan's desire to return home grew, Pierce asked him to hold the fort in London in light of the relocation of a British fleet to the Caribbean . Buchanan's service abroad allowed him to conveniently avoid the debate over the Kansas–Nebraska Act then roiling

19162-557: Was named as President Franklin Pierce 's minister to the United Kingdom . Beginning in 1844, Buchanan became a regular contender for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination. He was nominated and won the 1856 presidential election . As President, Buchanan intervened to assure the Supreme Court's majority ruling in the pro-slavery decision in the Dred Scott case. He acceded to Southern attempts to engineer Kansas' entry into

19305-435: Was nearly expelled for disorderly conduct; he and his fellow students had attracted negative attention for drinking in local taverns, disturbing the peace at night and committing acts of vandalism, but he pleaded for a second chance and ultimately graduated with honors in 1809. Later that year, he moved to the state capital at Lancaster , to train as a lawyer for two and a half years with the well-known James Hopkins. Following

19448-411: Was overthrown and his successor Justo José de Urquiza opened the rivers of Argentina to free navigation by the ships of all nations. The United States therefore decided to send Water Witch on an expedition of scientific exploration, intended to encourage commerce and enhance American prestige. USS Water Witch was the best vessel for this role. Launched in 1852, she had a wooden hull 150 foot long,

19591-462: Was somewhat more tolerant of opposition than Francia's had been. He released all political prisoners soon after he took full power and also took measures to abolish slavery . During his presidency, Paraguay’s economy saw unprecedented growth. He signed commercial treaties with Brazil in 1850, with Great Britain, France and the United States in 1853, and with and Argentina in 1856. His government worked to improve infrastructure and transportation within

19734-643: Was supposed to deliver up and López refused to let him leave the country until he did so. Lieutenant Page, although he had a very poor opinion of Hopkins (the contempt was mutual), decided he ought to help a fellow American, and applied for the necessary permits. However, the Paraguayan government and Page got into a prickly dispute about the paperwork, the government insisting all applications had to be made in Spanish, which language Page refused to use. So Page defied López and removed Hopkins from Paraguay anyway in USS Water Witch . This raised López's animosity, since

19877-408: Was sworn in as president, Chief Justice Taney delivered the Dred Scott decision, which denied the petitioner's request to be set free from slavery. The ruling broadly asserted that Congress had no constitutional power to exclude slavery in the territories. According to this decision, slaves were forever the property of their owners without rights and no African American could ever be a full citizen of

20020-502: Was the 15th president of the United States , serving from 1857 to 1861. Buchanan also served as the secretary of state from 1845 to 1849 and represented Pennsylvania in both houses of the U.S. Congress . He was an advocate for states' rights , particularly regarding slavery , and minimized the role of the federal government preceding the American Civil War . Buchanan was a lawyer in Pennsylvania and won his first election to

20163-505: Was thwarted by the 1852 presidential election. Buchanan traveled to Washington to discuss Pennsylvania Democratic Party politics, which were divided into two camps led by Simon Cameron and George Dallas . He quietly campaigned for the 1852 Democratic presidential nomination. In light of the Compromise of 1850 , which had led to the admission of California into the Union as a free state and a stricter Fugitive Slave Act , Buchanan now rejected

20306-402: Was too low. Buchanan sought the nomination at the 1848 Democratic National Convention , as Polk had promised to serve only one term, but he only won the support of the Pennsylvania and Virginia delegations, so Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan was nominated. With the 1848 election of Whig Zachary Taylor , Buchanan returned to private life. Buchanan was getting on in years and still dressed in

20449-419: Was worth granting diplomatic recognition. The man Buchanan chose for the job was the 22-year old Edward A. Hopkins. Despite his unpromising record, Hopkins got himself appointed, through family influence. Hopkins had no diplomatic status. His sole functions were to communicate American goodwill and to report the facts on the ground to the U.S. government. He soon exceeded his remit, not only trying to mediate

#721278