Giuseppe Panza di Biumo (23 March 1923 – 24 April 2010) was a collector of modern art . He lived in Milan and Varese , Italy.
142-608: Giuseppe Panza was born on March 23, 1923, in Milan. His father, Ernesto, was a wine distributor who invested in real estate and in 1940 was given the title of count by King Vittorio Emanuele III . He earned a law degree at the University of Milan in 1948 but never practiced. Instead, he built his career in the family businesses of wine distribution and property. Panza died on 24 April 2010 in Milan. Along with his wife Rosa Giovanna, Panza began building an art collection in 1956, when he bought
284-441: A 1989 article titled “Una stanza per Panza,” Donald Judd accused Panza of fabricating Judd works from sketches he owned without the artist's permission — let alone participation — and then installing them at his ancestral home at Villa Varese. Other conceptual artists, including Flavin and Nauman, also took issue with some of the pieces that Panza had constructed from sketches. When Panza began disposing of some of his collection in
426-661: A choice of attire he considered very disrespectful. Victor Emmanuel was ultra-critical of the slow progress made by the American 5th Army and the British 8th Army as the Allies fought their way up the Italian peninsula , saying he wanted to return to Rome as soon as possible, and felt that all of the Allied soldiers fighting to liberate Italy were cowards. Likewise, Victor Emmanuel refused to renounce
568-548: A competition to design the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art's new structure in Downtown. Semifinalists included Charles Moore and Tadao Ando . The three finalists were to present site-specific design proposals later that year, but the museum canceled its architectural competition after only a month and went with the 45-year-old Botta. The new museum, planned in association with architects Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum ,
710-1022: A current list of all trustees. The Director of SFMOMA is Christopher Bedford , who was appointed in 2022. Previous Directors include Grace Morley (1935–1958), George D. Culler (1958–1965), Gerald Nordland (1966–1972), Henry T. Hopkins (1974–1986), John R. Lane (1987–1997), David A. Ross (1998–2001), and Neal Benezra (2002–2022). Jackson Pollock had his first museum show at SFMOMA, as did Clyfford Still and Arshile Gorky . The museum has in its collection important works by Ansel Adams , Joan Brown , Jerome Caja , Alexander Calder , Jay DeFeo , Richard Diebenkorn , Marcel Duchamp , Jess , Frida Kahlo , Anselm Kiefer , Ellsworth Kelly , Paul Klee , Dorothea Lange , Agnes Martin , Henri Matisse , Richard Mayhew , Jean Metzinger , Joan Mitchell , Chiura Obata , David Park , Jackson Pollock , Gerhard Richter , Diego Rivera , Mark Rothko , Richard Serra , Frank Stella , Clyfford Still , Wayne Thiebaud , Cy Twombly , and Andy Warhol , among others. Presentation of
852-450: A force of his Fascist supporters on a March on Rome . Prime Minister Luigi Facta and his cabinet drafted a decree of martial law . After some hesitation the King refused to sign it, citing doubts about the ability of the army to contain the uprising without setting off a civil war. Fascist violence had been growing in intensity throughout the summer and autumn of 1922, climaxing in rumours of
994-486: A glass pavilion for dining. The larger sculpture garden affords views of the city skyline, dominated by the imposing art deco facade of the 140 New Montgomery skyscraper. In 2009, in response to significant growth in the museum's audiences and collections since the opening of the 1995 building, SFMOMA announced plans to expand. A shortlist released in May 2010 included four architecture firms officially under consideration for
1136-476: A mere journalist". Grandi told Ciano that the king must be either "crazy" and/or "senile" as he was utterly passive, refusing to act against Mussolini. In late 1942, Italian Libya was lost. During Operation Anton on 9 November 1942, the unoccupied part of France was occupied by the Axis forces, which allowed Victor Emmanuel to proclaim in a speech at long last Corsica and Nice had been "liberated". Early in 1943,
1278-516: A part of Italian nationalists protested against the partial violation of the 1915 Treaty of London and what they defined as a " mutilated victory ", demanding the annexation of Croatian-speaking territories in Dalmatia and temporarily occupying the town of Fiume without royal assent. During the early 1920s, several short-serving prime ministers, including the well-respected Giolitti, serving an unprecedented fifth term as prime minister, could not unify
1420-492: A period of 100 years. In 2009, SFMOMA announced plans for a major expansion to accommodate its growing audiences, programs, and collections and to showcase the Doris and Donald Fisher collection of contemporary art. In 2010—the museum's 75th anniversary year—architecture firm Snøhetta was selected to design a major addition. SFMOMA closed to the public and broke ground for its expansion in May 2013, re-opening three years later. During
1562-637: A possible coup. On 24 October 1922, during the Fascist Congress in Naples, Mussolini announced that the Fascists would march on Rome to "take by the throat our miserable ruling class". General Pietro Badoglio told the King that the military would be able without difficulty to rout the rebels, who numbered no more than 10,000 men armed mostly with knives and clubs whereas the Regio Esercito had 30,000 soldiers in
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#17328481279041704-493: A premier with whom he found it so satisfactory to deal as with Signor Mussolini, and I know from private sources that recent events have not changed his opinion". The Matteotti affair did much to turn Italian public opinion against Fascism, and Graham reported to London that "Fascism is more unpopular by the day" while quoting a high Vatican official as saying to him that Fascism was a "spent force". The fact that Matteotti had been tortured by his killers for several hours before he
1846-480: A republic. By this time, plans were being discussed within the Italian elite for replacing Mussolini. Victor Emmanuel stated that he wanted to keep the Fascist system going after dismissing Mussolini, and he was seeking to correct merely some of "its deleterious aspects". The two replacements that were being mooted for Mussolini were Marshal Pietro Badoglio and his rival, Marshal Enrico Caviglia . As Marshal Caviglia
1988-453: A result of Italian imperialism under fascism . When World War II broke out in 1939, Victor Emmanuel advised Mussolini against entering the war. In June 1940, he relented and granted Mussolini sweeping powers to enter and conduct the war. Amidst the Allied invasion of Italy in 1943, Victor Emmanuel discharged Mussolini from the office of Prime Minister and signed the armistice of Cassibile with
2130-425: A result of individual action and influence". Victor Emmanuel was tired of the recurring crises of parliamentary government and welcomed Mussolini as a "strong man" who imposed "order" on Italy. Mussolini was always very respectful and deferential when he met him in private, which was exactly the behaviour which the king expected of his prime ministers. Many Fascist gerarchi , most notably Italo Balbo , regarded as
2272-479: A royal prerogative that Victor Emmanuel rejected, and was finally settled by the compromise of giving Mussolini operational command powers. On 10 June 1940, ignoring advice that the country was unprepared, Mussolini made the fatal decision to have Italy enter World War II on the side of Nazi Germany . Almost from the beginning, disaster followed disaster. The first Italian offensive, an invasion of France launched on 17 June 1940, ended in complete failure, and only
2414-498: A secret meeting Victor Emmanuel told Badoglio that he would soon be sworn in as Italy's new prime minister and the king wanted no "ghosts" (i.e. liberal politicians from the pre-fascist era) in his cabinet. On the night of 25 July 1943, the Grand Council of Fascism voted to adopt an Ordine del Giorno (order of the day) proposed by Count Dino Grandi to ask Victor Emmanuel to resume his full constitutional powers under Article 5 of
2556-523: A special judicial tribunal to try political crimes with no possibility of a royal pardon. Even though the right of pardon was part of the royal prerogative, the king gave his assent to the law. However, the king did veto an attempt by Mussolini to change the Italian flag by adding the fasces symbol to stand beside the coat of arms of the House of Savoy on the Italian tricolour. The king considered this proposal to be disrespectful to his family, and refused to sign
2698-560: A surprise to many observers inside and outside Italy. Unfavourable comparisons were drawn with King George VI and Queen Elizabeth , who refused to leave London during the Blitz , and of Pope Pius XII , who mixed with Rome's crowds and prayed with them after Rome's working-class neighbourhood of Quartiere San Lorenzo had been destroyed by bombing. Despite the German occupation, Victor Emmanuel kept refusing to declare war on Germany, saying he needed
2840-555: A villa owned by the Pirzio Biroli family at Brazzacco in order to be close to the front. In May 1941, Victor Emmanuel gave permission to his unpopular cousin, Prince Aimone , to become King of Croatia under the title Tomislav II, in an attempt to get him out of Rome, but Aimone frustrated this ambition by never going to Croatia to receive his crown . During a tour of the new provinces that were annexed to Italy from Yugoslavia, Victor Emmanuel commented that Fascist policies towards
2982-717: A vote by Parliament first, though that had not stopped him from signing declarations of war on Ethiopia, Albania, Great Britain, France, Greece, Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union and the United States, none of which had been sanctioned by Parliament. Under strong pressure from the Allied Control Commission, the king finally declared war on Germany on 8 October 1943. Ultimately, the Badoglio government in Southern Italy raised
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#17328481279043124-446: A wall relief by Claes Oldenburg . In January 1995 the museum opened its current location at 151 Third Street , adjacent to Yerba Buena Gardens in the SOMA district. Mario Botta , a Swiss architect from Canton Ticino , designed the new US$ 60 million facility. SFMOMA made a number of important acquisitions under the direction of David A. Ross (1998–2001), who had been recruited from
3266-405: A work by Antoni Tàpies . Initially, they focused on European and American painting and sculpture of the mid-1940s through early 1960s, purchasing works by European postwar artists such as Jean Fautrier and Tàpies, and American Abstract Expressionists such as Franz Kline and Mark Rothko . They were also among the first patrons of Pop art , purchasing 11 of Robert Rauschenberg ’s “combines” of
3408-745: Is divided between Lugano , Switzerland, and the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles. Giuseppe Panza: Memories of a Collector , an autobiographical perspective on Panza's role as a collector was published by Abbeville Press in 2007. At the Venice Biennale in 2011, artist Barry X Ball installed nine marble sculptures depicting Panza's head in different scales and surfaces at Ca' Rezzonico . Vittorio Emanuele III Victor Emmanuel III (11 November 1869 – 28 December 1947), born Vittorio Emanuele Ferdinando Maria Gennaro di Savoia ,
3550-542: The Guggenheim , acquired, in a combined gift and purchase arrangement, more than 300 Minimalist sculptures and paintings in 1991 and 1992. Some of them were not purchased as physical objects but as Conceptual sculptures to be constructed from site to site. In order to pay for the $ 30 million package, Krens initiated a controversial deaccession plan, selling works by the likes of Wassily Kandinsky , Marc Chagall , and Amedeo Modigliani at Sotheby's in May 1990 for $ 47 million at
3692-682: The Italian Co-Belligerent Army ( Esercito Cobelligerante del Sud ), the Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force ( Aviazione Cobelligerante Italiana ), and the Italian Co-Belligerent Navy ( Marina Cobelligerante del Sud ). All three forces were loyal to the King. Relations with the Allied Control Commission were very strained as the king remained obsessed with protocol, screaming with fury when General Noel Mason-Macfarlane met him wearing shirt sleeves and shorts,
3834-592: The Italo-Turkish War . Giolitti was succeeded by Antonio Salandra , Paolo Boselli , and Vittorio Emanuele Orlando . The First World War brought about Italian victory over the Habsburg Empire and the annexation of the Italian-speaking provinces of Trento and Trieste and the southern part of German-speaking Tirol (Sued-Tirol). For this reason, Victor Emmanuel was labelled the "King of Victory". However,
3976-787: The Mediterranean Sea was not in any real sense Italy's Mare Nostrum . While the Air Force generally did better than the Army or the Navy, it was chronically short of modern aircraft. As Italy's fortunes worsened, the popularity of the King suffered. One coffee-house ditty went as follows: Quando Vittorio era soltanto re Si bevea del buon caffè. Poi divenne Imperatore Se ne sentì solo l'odore. Oggi che è anche Re d'Albania Anche l'odore l' han portato via. E se avremo un'altra vittoria Ci mancherà anche la cicoria. When our Victor
4118-627: The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles , whose founding director Pontus Hultén he had known since 1963 and at which he served as a trustee. The works were acquired for $ 11 million and formed the core of the museum's permanent collection soon after it opened in 1983. In 1994, Panza donated 70 items to MOCA by 10 young, local artists, including major sculptures by internationally known artist Robert Therrien. Spearheaded by Guggenheim's then-director Thomas Krens , who had been in discussion with Panza in 1986 during his tenure at Williams College Museum of Art ,
4260-462: The Peschiera conference , where he defended Italy's strategic decisions. The economic depression which followed World War I gave rise to much extremism among Italy's sorely tried working classes. This caused the country as a whole to become politically unstable. Benito Mussolini , soon to be Italy's Fascist dictator, took advantage of this instability for his rise to power. In 1922, Mussolini led
4402-452: The Queen consort . He was named after his grandfather, Victor Emmanuel II , King of Sardinia and later King of Italy . Unlike his paternal first cousin's son, the 1.98 m (6 ft 6 in) tall Amedeo, 3rd Duke of Aosta , Victor Emmanuel was short of stature even by 19th-century standards, to the point that today he would appear diminutive. From birth until his accession, Victor Emmanuel
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4544-575: The Regio Esercito , Regina Marina and the Regia Aeronautica all took their oaths of loyalty to the king, not Mussolini. The vast majority of the Italian officers in all three services saw Victor Emmanuel as opposed to Mussolini as the principal locus of their loyalty, allowing the king to check decisions by Mussolini that he disapproved of. Italy declared neutrality in September 1939, but Mussolini always made it clear that he wanted to intervene on
4686-591: The Statuto. In effect, this was a motion of no confidence in Mussolini. The following afternoon, Mussolini asked for an audience with the king at Villa Savoia . When Mussolini tried to tell Victor Emmanuel about the Grand Council's vote, Victor Emmanuel abruptly cut him off and dismissed him in favour of Badoglio. He then ordered Mussolini's arrest. Publicly, Victor Emmanuel and Badoglio claimed that Italy would continue
4828-652: The Triple Alliance (albeit it was signed on defensive terms and Italy objected that the Sarajevo assassination did not qualify as aggression). In April 1915, Italy signed the secret Treaty of London committing itself to enter the war on the side of the Triple Entente . Most of the politicians opposed the war, and Italy's Chamber of Deputies forced Prime Minister Antonio Salandra to resign. At this juncture, Victor Emmanuel declined Salandra's resignation and personally made
4970-558: The Whitney Museum in New York, including works by Ellsworth Kelly , Robert Rauschenberg , René Magritte , and Piet Mondrian , as well as Marcel Duchamp ’s iconic Fountain (1917/1964). Those and acquisitions of works by Jasper Johns , Mark Rothko , Francis Bacon , Alexander Calder , Chuck Close and Frank Stella put the institution in the top ranks of American museums of modern art. After three years and $ 140 million building up
5112-577: The prime minister even if the individual in question did not command majority support in the Chamber of Deputies . A shy and somewhat withdrawn individual, the King hated the day-to-day stresses of Italian politics, though the country's chronic political instability forced him to intervene on no fewer than ten occasions between 1900 and 1922 to solve parliamentary crises. When the First World War began, Italy at first remained neutral, despite being part of
5254-513: The squadristi used violence to prevent opposition MPs from entering Parliament and in November 1926, Mussolini arbitrarily declared that all of the opposition MPs had forfeited their seats, which he handed out to Fascists. Despite this blatant violation of the Statuto Albertino , the king remained passive and silent as usual. In 1926, Mussolini had violated the Statuto Albertino by creating
5396-640: The 18-year-old Albanian patriot Vasil Laçi . Later, this attempt was cited by Communist Albania as a sign of the general discontent among the oppressed Albanian population. A second attempt by Dimitri Mikhaliov in Albania gave the Italians an excuse to affirm a possible connection with Greece as a result of the monarch's assent to the Greco-Italian War . Under the terms of the Pact of Steel signed on 22 May 1939, which
5538-502: The 18th-century Villa Menafoglio Litta Panza at Varese outside Milan, where the Panzas installed an ever-changing show. The building has 50,000 square feet (4,600 m) of exhibition space and site-specific works by artists including James Turrell, Robert Irwin and Dan Flavin. Other artists shown in Varese include Ruth Ann Fredenthal, Allan Graham , Ford Beckman, and David Simpson. Panza's archive
5680-537: The 1930s newsreel images of King Victor Emmanuel and Queen Elena evoked applause, sometimes cheering, when played in cinemas, in contrast to the hostile silence shown toward images of Fascist leaders. On 30 March 1938, the Italian Parliament established the rank of First Marshal of the Empire for Victor Emmanuel and Mussolini. This new rank was the highest rank in the Italian military. His equivalence with Mussolini
5822-577: The 1980s, he first tried to do so in his homeland, Italy. After Turin had rejected it on the grounds of its American content, he turned to other international museums. In 1982, plans with Werner Schmalenbach of selling his collection to the Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen failed due to cuts in the museum's budget. Panza then arranged important gift and loan deals that greatly enhanced the collections of several American museums. In 1984, Panza sold 80 abstract Expressionist and pop works to
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5964-773: The Allies in September 1943. In the face of the coming German reprisal ( Operation Achse ), he and the government fled to Brindisi while the Germans established the Italian Social Republic as a puppet state in Northern Italy . Having signed the armistice with the Allies he then declared war on Germany in October. He clashed constantly with Allied command. Under pressure from the Allies, Victor Emmanuel transferred most of his powers to his son in June 1944, effectively ending his involvement in
6106-634: The American people; because Britain was "rotten to the core" and would soon cease to be a great power; and because everything he kept hearing about the massive losses sustained by the Red Army convinced him that Germany would win on the Eastern Front at least. Another excuse used by Victor Emmanuel was that Mussolini was allegedly still popular with the Italian people and that it would offend public opinion if he dismissed Mussolini. The Vatican favoured Italy exiting
6248-573: The Balkans. Mack Smith wrote that these demands were "unrealistic" and caused much time to be wasted in the Lisbon peace talks as the Allies were willing to concede that Victor Emmanuel could keep his throne and rejected all of his other demands. In the meantime, German forces continued to be rushed into Italy. On 8 September 1943, Victor Emmanuel publicly announced an armistice with the Allies . Confusion reigned as Italian forces were left without orders, and
6390-651: The Blackshirts marched past the Quirinal Palace and he lit votive lamps at public ceremonies to honour the Fascist "martyrs" killed fighting against the Socialists and Communists. At the same time, the Crown became so closely identified with Fascism that by the time Victor Emmanuel was able to shake himself loose from it, it was too late to save the monarchy. In what proved to be a prescient speech, Senator Luigi Albertini called
6532-513: The Botta staircase was removed. The expanded building includes a large-scale vertical garden on the third floor, purported to be the biggest public living wall of native plants in San Francisco; the large, free-access Roberts Family Gallery on the ground-floor gallery facing Howard Street , with 25-foot (7.6 m) glass walls that place art on view to passersby; a double-height "white box" space on
6674-462: The Croats and Slovenes were driving them towards rebellion, but chose not to intervene to change the said policies. On 22 June 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union. Mussolini had the king issue a declaration of war, and sent an Italian expeditionary force to the Eastern Front , through Victor Emmanuel was later to claim that he wanted only a "token" force to go to
6816-449: The Fascist regime was becoming very unpopular, but he had decided to keep Mussolini on as a prime minister because there was no replacement for him. Because the king had supported Fascism, he feared that to overthrow the Fascist system would mean the end of the monarchy as the anti-Fascist parties were all republican. During the invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, Victor Emmanuel moved to
6958-404: The Fascist regime. In the summer of 1941, the carabinieri generals told the king that they were prepared to have the carabinieri serve as a strike force for a coup against Mussolini, saying if the war continued, it was bound to cause a revolution that would sweep away both the Fascist regime and the monarchy. Victor Emmanuel rejected this offer, and in September 1941, when Count Ciano told him
7100-581: The Fascist system was destroyed; when the king rejected that course under the grounds that the Fascist Grand Council would never vote against Mussolini, Grandi assured him that it would, saying the majority of the gerarchi were now against Mussolini. Using the Vatican as an intermediary, Victor Emmanuel contacted the British and American governments in June 1943 to ask if they, the Allies, were willing to see
7242-575: The German government suggested that Hitler was intent on seeing the Danzig crisis escalate into war that year. Between 11 and 13 August 1939, the Italian Foreign Minister, Count Galeazzo Ciano , visited Hitler at the Berghof, and learned for the first time that Germany was definitely going to invade Poland later that same summer. Mussolini at first was prepared to follow Germany into war in 1939, but
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#17328481279047384-662: The Germans, who had been expecting this move for some time, quickly disarmed and interned Italian troops and took control in the occupied Balkans, France and the Dodecanese , as well as in Italy itself. Many of the units that did not surrender joined forces with the Allies against the Germans. Fearing a German advance on Rome, Victor Emmanuel and his government fled south to Brindisi . This choice may have been necessary to protect his safety; indeed, Hitler had planned to arrest him shortly after Mussolini's overthrow. Nonetheless, it still came as
7526-558: The Grand Council as a precondition for giving his consent to declaring war. On 31 March 1940, Mussolini submitted to Victor Emmanuel a long memorandum arguing that Italy to achieve its long-sought spazio vitale had to enter the war on the Axis side sometime that year. However, the king remained resolutely opposed to Italy entering the war until late May 1940, much to Mussolini's intense frustration. At one point, Mussolini complained to Ciano that there were two men, namely Victor Emmanuel and Pope Pius XII , who were preventing him from doing
7668-415: The House of Savoy continue after the war. On 19 July 1943, Rome was bombed for the first time in the war, further cementing the Italian people's disillusionment with their once-popular King. When the King visited the bombed areas of Rome, he was loudly booed by his subjects who blamed him for the war, which caused Victor Emmanuel to become worried about the possibility of a revolution which might bring in
7810-444: The Italian elite was his way of trying to avoid making a decision. Moreover, Victor Emmanuel had considerable respect for Mussolini, who he saw as his most able prime minister, and appeared to dread taking on a man whose intelligence was greater than his own. In a conversation with the papal nuncio, the king explained that he could not sign an armistice because he hated the United States as a democracy whose leaders were accountable to
7952-518: The Italian state as illegitimate and that a treaty with the Vatican was necessary. However, when Orlando attempted to open negotiations with the Vatican in 1919, he was blocked by the king who was furious at the way in which the Catholic Church had maintained pro-Austrian neutrality during World War I. Aside from championing the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin , which belonged to the House of Savoy,
8094-532: The Low Countries and France , and as the Wehrmacht continued to advance into France, the king's opposition to Italy entering the war started to weaken by the second half of May 1940. Mussolini argued all through May 1940 that since it was evident that Germany was going to win the war that here was an unparalleled chance for Italy to make major gains at the expense of France and Britain that would allow Italy to become
8236-429: The Rome area armed with heavy weapons, armoured cars, and machine guns. During the "March on Rome", the Fascist squadristi were halted by 400 lightly armed policemen, as the squadristi had no desire to take on the Italian state. The troops were loyal to the King; even Cesare Maria De Vecchi , commander of the Blackshirts , and one of the organisers of the March on Rome, told Mussolini that he would not act against
8378-435: The Soviet Union, rather than the 10 divisions that Mussolini actually sent. In late 1941, Italian East Africa was lost. The loss of Italian East Africa together with the defeats in North Africa and the Balkans caused an immense loss of confidence in Mussolini's ability to lead, and many Fascist gerarchi such as Emilio De Bono and Dino Grandi were hoping by the spring of 1941 that the king might sack him in order to save
8520-603: The United States at the time. The building achieved LEED Gold certification, with 15% energy-cost reduction, 30% water-use reduction, and 20% reduction in wastewater generation. The SFMOMA Board or Trustees is chaired by Robert J. Fisher ; its president is Diana Nelson. Artist Trustees are Tucker Nichols and Carrie Mae Weems . Past Artist Trustees, who normally serve for three years, include (beginning in 2006) Robert Bechtle Larry Sultan , Yves Béhar , Ed Ruscha , Rosana Castrillo Díaz , Jeff Wall , David Huffman , and Julie Mehretu . The SFMOMA web site maintains
8662-418: The United States was a harmless move. The king was pleased by the news of Japan entering the war, believing that with Britain's Asian colonies in danger that this would force the British to redeploy their forces to Asia and might finally allow for the Axis conquest of Egypt. Marshal Enrico Caviglia wrote in his diary that it was "criminal" the way that Victor Emmanuel refused to act against Mussolini despite
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#17328481279048804-409: The Vatican to end the "Roman Question". In 1929, Mussolini, on behalf of the King, signed the Lateran Treaty . The treaty was one of the three agreements made that year between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See . On 7 June 1929, the Lateran Treaty was ratified and the " Roman Question " was settled. The Italian monarchy enjoyed popular support for decades. Foreigners noted how even as late as
8946-409: The abuses of the squadristi , of which the murder of Matteotti was only the most notorious example, and were hoping that he would dismiss Mussolini, saying that one word from the king would be enough to bring down his unpopular prime minister. The newspaper Corriere della Sera in an editorial stated the abuses of the Fascist government such as the murder of Matteotti had now reached such a point that
9088-405: The alternative: socialism and anarchism . Both the spectre of the Russian Revolution and the tragedies of World War I played a large part in these political decisions. Victor Emmanuel always saw the Italian Socialists and Communists as his principal enemies, and felt that Mussolini's dictatorship had saved the existing status quo in Italy. Victor Emmanuel always returned the fascist salute when
9230-419: The arch-conservative Antonio Salandra as well as General Armando Diaz , that it would be better to do a deal with Mussolini. On 1 November 1922, the king reviewed the squadristi as they marched past the Quirinal Palace giving the fascist salute. Victor Emmanuel took no responsibility for appointing Mussolini prime minister, saying he learned from studying history that events were "much more automatic than
9372-481: The basis of the permanent collection. Bender donated more than 1,100 objects to SFMOMA during his lifetime and endowed the museum's first purchase fund. The museum began its second year with an exhibition of works by Henri Matisse . Also in 1936, the museum established its photography collection, becoming one of the first museums to recognize photography as an art form. In 1940, the museum held its first architecture exhibition, Telesis: Space for Living . The museum
9514-675: The biennial SECA Art Award to honor San Francisco Bay Area artists. The museum rose to international prominence under director Henry T. Hopkins (1974–86), adding "Modern" to its name in 1975. In the 1980s, under Hopkins and his successor John R. Lane (1987–1997), SFMOMA established three new curatorial posts: curator of painting and sculpture, curator of architecture and design, and curator of media arts. The positions of director of education and director of photography were elevated to full curatorial roles. At this time SFMOMA took on an active special exhibitions program, both organizing and hosting traveling exhibitions, including major presentations of
9656-477: The birth, rise, and fall of the Fascist regime in Italy . The first fourteen years of Victor Emmanuel's reign were dominated by prime minister Giovanni Giolitti , who focused on industrialization and passed several democratic reforms, such as the introduction of universal male suffrage . In foreign policy, Giolitti's Italy distanced itself from the fellow members of the Triple Alliance (the German Empire and Austria-Hungary ) and colonized Libya following
9798-562: The closure, SFMOMA presented exhibitions and programs at off-site locations around the Bay Area as part of SFMOMA On the Go. In February 2011, the museum launched a Collections Campaign, announcing the acquisition of 195 works including paintings from Jackson Pollock , Willem de Kooning , Jasper Johns, Robert Rauschenberg and Francis Bacon . Also under the auspices of the Collections Campaign, promised gifts of 473 photographs were announced in 2012, including 26 works by Diane Arbus and significant gifts of Japanese photography. In July 2020,
9940-530: The collection is overseen by curators for painting and sculpture; photography; architecture and design; and media arts. SFMOMA's website allows users to browse the museum's permanent collection. The SFMOMA Audio App provides information for select works, keyed by audio stop numbers. SFMOMA's Research Library was established in 1935 and contains extensive resources pertaining to modern and contemporary art, including books, periodicals, artists’ files, photographs and media collections. The Koret Education Center on
10082-452: The collection, Ross resigned when a slow economy forced the museum to keep a tighter rein on its resources. The 2003 exhibition Treasures Of Modern Art: The Legacy Of Phyllis Wattis featured more than 80 of the many works donated by art patron Phyllis Wattis , who died in 2002, including works by Robert Rauschenberg , Piet Mondrian , René Magritte , Marcel Duchamp , Andy Warhol , and Barnett Newman . Under director Neal Benezra, who
10224-587: The country in the face of the growing Italian fascist movement. Strengthened by the economic downturn facing the country, the National Fascist Party led the March on Rome , and Victor Emmanuel appointed Benito Mussolini as prime minister. He remained silent on the domestic political abuses of Fascist Italy , and he accepted the additional crowns of the Emperor of Ethiopia in 1936 and the King of Albania in 1939 as
10366-623: The crown as Emperor of Ethiopia . His decision to do this was not universally accepted. Victor Emmanuel was only able to assume the crown after the Italian Army invaded Ethiopia (Abyssinia) and overthrew Emperor Haile Selassie during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War . Ethiopia was annexed to the Italian Empire . The League of Nations condemned Italy's participation in this war and the Italian claim by right of conquest to Ethiopia
10508-580: The decision for Italy to enter the war. The king possessed the right to do so under the Statuto, which stipulated that ultimate authority for declaring war rested with the crown. Demonstrations in favour of the war were staged in Rome, with 200,000 gathering on 16 May 1915, in the Piazza del Popolo. The corrupt and disorganised war effort, the stunning loss of life suffered by the Royal Italian Army , especially at
10650-500: The dominant power in the Mediterranean. On 1 June 1940, Victor Emmanuel finally gave Mussolini his permission for Italy to enter the war, though the king retained the supreme command while only giving Mussolini power over political and military questions. The delay between the king's permission to enter the war and the declaration of war was caused by Mussolini's demand that he have the powers of supreme command, an attempt to take away
10792-872: The fact that France signed an armistice with Germany on 22 June, followed by another armistice with Italy on 24 June allowed Mussolini to present it as a victory. Victor Emmanuel sharply criticized the terms of the Franco-Italian Armistice , saying he wanted Italy to occupy Tunisia , Corsica , and Nice , though the fact the armistice allowed him to proclaim a victory over France was a source of much pleasure to him. In 1940 and 1941, Italian armies in North Africa and in Greece suffered humiliating defeats. Unlike his opposition over going to war with major powers like France and Britain (who might actually defeat Italy), Victor Emmanuel blessed Mussolini's plans to invade Greece in
10934-458: The fact that he was clearly mismanaging the war. One Italian journalist remembered that by the fall of 1941 he did not know anyone who felt anything other than "contempt" for the king who was unwilling to disassociate himself from Fascism. The British historian Denis Mack Smith wrote that Victor Emmanuel tended to procrastinate when faced with very difficult choices, and his unwillingness to dismiss Mussolini despite mounting pressure from within
11076-460: The fall of 1940, saying he expected the Greeks to collapse as soon as Italy invaded. Through the carabinieri (para-military police), Victor Emmanuel was kept well informed of the state of public opinion and from the autumn of 1940 onward received reports that the war together with the Fascist regime were becoming extremely unpopular with the Italian people. When Mussolini made Marshal Pietro Badoglio
11218-469: The five-story building began in early 1992, with an opening in 1995, the institution's 60th anniversary. At the time of the new building's opening, SFMOMA touted itself as the largest new American art museum of the decade and, with its 50,000 square feet (4,600 m ) of exhibition space, the second-largest single structure in the United States devoted to modern art. (New York's Museum of Modern Art , with 100,000 square feet (9,300 m ) of gallery space,
11360-501: The fourth floor with sophisticated lighting and sound systems; state-of-the-art conservation studios on the seventh and eighth floors; and, on the seventh floor, a long balcony that offers skyline views to the east, toward Salesforce Tower and the Bay Bridge . The expansion facades are clad with lightweight panels made of Fibre-Reinforced Plastic ; upon completion, this was the largest application of composites technology to architecture in
11502-405: The great defeat of Caporetto , and the post–World War I recession turned the King against what he perceived as an inefficient political bourgeoisie . Nevertheless, the King visited the various areas of Northern Italy suffering repeated strikes and mortar hits from elements of the fighting there, and demonstrated considerable courage and concern in personally visiting many people, while his wife,
11644-589: The height of that art boom. In 2008, the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden made an acquisition of thirty-nine works from the Panza collection including multiple pieces by Joseph Kosuth, Robert Irwin, Robert Barry, Hamish Fulton , and On Kawara , among others. That same year, the Albright-Knox Art Gallery acquired 71 artworks by 15 artists, partly as a gift from the Panza family and through funds from
11786-521: The king a "traitor" to Italy by supporting the Fascist regime and warned that the king would one day regret what he had done. Victor Emmanuel was disgusted by what he regarded as the superficiality and frivolity of what he called the "so-called elegant society" of Rome, and as such, the king preferred to spend his time out in the countryside where he went hunting, fishing and reading military history books outside. A taciturn man who felt deeply uncomfortable expressing himself in conversation, Victor Emmanuel
11928-456: The king had both a legal and moral duty to dismiss Mussolini at once and restore the rule of law. During the Matteotti affair, even pro-Fascist politicians like Salandra started to express some doubts about Mussolini after he took responsibility for all the Fascist violence, saying he did not order Matteotti's murder, but he did authorise the violence of the squadristi , making him responsible for
12070-403: The king had little interest in religion. In private Victor Emmanuel regarded the Catholic Church with a jaundiced eye, making remarks about senior clerics as being greedy, cynical and oversexed hypocrites who took advantage of the devout faith of ordinary Italians. In 1926, the king allowed Mussolini to do what he prevented Orlando from doing in 1919, giving permission to open negotiations with
12212-522: The law when Mussolini submitted it to him. By 1928, practically the only check on Mussolini's power was the King's prerogative of dismissing him from office. Even then, this prerogative could only be exercised on the advice of the Fascist Grand Council , a body that only Mussolini could convene. Whatever the circumstances, Victor Emmanuel showed weakness from a position of strength, with dire future consequences for Italy and fatal consequences for
12354-413: The mid-1950s, as well as works by Roy Lichtenstein , Claes Oldenburg , and James Rosenquist . In 1966 the Panzas turned their attention to Minimalist and Conceptual Art. They were among the first to acquire the works of Hanne Darboven , Brice Marden , Robert Morris , Bruce Nauman , Robert Ryman , Richard Serra , James Turrell , Lawrence Weiner , Joseph Kosuth , and many other major artists. In
12496-411: The monarchy itself. Fascism was a force of opposition to left-wing radicalism. This appealed to many people in Italy at the time, and certainly to the King. In many ways, the events from 1922 to 1943 demonstrated that the monarchy and the moneyed class, for different reasons, felt Mussolini and his regime offered an option that, after years of political chaos, was more appealing than what they perceived as
12638-657: The murder of Matteotti. The king affirmed that "the Chamber and the Senate were his eyes and ears", desiring a parliamentary initiative, according to the Statuto Albertino. The knowledge that the king and the Parliament would not dismiss the prime minister led to the Mussolini government winning a vote of no confidence in November 1924 in the chamber of deputies by 314 votes to 6 and in the Senate by 206 votes to 54. The deputies and
12780-643: The museum beginning in 1937, and in 1946 brought in filmmaker Frank Stauffacher to found the Art in Cinema film series, which ran for nine years. The museum continued its expansion into new media with the 1951 launch of a biweekly television program, Art in Your Life , later renamed Discovery , which ran for three years. Morley ended her 23-year tenure as museum director in 1958 and was succeeded by George D. Culler (1958–65) and Gerald Nordland (1966–72). In 1967, SFMOMA inaugurated
12922-494: The museum gained a custodial relationship for the contemporary art collection of Doris and Donald Fisher of Gap Inc. The Fisher Collection includes some 1,100 works from artists including Alexander Calder , Chuck Close , Willem de Kooning , Richard Diebenkorn , Anselm Kiefer , Ellsworth Kelly , Roy Lichtenstein , Brice Marden , Agnes Martin , Gerhard Richter , Richard Serra , Cy Twombly , and Andy Warhol , among many others. The collection will be on loan to SFMOMA for
13064-429: The museum's operations. It offers approximately 142,000 square feet (13,200 m ) of indoor and outdoor gallery space, as well as nearly 15,000 square feet (1,400 m ) of art-filled free-access public space, more than doubling SFMOMA's previous capacity for the presentation of art and providing almost six times as much public space as the pre-expansion building. The soaring "silo" with its Oculus Bridge remained, but
13206-573: The museum's special endowment for art acquisitions. In 2010, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art acquired 25 of the remaining major works of Conceptual and Minimalist art from Panza's collection for an undisclosed price. Part gift from SFMOMA Trustees and part museum purchase, the acquisition included major works by Bruce Nauman , Robert Barry , Joseph Beuys , Hanne Darboven , Douglas Huebler , Joseph Kosuth , and Lawrence Weiner . About 10 per cent of his 2,500-piece collection remains in
13348-493: The number two-man in Fascism, remained republicans, and the king greatly appreciated Mussolini's conversion to monarchism. In private, Mussolini detested Victor Emmanuel as a tedious and tiresomely boring man, whose only interests were military history and his collections of stamps and coins, a man whom Mussolini sneered was "too diminutive for an Italy destined to greatness" (a reference to the king's height). However, Mussolini told
13490-452: The other gerarchi that he needed the king's support and that one day, another fascist revolution would take place "without contraceptives". The King failed to move against the Mussolini regime's abuses of power (including, as early as 1924, the assassination of Giacomo Matteotti and other opposition MPs). During the Matteotti affair of 1924, Sir Ronald Graham, the British ambassador, reported: "His Majesty once told me that he had never had
13632-604: The press, and declared the Fascist Party to be the only legal party in Italy. In December 1925, Mussolini passed a law declaring that he was responsible to the King, not Parliament. Under the Statuto Albertino Italian governments were legally answerable to Parliament, but politically answerable to the monarch. However, it had been a strong constitutional convention since at least the 1860s that they were legally and politically answerable to Parliament. In January 1926,
13774-667: The previous building, allowing SFMOMA to showcase an expanding collection along with the Doris and Donald Fisher Collection of contemporary art. SFMOMA was founded in 1935 under director Grace L. McCann Morley as the San Francisco Museum of Art. For its first sixty years, the museum rented the fourth floor of the Veterans Building on Van Ness Avenue in the Civic Center . A gift of 36 artworks from Albert M. Bender , including The Flower Carrier (1935) by Diego Rivera , established
13916-579: The project: Adjaye Associates ; Diller Scofidio + Renfro ; Foster + Partners ; and Norwegian architecture firm Snøhetta . In July 2010 the museum selected Snøhetta to design the expansion. On May 14, 2016, following a three-year-long closure, the museum re-opened to the public. The approximately 235,000-square-foot (21,800 m ) expansion joined the existing building with a new addition spanning from Minna to Howard Streets. The expanded building includes seven levels dedicated to art and public programming, and three floors housing enhanced support space for
14058-445: The queen, took turns with nurses in caring for Italy's wounded. It was at this time, the period of World War I, that the King enjoyed the genuine affection of the majority of his people. Still, during the war he received about 400 threatening letters from people of every social background, mostly members of the working class . On 8 November 1917, he met with the prime ministers of Britain ( Lloyd George ) and France ( Paul Painlevé ) at
14200-513: The reception desks and coat-check desk. In 2009, SFMOMA opened its 14,400 sq ft (1,340 m ) rooftop sculpture garden and pavilion, located above the museum's parking structure and situated across an enclosed pedestrian bridge from the fifth-floor galleries. Following an invitational competition held in 2006, the garden was designed by Jensen Architects in collaboration with Conger Moss Guillard Landscape Architecture. It features two open-air spaces for plants and sculpture and between them
14342-508: The scapegoat for the failure of the invasion of Greece and sacked him as Chief of the General Staff in December 1940, Badoglio appealed to the king for help. Victor Emmanuel refused to help Badoglio, saying that Mussolini would manage the situation just always as he had in the past. In January 1941, the king admitted to his aide-de-camp, General Paolo Puntoni , that war was not going well and
14484-522: The second floor offers resources for educators, and hosts events and talks. Larger events are held in the theater on the first floor SFMOMA has published numerous books, catalogues, and digital publications to document and provide context for exhibitions and the museum’s collection, and to showcase the scholarship of curators. Recent books include Tauba Auerbach ― S v Z (2020), Dawoud Bey: Two American Projects (2020), Joan Mitchell (2021), and Rafael Lozano-Hemmer: Unstable Presence (2021). This gallery
14626-444: The senators were unwilling to risk their lives by voting for a no-confidence motion as the king had made it clear that he would not dismiss Mussolini even if the motion did carry the votes of the majority. Victor Emmanuel remained silent during the winter of 1925–26 when Mussolini dropped all pretence of democracy. During this time, the king signed without protest laws that eliminated freedom of speech and assembly, abolished freedom of
14768-529: The senior curator of painting and sculpture, Gary Garrels, resigned after using the term " reverse discrimination " during an all-staff Zoom meeting, which caused an uproar. Looking back on the incident in 2023, and quoting Garrel's resignation letter in full, the International Committee for Museums and Collections of Modern Art (CiMAM) called his resignation "a radical and bewildering gesture by an advocate for diversity." In 2022, Christopher Bedford
14910-589: The side of Germany provided that this would not strain Italy's resources too much (the costs of the wars in Ethiopia and Spain had pushed Italy to the verge of bankruptcy by 1939). On 18 March 1940, Mussolini met Hitler at a summit at the Brenner Pass and promised him that Italy would soon enter the war. Victor Emmanuel had powerful doubts about the wisdom of going to war, and at one point in March 1940 hinted to Ciano that he
15052-486: The soaring light well and stairway...Outside, rising above the nearly windowless, striated brick facade, is the giant black-and-white striped silo of the central well, sliced on the bias, topped by a 130-foot-high elliptical skylight that has already become the museum's trademark. Botta's interior design is marked by alternating bands of polished and flame-finished black granite on the floor, ground-level walls, and column bases, and by bands of natural and black-stained wood on
15194-511: The standards of the Savoy monarchy, he was a man committed to constitutional government. Even though his father was killed by an anarchist , the new king showed a commitment to constitutional freedoms. Although parliamentary rule had been firmly established in Italy, the Statuto Albertino , or constitution, granted the king considerable residual powers. For instance, he had the right to appoint
15336-537: The summer of 1943. Besides rejecting unconditional surrender as "truly monstrous", Victor Emmanuel wanted from the Allies a guarantee that he would keep his throne; a promise that Italian colonial empire in Libya and the Horn of Africa would be restored; that Italy would keep the part of Yugoslavia that had been annexed by Mussolini; and finally the Allies should promise not to invade the Italian mainland, and instead invade France and
15478-607: The ten divisions of the " Italian Army in Russia " ( Armata Italiana in Russia , or Armir) were crushed in a side-action in the Battle of Stalingrad . By the middle of 1943, the last Italian forces in Tunisia had surrendered and Sicily had been taken by the Allies . Hampered by lack of fuel as well as several serious defeats, the Italian Navy spent most of the war confined to port. As a result,
15620-401: The things that he wanted to do, leading to state he wanted to "blow" the Crown and Catholic Church "up to the skies". Victor Emmanuel was a cautious man, and he always consulted all of the available advisors before making a decision, in this case, the senior officers of the armed forces who informed him of Italy's military deficiencies. On 10 May 1940, Germany launched a major offensive into
15762-602: The titles of Emperor of Ethiopia and King of Albania, recognizing the previous holders of those titles as legitimate. The crown of the King of the Albanians had been assumed by Victor Emmanuel in 1939 when Italian forces invaded the nearly defenceless monarchy across the Adriatic Sea and caused King Zog I to flee. In 1941, while in Tirana , the King escaped an assassination attempt by
15904-583: The usurped Ethiopian and Albanian crowns in favour of the legitimate monarchs of those states, claiming that the Fascist-dominated Parliament had given him these titles and he could only renounce them if parliament voted on the matter. San Francisco Museum of Modern Art The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art ( SFMOMA ) is a modern and contemporary art museum and nonprofit organization located in San Francisco , California . SFMOMA
16046-464: The war and in the government of Italy. Victor Emmanuel officially abdicated his throne in 1946 in favour of his son, who became King Umberto II . Victor Emmanuel hoped to strengthen support for the monarchy against an ultimately successful referendum to abolish it. After the 1946 Italian institutional referendum established the Republic, Victor Emmanuel went into exile to Alexandria , where he died and
16188-512: The war as a member of the Axis . Privately, they both began negotiating with the Allies for an armistice. The king was advised by his generals to sign an immediate armistice, since German troops in Italy were still outnumbered by Italian troops. But Victor Emmanuel was unwilling to accept the Allied demand for unconditional surrender, and as a result, the secret armistice talks in Lisbon were dragged out over
16330-401: The war by 1943, but papal diplomats told their American counterparts that the king was "weak, indecisive and excessively devoted to Mussolini". In the summer of 1942, Grandi had a private audience with Victor Emmanuel, where he asked him to dismiss Mussolini and sign an armistice with the Allies before the Fascist regime was destroyed only to be told to "trust your king" and "stop speaking like
16472-499: The war was lost, blasted him for his "defeatism", saying he still believed in Mussolini. On 11 December 1941, Victor Emmanuel rather glibly agreed to Mussolini's request to declare war on the United States . Failing to anticipate the American "Europe First" strategy, the king believed that the Americans would follow an "Asia First" strategy of focusing all their efforts against Japan in revenge for Pearl Harbor, and that declaring war on
16614-445: The war would soon turn around for the Axis powers because it had to. Even Victor Emmanuel was forced to concede that Mussolini had taken a turn "for the worse", which he blamed on "that woman" as he called Mussolini's mistress, Clara Petacci . On 15 May 1943, the king sent Mussolini a letter saying Italy should sign an armistice and exit the war. On 4 June 1943, Grandi saw the king and told him that he had to dismiss Mussolini before
16756-427: The wishes of the monarch. De Vecchi went to the Quirinal Palace to meet the king and assured him that the Fascists would never fight against the king. It was at this point that the Fascist leader considered leaving Italy altogether. But then, minutes before midnight, he received a telegram from the King inviting him to Rome. Facta had the decree for martial law prepared after the cabinet had unanimously endorsed it, and
16898-482: The work of Jeff Koons , Sigmar Polke , and Willem de Kooning . In 1992, Harry W. "Hunk" Anderson and Mary Margaret "Moo" Anderson "transformed SFMOMA'S collection of American Pop art in one fell swoop," building on prior gifts of works by Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns with additional works dating from the early 1960s to the early 1980s, including paintings by Jim Dine , Roy Lichtenstein , James Rosenquist , Andy Warhol , and Robert Indiana , as well as
17040-498: The world for modern and contemporary art. The museum was founded in 1935 with galleries in the Veterans Building in Civic Center . In 1995, the museum opened in its Mario Botta -designed home in the SoMa district . On May 14, 2016, following a three-year-long closure for a major expansion project by Snøhetta architects, the museum re-opened to the public with more than double the gallery space and almost six times as much public space as
17182-538: Was King of Italy from 29 July 1900 until his abdication on 9 May 1946. A member of the House of Savoy , he also reigned as Emperor of Ethiopia (1936–41) and King of the Albanians (1939–43) following the Italian invasions of Ethiopia and Albania. During his reign of nearly 46 years, which began after the assassination of his father Umberto I , the Kingdom of Italy became involved in two world wars . His reign also encompassed
17324-561: Was an offensive and defensive alliance with Germany, Italy would have been obliged to follow Germany into war in 1939. As the Pact of Steel was signed, the German Foreign Minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop , told Mussolini that there would be no war until 1942 or 1943, but the Italian ambassador in Berlin, Baron Bernardo Attolico , warned Rome that the information he was hearing from sources in
17466-424: Was an opportunist who was well known for his sycophancy towards those in power, which led the king to choose him as Mussolini's successor as he knew that Badoglio would do anything to have power whereas Caviglia had a reputation as a man of principle and honour. The king felt that Badoglio as prime minister would obey any royal orders whereas he was not so certain that Caviglia would do the same. On 15 July 1943, in
17608-400: Was blocked by Victor Emmanuel. At a meeting with Count Ciano on 24 August 1939, the king stated that "we are absolutely in no condition to wage war"; the state of the Regio Esercito was "pitiful"; and since Italy was not ready for war, it should stay out of the coming conflict, at least until it was clear who was winning. More importantly, Victor Emmanuel stated that as the king of Italy he
17750-417: Was built on a 59,000-square-foot (5,500 m ) parking lot on Third Street between Mission and Howard streets. The South-of-Market site, near Moscone Convention Center , was targeted through an agreement between the museum, the redevelopment agency, and the development firm of Olympia & York . Land was provided by the agency and developer, but the rest of the museum was privately funded. Construction of
17892-506: Was buried the following year in St. Catherine's Cathedral, Alexandria . In 2017, his remains were returned to rest in Italy following an agreement between presidents Sergio Mattarella and Abdel Fattah el-Sisi . Victor Emmanuel was also called Sciaboletta ("little sabre") by some Italians. Victor Emmanuel III was born in Naples in the Kingdom of Italy to King Umberto I and Margherita of Savoy ,
18034-500: Was considering dismissing Mussolini as Ciano wrote in his diary: "the King feels that it may become necessary for him to intervene at any moment to give things a different direction; he is prepared to do this and to do it quickly". Victor Emmanuel hoped that a vote against Italy entering the war would be registered in the Fascist Grand Council, as he knew that the gerarchi Cesare Maria De Vecchi , Italo Balbo and Emilio De Bono were all anti-war, but he refused to insist upon calling
18176-448: Was content to let Mussolini rule Italy as he regarded Il Duce as a "strong man" who saved him the trouble from meeting various politicians as he had done before 1922. Victor Emmanuel was anti-clerical, being greatly embittered by the refusal of the Catholic Church to recognize Rome as the capital of Italy, but he realized that as long as the Catholic Church remained opposed to the Italian state, that many Italians would continue to regard
18318-405: Was killed especially shocked Italian public opinion, who were much offended by the gratuitous cruelty of the squadristi killers. Given the widespread public revulsion against Mussolini generated by the murder of Matteotti, the king could have dismissed Mussolini in 1924 with a minimum of trouble and broad public support. Orlando told the king that the majority of the Italian people were tired of
18460-423: Was known as " The Prince of Naples ". On 24 October 1896, he married Princess Elena of Montenegro . On 29 July 1900, at the age of 30, Victor Emmanuel acceded to the throne upon his father's assassination. The only advice that his father Umberto ever gave his heir was "Remember: to be a king, all you need to know is how to sign your name, read a newspaper, and mount a horse." His early years showed evidence that, by
18602-411: Was named director, succeeding Neal Benezra. The museum's announcement of his selection noted that " DEI has been at the center of Bedford’s work: he has made evident a natural synergy between policy and program, ensuring that diversity, equity and inclusion is implemented across all endeavors." In the summer of 1988, architects Mario Botta , Thomas Beeby and Frank Gehry were announced as finalists in
18744-631: Was obliged to move to a temporary facility on Post Street in March 1945 to make way for the United Nations Conference on International Organization ; following the signing of the United Nations Charter at Herbst Theatre in the Veterans Building , the museum returned to its original location in July. Later that year, the museum presented Jackson Pollock 's first solo museum exhibition. Founding director Grace Morley held film screenings at
18886-451: Was one of the few officers of the Regio Esercito who kept his distance from the Fascist regime, he was unacceptable to Victor Emmanuel who wanted an officer who was committed to upholding Fascism, which led him to choose Badoglio who had loyally served Mussolini and committed all sorts of atrocities in Ethiopia, but who had a grudge against Il Duce for making him the scapegoat for the failed invasion of Greece in 1940. In addition, Badoglio
19028-510: Was plain King, Coffee was a common thing. When an Emperor he was made, Coffee's odour it did fade. Since he got Albania's throne, Even the odour has flown. And if we have another victory We're also going to lose our chicory . By early 1943, Mussolini was so psychologically shattered by the successive Italian defeats that he was so depressed and drugged out as to be almost catatonic at times, staring blankly into space for hours while high on various drugs and mumbling incoherently that
19170-644: Was recruited from the Art Institute of Chicago in 2002, SFMOMA achieved an increase in both visitor numbers and membership while continuing to build its collection. In 2005 the museum announced the promised gift of nearly 800 photographs to the Prentice and Paul Sack Photographic Trust at SFMOMA from the Sacks' private collection. The museum saw record attendance in 2008 with the exhibition Frida Kahlo , which drew more than 400,000 visitors during its three-month run. In 2009,
19312-471: Was rejected by some major powers, such as the United States and the Soviet Union , but was accepted by Great Britain and France in 1938. In 1943, Italy's possession of Ethiopia came to an end. The term of the last acting Viceroy of Italian East Africa , including Eritrea and Italian Somaliland , ended on 27 November 1941 with surrender to the allies. In November 1943 Victor Emmanuel renounced his claims to
19454-586: Was seen by the king as offensive and a clear sign that the ultimate goal of the fascist was to get rid of him. As popular as Victor Emmanuel was, several of his decisions proved fatal to the monarchy. Among these decisions was his assumption of the crowns of Ethiopia and Albania and his public silence when Mussolini's Fascist government issued German-style racial purity laws . Prior to his government's invasion of Ethiopia, Victor Emmanuel travelled in 1934 to Italian Somaliland , where he celebrated his 65th birthday on 11 November. In 1936, Victor Emmanuel assumed
19596-468: Was the first museum on the West Coast devoted solely to 20th-century art , and has built an internationally recognized collection with over 33,000 works of painting, sculpture, photography, architecture, design, and media arts. The collection is displayed in 170,000 square feet (16,000 m ) of exhibition space, making the museum one of the largest in the United States overall, and one of the largest in
19738-567: Was the supreme commander-in-chief, and he wanted to be involved in any "supreme decisions", which in effect was claiming a right to veto any decision Mussolini might make about going to war. On 25 August, Ciano wrote in his diary that he informed a "furiously warlike" Mussolini that the king was against Italy going to war in 1939, forcing Il Duce to concede that Italy would have to declare neutrality. Unlike in Germany where officers from 1934 onward took an oath of personal loyalty to Hitler, officers of
19880-479: Was then the largest single structure, while the nearly 80,000 combined square feet of Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles put it in second place). Michael Kimmelman in The New York Times reported that the new Botta building consists of galleries rising around a central, skylighted atrium. The overall structure, roughly speaking, is a series of stepped-back blocks with a cylinder in the middle containing
20022-439: Was very surprised when he learned about 9 am on 28 October that the king had refused to sign it. When Facta protested that the king was overruling the entire cabinet, he was told that this was the royal prerogative and the king did not wish to use force against the Fascists. The only politician Victor Emmanuel consulted during the crisis was Antonio Salandra , who advised him to appoint Mussolini prime minister and stated he
20164-505: Was willing to serve in a cabinet headed by Mussolini. By midday on 30 October, Mussolini had been appointed President of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister), at the age of 39, with no previous experience of office, and with only 32 Fascist deputies in the Chamber . Though the King claimed in his memoirs that it was the fear of a civil war that motivated his actions, it would seem that he received some 'alternative' advice, possibly from
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