Francesco Pricolo (30 January 1891 – 14 October 1980) was an Italian aviator . He was undersecretary of Italian Minister of Air Force (currently merged into the Minister of Defence ) and the Chief of staff of the Italian Regia Aeronautica during World War II (1939–1941).
102-526: The Franco-Italian Armistice , or Armistice of Villa Incisa , signed on 24 June 1940, in effect from 25 June, ended the brief Italian invasion of France during the Second World War . On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on France while the latter was already on the verge of defeat in its war with Germany . After the fall of Paris on 14 June, the French requested an armistice from Germany and, realising that
204-575: A free port at Djibouti , control of the Addis Ababa–Djibouti railway , Italian participation in the management of Suez Canal Company , some form of French-Italian condominium over French Tunisia , and the preservation of Italian culture on Corsica with no French assimilation of the people. The French refused the demands, believing the true Italian intention was the territorial acquisition of Nice , Corsica, Tunisia, and Djibouti. On 30 November 1938, Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano addressed
306-518: A "rushed war" ( guerre brusquée ), meaning that no offensive against Italy was being contemplated with France's dwindling military resources. Late in the day, Mussolini addressed a crowd from the Palazzo Venezia , in Rome. He declared that he had taken the country to war to rectify maritime frontiers. Mussolini's exact reason for entering the war has been much debated, although the consensus of historians
408-710: A captain in the French military intelligence, the Deuxième Bureau , he was forewarned about the Italian declaration of war on 6 June, when he met Major Navale, an Italian intelligence officer, on the Pont Saint-Louis to negotiate an exchange of captured spies. When Paillole refused Navale's proposal, the major warned him that they only had four days to work something out before war would be declared, although nothing much would happen near Menton before 19/20 June. By mid-1940 Germany had revised its earlier preference for Italy as
510-408: A few thousand dead. Two days later, the army general staff ( Stato Maggiore del Regio Esercito ) ordered the army group to strengthen its anti-tank defences. No attack was planned or ordered for the following day when the declaration of war would be issued. Army Group West: Marshal Graziani, as army chief of staff, went to the front to take over the general direction of the war after 10 June. He
612-595: A further 28 bombers, 38 torpedo bombers and 14 fighters with Aéronavale (naval aviation) and three fighters and 30 other aircraft on Corsica. Italian air reconnaissance had put the number of French aircraft at over 2,000 and that of the British at over 620, in the Mediterranean. SIM also estimated the strength of the Armée des Alpes at twelve divisions, although at most it had six by June. Armée des Alpes , 10 May: During
714-418: A further two bombed Genoa . The Italians failed to detect the raid until it was over. The aerodrome at Caselle misidentified the bombers as their own aircraft from Udine and lit up the landing strip for them. At Turin, the air raid alarm was not raised until the unmolested Whitleys had left. The results of the action were unimpressive: fifteen civilians killed and no industrial targets damaged. On 15 June,
816-480: A good document in hand". The armistice established a modest demilitarised zone 50 km (31 mi) deep on the French side of the border, thus eliminating the Alpine Line. The actual Italian occupation zone was no more than what had been occupied up to the armistice. It contained 832 km (321 sq mi) and 28,500 inhabitants, which included the city of Menton and its 21,700 inhabitants. Italy retained
918-551: A low priority for new equipment and the quality of training was mediocre. The Armée des Alpes had 86 sections d'éclaireurs-skieurs (SES), platoons of 35 to 40 men. These were elite troops trained and equipped for mountain warfare , skiing and mountain climbing. On 31 May, the Anglo-French Supreme War Council came to the decision that, if Italy joined the war, aerial attacks should commence against industrial and oil-related targets in northern Italy. The RAF
1020-488: A machine gun and protected by light armour unable to prevent machine gun rounds from penetrating. They were obsolete by 1940, and have been described by Italian historians as "useless". According to one study, 70% of engine failure was due to inadequate driver training. The same issue extended to the artillery arm. Only 246 pieces, out of the army's entire arsenal of 7,970 guns, were modern. The rest were up to forty years old and included many taken as reparations, in 1918, from
1122-712: A month of war, Poland was defeated. A period of inaction, called the Phoney War , then followed between the Allies and Germany. On 10 May 1940, this inactivity ended as Germany began Fall Gelb (Case Yellow) against France and the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands and Luxembourg . On 13 May, the Germans fought the Battle of Sedan and crossed the Meuse. The Germans rapidly encircled
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#17328487784401224-463: A native Ethiopian army "to help conquer" Anglo-Egyptian Sudan . The war also marked a shift towards a more aggressive Italian foreign policy and also "exposed [the] vulnerabilities" of the British and French. This in turn created the opportunity Mussolini needed to begin to realize his imperial goals. In 1936, the Spanish Civil War broke out. From the beginning, Italy played an important role in
1326-462: A reconciliation of German-Italian relations following years of a previously strained relationship, resulting in the signing of a treaty of mutual interest in October 1936. Mussolini referred to this treaty as the creation of a Berlin-Rome Axis, which Europe would revolve around. The treaty was the result of increasing dependence on German coal following League of Nations sanctions, similar policies between
1428-422: A secondary advance along the coast. The Italian offensive penetrated a few kilometres into French territory against strong resistance but stalled before its primary objectives could be attained, the coastal town of Menton , situated directly on the Italian border, being the most significant conquest. On the evening of 24 June, an armistice was signed at Rome . It came into effect just after midnight on 25 June, at
1530-481: A series of reforms that radically altered the army. By 1940, all Italian divisions had been converted from triangular divisions into binary divisions. Rather than having three infantry regiments, the divisions were composed of two, bringing their total strength to around 7,000 men and therefore smaller than their French counterparts. The number of artillery guns of the divisional artillery regiment had also been reduced. Pariani's reforms also promoted frontal assaults to
1632-553: A subsequent night raid. Aerial combats also occurred over Tunisia, with each side claiming kills. On 17 June, some CANT Z.506B floatplanes of the 4 Zona Aerea in southeastern Italy joined some SM.79s in bombing Bizerte in Tunisia. The last Italian aerial operations against France were undertaken on 19 June by aircraft of the 2 and 3 Squadre Aeree and Sardinia against targets in Corsica and Tunisia. On 21 June, nine Italian bombers attacked
1734-481: A war ally. The pending collapse of France might have been affected by any diversion of German military resources to support a new Alpine front. From a political and economic perspective, Italy was useful as a sympathetic neutral and her entry into the war might complicate any peace negotiations with Britain and France. On 10 June, Ciano informed his ambassadors in London and Paris that a declaration of war would be handed to
1836-411: A war would not take place for several years. However, despite the Italian impression, the pact made no reference to such a period of peace and the Germans proceeded with their plans to invade Poland . In September 1939, Britain imposed a selective blockade of Italy. Coal from Germany, which was shipped out of Rotterdam , was declared contraband. The Germans promised to keep up shipments by train, over
1938-466: Is that it was opportunistic and imperialistic. On 26 May General René Olry had informed the prefect of the town of Menton, the largest on the Franco-Italian border, that the town would be evacuated at night on his order. He gave the order on 3 June and the following two nights the town was evacuated under the code name "Exécutez Mandrin". On the evening of 10/11 June, after the declaration of war,
2040-632: The Commissione Italiana d'Armistizio con la Francia (CIAF), was set up in Turin to oversee French compliance. During the late 1920s, the Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini spoke with increasing urgency about imperial expansion, arguing that Italy needed an outlet for its " surplus population " and that it would therefore be in the best interests of other countries to aid in this expansion. The immediate aspiration of
2142-574: The Austro-Hungarian Army . The Regia Aeronautica (Italian Air Force) had the third largest fleet of bombers in the world when it entered the war. A potent symbol of Fascist modernisation, it was the most prestigious of Italy's service branches, as well as the most recently battle-hardened, having participated in the Spanish Civil War. The 1 Squadra Aerea in northern Italy, the most powerful and well-equipped of Italy's squadre aeree ,
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#17328487784402244-597: The Chamber of Deputies on the "natural aspirations of the Italian people" and was met with shouts of "Nice! Corsica! Savoy! Tunisia! Djibouti! Malta!" Later that day, Mussolini addressed the Fascist Grand Council "on the subject of what he called the immediate goals of 'Fascist dynamism'." These were Albania; Tunisia; Corsica, an integral part of France; the Ticino , a canton of Switzerland ; and all "French territory east of
2346-604: The Fortified Sector of the Maritime Alps , the terrain was less rugged and presented the best possible invasion route for the Italians. In this area, 56 kilometres (35 mi) long between the coast and the more impenetrable mountains, the French constructed 13 artillery bunkers and 12 infantry forts. Along the border, in front of the above main fortifications, numerous blockhouses and casemates had been constructed. However, by
2448-762: The Macchi C. 202 , which was intended to modernize the Regia Aeronautica, whose aircraft, although numerous, were technically unable to compete with the German Messerschmitt Bf 109s and the British Supermarine Spitfires . The big problem to be solved was the engine, because the Fiat A.38 engine did not provide the required power. In January 1940, Pricolo decided to cancel the Fiat A.38 engine project, and ordered
2550-408: The siege of Malta that lasted until November 1942. The first strike that morning involved 55 bombers, but Malta's anti-aircraft defences reported an attack of between five and twenty aircraft, suggesting that most bombers failed to find their target. The afternoon strike involved 38 aircraft. On 12 June some SM.79s from Sardinia attacked French targets in northern Tunisia and, on 13 June 33 SM.79s of
2652-466: The "Protocols of the Armistice Conditions between France and Italy" were officially published in Rome. It was his view that it was not German pressure that led him to back down. Indeed, Hitler had wanted the Italians to claim even more territory from the defeated French. Pietro Badoglio , however, had warned Mussolini that a larger occupation of southern France would require fifteen divisions. On
2754-547: The 1930s to draw Mussolini away from an alliance with Germany but the rapid German successes from 1938 to 1940 made Italian intervention on the German side inevitable by May 1940. Italy declared war on France and Britain on the evening of 10 June, to take effect just after midnight. The two sides exchanged air raids on the first day of the war, but little transpired on the Alpine front since France and Italy had defensive strategies. There
2856-668: The 1930s, the French had constructed a series of fortifications—the Maginot Line —along their border with Germany. This line had been designed to deter a German invasion across the Franco-German border and funnel an attack into Belgium, which could then be met by the best divisions of the French Army. Thus, any future war would take place outside of French territory avoiding a repeat of the First World War . In addition to this force,
2958-569: The 2 Squadra Aerea bombed the Tunisian aerodromes. That day Fiat BR.20s and CR.42s of the 1 Squadra Aerea in northern Italy made the first attacks on metropolitan France, bombing the airfields of the ZOAA, while the 3 Squadra Aerea in central Italy targeted shipping of France's Mediterranean coast. Immediately after the declaration of war, Haddock Force began to prepare for a bombing run. The French, in order to prevent retaliatory Italian raids, blocked
3060-536: The Air Force. He commanded the Italian air forces in the first 18 months of the war until 15 November 1941, when he had to leave office both because he was in serious conflict with General Cavallero and because he was not liked by the Germans who held him responsible for the disappointing Italian air operations. In a report in Berlin of 8 October 1941, Rommel insisted that Albert Kesselring be sent to Italy as commander of
3162-713: The Alpine front was defended by the Sixth Army (General Antoine Besson ) with eleven divisions and 550,000 men; ample to defend a well-fortified frontier. In October the Sixth Army was reduced to the level of an army detachment ( détachement d'armée ), renamed the Army of the Alps ( Armée des Alpes ) and placed under the command of General René Olry. A plan for a "general offensive on the Alpine front" ( offensive d'ensemble sur le front des Alpes ), in
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3264-481: The Alps ( Zone d'Opérations Aériennes des Alpes , ZOAA), with its headquarters at Valence-Chabeuil . Italian army intelligence, the Servizio Informazioni Militari (SIM), overestimated the number of aircraft still available in the Alpine and Mediterranean theatres by 10 June, when many had been withdrawn to face the German invasion; ZOAA had 70 fighters, 40 bombers and 20 reconnaissance craft, with
3366-491: The Alps, and Britain offered to supply all of Italy's needs in exchange for Italian armaments. The Italians could not agree to the latter terms without shattering their alliance with Germany. On 2 February 1940, however, Mussolini approved a draft contract with the Royal Air Force to provide 400 Caproni aircraft; yet he scrapped the deal on 8 February. The British intelligence officer, Francis Rodd , believed that Mussolini
3468-423: The British and French ambassadors in Rome at 1630 hours, local time. When Ciano presented the declaration, the French ambassador, André François-Poncet , was alarmed, while his British counterpart Percy Loraine , who received it at 1645 hours, "did not bat an eyelid", as Ciano recorded in his diary. The declaration of war took effect at midnight ( UTC+01:00 ) on 10/11 June. Italy's other embassies were informed of
3570-664: The French destroyer Le Malin , but scored no hits. On the night of 22/23 June, twelve Savoia-Marchetti SM.81s out of Rhodes made the first bombing run against the British naval base in Alexandria . One bomber ran out of fuel and was forced to ditch on the return leg. Francesco Pricolo In 1909 he enlisted as a volunteer in Regio Esercito , he enrolled in the Royal Academy of Artillery and Engineers, subsequently attending Scuola di applicazione di artiglieria in Turin . He
3672-610: The French finally permitted Haddock Force to operate. During the evening, eight Wellingtons took off to attack industrial targets in Genoa. Due to thunderstorms and problems locating their target, only one aircraft attacked the city during the early hours of the next day while the remainder returned to base. On the night of 16/17 June, Haddock Force made their final sorties. Nine Wellington bombers took off to bomb targets in Italy, although only five managed to find their objectives. Following which, due to
3774-615: The French had constructed a series of fortifications known as Alpine Line , or the Little Maginot Line. In contrast to the Maginot Line facing the German border, the fortifications in the Alps were not a continuous chain of forts. In the Fortified Sector of the Dauphiné , several passes allowed access through the Alps between Italy and France. To defend these passes, the French had constructed nine artillery and ten infantry bunkers . In
3876-558: The French were ordered from their casernes to their defensive positions. French engineers destroyed the transportation and communication links across the border with Italy using fifty-three tons of explosives. For the remainder of the short war with Italy, the French took no offensive action. As early as 14 May, the French Ministry of the Interior had given orders to arrest Italian citizens known or suspected of being anti-French in
3978-559: The German forces in the Mediterranean, and plans made for the conquest of Malta and Bizerte, Rommel further added: "Warn Comando Supremo against the fickleness of the Italian general Pricolo". In the month of November, when the situation on the Libyan front deteriorated due to the British offensive , the new fighter MC. 202 began to arrive from production lines. While the High Command demanded all
4080-427: The German military was demonstrating . The issues also extended to the equipment used. Overall, the Italian troops were poorly equipped and such equipment was inferior to that in use by the French. After the invasion had begun, a circular advised that troops were to be billeted in private homes where possible because of a shortage of tent flies. The vast majority of Italy's tanks were L3/35 tankettes , mounting only
4182-441: The Germans would not allow them to continue the war against their Italian allies, also sent an armistice request to Italy, whose forces had not yet advanced. Fearing that the war would end before Italy had achieved any of its aims, Prime Minister Benito Mussolini ordered a full-scale invasion across the Alps to begin on 21 June. The Franco-German armistice was signed on the evening of the 22 June, but would not come into force until
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4284-575: The Indian Ocean through the Sudan and Abyssinia, or to the Atlantic by way of French North Africa". As early as September 1938, the Italian military had drawn up plans to invade Albania. On 7 April 1939, Italian forces landed in the country and within three days had occupied the majority of the country. Albania represented a territory Italy could acquire for "'living space' to ease its overpopulation" as well as
4386-522: The Italians occupied most of southeastern France and Corsica and invaded Tunisia . On 17 June, the day after he transmitted a formal request for an armistice to the German government, French Foreign Minister Paul Baudoin handed to the Papal nuncio Valerio Valeri a note that said: "The French government, headed by Marshal Pétain, requests that the Holy See transmit to the Italian government as quickly as possible
4488-578: The Italians signed their own armistice. Their troops having advanced only a few kilometres, the Italians abandoned their major war aims and signed the armistice on 24 June. It came into effect early the next morning. It established a small occupation zone and an Italian Armistice Commission with France ( Commissione Italiana d'Armistizio con la Francia , CIAF) in Turin to oversee French compliance. Armistice commissions were also established for French North Africa and French Somaliland . The armistice remained in force until November 1942, when during Case Anton
4590-619: The River Var", including Nice, but not Savoy . Beginning in 1939 Mussolini often voiced his contention that Italy required uncontested access to the world's oceans and shipping lanes to ensure its national sovereignty. On 4 February 1939, Mussolini addressed the Grand Council in a closed session. He delivered a long speech on international affairs and the goals of his foreign policy, "which bears comparison with Hitler's notorious disposition, minuted by Colonel Hossbach ". He began by claiming that
4692-469: The Via Cassia. It lasted only twenty-five minutes, during which Roatta read out Italy's proposed terms, Huntziger requested a recess to confer with his government and Ciano adjourned the meeting until the next day. During the adjournment, Hitler informed Mussolini that he thought the Italian demands too light, and he proposed linking up the German and Italian occupation zones. Roatta convinced Mussolini that it
4794-403: The airfields there. The most intense air-to-air combat of the campaign took place over southern France on 15 June, when Italian BR.20s and CR.42 engaged French D.520s and MB.151s . A BR.20 and several CR.42s were lost, and some French aircraft were downed. On 17 June, the Italians bombed the centre of Marseille, killing 143 and wounding 136. On 21 June they bombed the port in a daylight raid and
4896-462: The allies off against each other; they "flattered the Germans [and] belittled the Italian war effort". Unlike the Franco-German armistice talks, the Franco-Italian negotiations would be genuine. At 1500 hours on 23 June, the French delegation, headed by General Charles Huntziger , who had signed the German armistice the previous day, landed in Rome aboard three German aircraft. The French negotiators were
4998-477: The bars of her Mediterranean prison and Gibraltar and Suez as the walls." Fascist foreign policy took for granted that the democracies—Britain and France—would someday need to be faced down. Through armed conquest Italian North Africa and Italian East Africa —separated by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan—would be linked, and the Mediterranean prison destroyed. Then, Italy would be able to march "either to
5100-442: The basis for lasting relations between our two countries in the interest of Europe and of civilization." Badoglio responded, "I hope France will have a resurgence; it is a great nation with a great history, and I am certain that it will have a great future. From one soldier to another, I sincerely hope so." Mussolini remarked that the agreement was "more a political than a military armistice after only fifteen days of war—but it gives us
5202-432: The blockade. Despite French misgivings, Britain rejected concessions to Italy so as not to "create an impression of weakness". Germany supplied Italy with about one million tons of coal a month beginning in the spring of 1940, an amount that even exceeded Mussolini's demand of August 1939 that Italy receive six million tons of coal for its first twelve months of war. On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland . Following
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#17328487784405304-429: The clause calling for the repatriation to Italy of political refugees (like the socialist Pietro Nenni ). Badoglio consulted Mussolini, he agreed. After signing, Huntziger said to Badoglio, "Marshal, in the present, infinitely painful circumstances, the French delegation is comforted by the sincere hope that the peace which will follow shortly will allow France to begin the task of reconstruction and renewal and will create
5406-576: The conflict. Their military contribution was so vast, that it played a decisive role in the victory of the Nationalist forces led by Francisco Franco . Mussolini had engaged in "a full-scale external war" due to the insinuation of future Spanish subservience to the Italian Empire, and as a way of placing the country on a war footing and creating "a warrior culture". The aftermath of the war in Ethiopia saw
5508-740: The creation of assembly lines to produce the DB 601 , the German engine of the Messerschmitt Bf 109, under license from Daimler-Benz, at the Alfa Romeo factory in Milan. This engine, mounted on the Macchi C.200 with a completely redesigned fuselage but unchanged wings and tail, gave rise to the Macchi C 202, whose prototype first took off in Lonate Pozzolo on 10 August 1940. This biographical article related to
5610-503: The declaration shortly before midnight. Commenting on the declaration of war, François-Poncet called it "a dagger blow to man who has already fallen", and this occasioned United States President Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's famous remark that "the hand that held the dagger has struck it into the back of its neighbor". François-Poncet and the French military attaché in Rome, General Henri Parisot , declared that France would not fight
5712-620: The declaration. In Nice, over 5,000 Italians reported within three days. In June 1940, only five Alpine passes between France and Italy were practicable for motor vehicles: the Little Saint Bernard Pass , the Mont Cenis , the Col de Montgenèvre , the Maddalena Pass (Col de Larche) and the Col de Tende . The only other routes were the coast road and mule trails. Prior to September 1939,
5814-473: The deteriorating situation in France, the 950 men of Haddock Force were withdrawn by ship from Marseille; their equipment and stores were abandoned. British bombers reportedly dropped leaflets over Rome saying: "France has nothing against you. Drop your arms and France will do the same." "Women of Italy! Your sons and husbands and sweethearts have not left you to defend their country. They suffer death to satisfy
5916-526: The dissident Croat Ante Pavelić . A war with Yugoslavia was considered likely by the end of April. On 26 May, Mussolini informed Marshals Pietro Badoglio , chief of the Supreme General Staff, and Italo Balbo that he intended to join the German war against Britain and France, so to be able to sit at the peace table "when the world is to be apportioned" following an Axis victory. The two marshals unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Mussolini that this
6018-516: The entrance to the valleys and with their artillery arranged to hit targets inside the border in the event of an invasion. They were not prepared to assault French fortifications, and their deployment did not change prior to June 1940. These troops formed the 1st and 4th armies, which were under the command of the Italian Crown Prince Umberto of Savoy of Army Group West ( Gruppo Armate Ovest ). The chief of staff of Army Group West
6120-439: The evening of 21 June, Ambassador Dino Alfieri in Berlin transmitted the German armistice terms to Rome. According to Ciano, "under these [mild] conditions, Mussolini is not prepared to make territorial demands ... and [will] wait for the peace conference to make all our formal demands." He added that Mussolini wished to delay the meeting with the French in the hopes that General Gambara would take Nice. The French had tried to play
6222-449: The event of war with Italy, had been worked out in August 1938 at the insistence of Generals Gaston Billotte and Maurice Gamelin ; the army was deployed for offensive operations in September 1939. Olry was ordered not to engage Italian military forces unless fired upon. By December 1939, all mobile troops had been stripped from the Armée des Alpes , moved north to the main front against Germany, and his general staff much reduced. Olry
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#17328487784406324-415: The event of war. Immediately after the declaration of war, the French authorities put up posters in all the towns near the Italian border ordering all Italian citizens to report to the local police by 15 June. Those who reported were asked to sign a declaration of loyalty that entailed possible future military service. The response was impressive: a majority of Italians reported, and almost all willingly signed
6426-401: The exclusion of other doctrines. Further, army front commanders were forbidden to communicate directly with their aeronautical and naval counterparts, rendering inter-service cooperation almost impossible. Marshal Rodolfo Graziani had complained that due to the lack of motor vehicles, the Italian army would be unable to undertake mobile warfare as had been envisaged let alone on the levels
6528-412: The face of the German advance. Over 600 aircraft had been assembled in French North Africa by 22 June, when General Charles Noguès , commander of French forces in that theatre, requested permission to undertake offensive operations against Italy or Libya and was initially refused. On 15 June, the 3 Squadra Aerea sent some SM.79s and G.50s to bomb Corsica and, on 16 June, some Breda Ba.88s to strafe
6630-424: The foothold needed to launch other expansionist conflicts in the Balkans. On 22 May 1939, Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel joining both countries in a military alliance. The pact was the culmination of German-Italian relations from 1936 and was not defensive in nature. Rather, the pact was designed for a "joint war against France and Britain", although the Italian hierarchy held the understanding that such
6732-568: The freedom of a country is proportional to the strength of its navy. This was followed by "the familiar lament that Italy was a prisoner in the Mediterranean". He called Corsica, Tunisia, Malta , and Cyprus "the bars of this prison", and described Gibraltar and Suez as the prison guards. To break British control, her bases on Cyprus, Gibraltar, Malta, and in Egypt (controlling the Suez Canal ) would have to be neutralized. On 31 March, Mussolini stated that "Italy will not truly be an independent nation so long as she has Corsica, Bizerta , Malta as
6834-472: The heels of the enemy; audacious; daring; rushing after", were quickly contradicted by Graziani. Graziani kept all the minutes of his staff meeting during June 1940, in order to absolve himself and condemn both subordinates and superiors should the offensive fail, as he expected it would. In the first air raids of Italy's war, Savoia-Marchetti SM.79s from the 2 Squadra Aerea (Sicily and Pantelleria) under fighter escort twice struck Malta on 11 June, beginning
6936-542: The insight to start the development of torpedo bombers, which was long opposed by the top leadership of the Air Force and Navy, convinced that it was an "expensive toy". He took to heart the transformation of the SM 79 into a torpedo bomber version, and did everything he could to persuade the managers of the Whitehead factory in Fiume to cancel a German order of submarine torpedoes and to instead produce 80 torpedoes to mount on these airplanes, making SM 79 torpedo bombers operational in August 1940. Pricolo also worked to build
7038-477: The interwar years and 1939, the strength of the Italian military had dramatically fluctuated due to waves of mobilization and demobilization. By the time Italy entered the war, over 1.5 million men had been mobilized. The Royal Italian Army had formed 73 divisions out of this influx of men. However, only 19 of these divisions were complete and fully combat-ready. A further 32 were in various stages of being formed and could be used for combat if needed, while
7140-460: The last major engagement of the Battle of France . The Italian entry into the war widened its scope considerably in Africa and the Mediterranean Sea . The goal of the Italian leader, Benito Mussolini , was the elimination of Anglo-French domination in the Mediterranean, the reclamation of historically Italian territory ( Italia irredenta ) and the expansion of Italian influence over the Balkans and in Africa. France and Britain tried during
7242-422: The naval bases of Toulon, Bizerte, Ajaccio and Oran were also to be demilitarised. Italian invasion of France Luxembourg The Netherlands Belgium France Britain 1941–1943 1944–1945 Germany Strategic campaigns The Italian invasion of France (10–25 June 1940), also called the Battle of the Alps , was the first major Italian engagement of World War II and
7344-524: The northern Allied armies. On 27 May, Anglo-French forces trapped in the north began the Dunkirk evacuation , abandoning their heavy equipment in the process. Following the Dunkirk evacuation, the Germans continued their offensive towards Paris with Fall Rot (Case Red). With over 60 divisions, compared to the remaining 40 French divisions in the north, the Germans were able to breach the French defensive line along
7446-574: The note it has also transmitted through the Spanish ambassador to the German government. It also requests that he convey to the Italian government its desire to find together the basis of a lasting peace between the two countries." That same morning, Mussolini received word from Hitler that France had asked Germany for an armistice, and he went to meet Hitler at Munich, charging General Roatta, Admiral Raffaele de Courten and Air Brigadier Egisto Perino with drafting Italy's demands. Ciano wrote in his diary about
7548-574: The outbreak of the war some of the Little Maginot Line's positions had yet to be completed and overall the fortifications were smaller and weaker than those in the main Maginot Line. Italy had a series of fortifications along its entire land border: the Alpine Wall ( Vallo Alpino ). By 1939 the section facing France, the Occidental Front, had 460 complete opere (works, like French ouvrages ) with 133 artillery pieces. As Mussolini prepared to enter
7650-690: The outside edges of its European sphere of influence. Although it was not among his publicly proclaimed aims, Mussolini wished to challenge the supremacy of Britain and France in the Mediterranean Sea, which was considered strategically vital, since the Mediterranean was Italy's only conduit to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans . In 1935, Italy initiated the Second Italo-Ethiopian War , "a nineteenth-century colonial campaign waged out of due time". The campaign gave rise to optimistic talk on raising
7752-675: The planes that are available to be brought to the front, Pricolo ordered the MC 202s to remain in the warehouses, so as not to send them into combat with untrained personnel and without sand filters. This decision, even though motivated by technical reasons, undermined Pricolo in his post of the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, because he was blamed for having delayed the delivery of new aircraft and therefore disobeyed higher orders (14 November 1941). Put on leave on 15 August 1945, he retired in May 1954. General Pricolo had
7854-508: The pride of one man." "Victorious or defeated you will have hunger, misery and slavery." From bases in French North Africa , the Armée de l'Air bombed Cagliari , Trapani (22 June) and Palermo (23 June). Twenty civilians were killed at Trapani and 25 at Palermo; these were the most severe French bombings of Italian soil. These sites were strategically irrelevant and many of the bombers had recently been withdrawn from France in
7956-742: The regime was political "hegemony in the Mediterranean–Danubian–Balkan region", more grandiosely Mussolini imagined the conquest "of an empire stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Strait of Hormuz ". Balkan and Mediterranean hegemony was predicated by ancient Roman dominance in the same regions. There were designs for a protectorate over Albania and for the annexation of Dalmatia , as well as economic and military control of Yugoslavia and Greece . The regime also sought to establish protective patron–client relationships with Austria , Hungary , Romania and Bulgaria , which all lay on
8058-460: The rest were not ready for battle. Italy was prepared, in the event of war, for a defensive stance on both the Italian and Yugoslav fronts, for defence against French aggression and for an offensive against Yugoslavia while France remained neutral. There was no planning for an offensive against France beyond mobilisation. On the French border, 300,000 men—in 18 infantry and four alpine divisions—were massed. These were deployed defensively, mainly at
8160-588: The ridiculous demand some of his staff suggested: the entire French fleet, all its colonies, all its locomotives, the Mona Lisa . The final list of demands actually presented to the French were mild. Italy dropped its claims to the Rhône Valley , Corsica , Tunisia , and French Somaliland . According to Romain Rainero, Mussolini still clung to the goals laid out in his meeting with Hitler on 18 June as late as 21 June, when
8262-763: The right to interfere in French territory as far as the Rhône, but it did not occupy this area until after the Allied invasion of French North Africa in November 1942. In addition, demilitarised zones were established in the French colonies in Africa. Italy was granted the right to use the port of Djibouti in French Somaliland with all its equipment, along with the French section of the Djibouti–Addis Ababa railway . More importantly,
8364-557: The river Somme by 6 June. Two days later, Parisians could hear distant gunfire. On 9 June, the Germans entered Rouen , in Upper Normandy . The following day, the French Government abandoned Paris, declaring it an open city , and fled to Bordeaux . On 23 January 1940, Mussolini remarked that "even today we could undertake and sustain a ... parallel war", having in mind a war with Yugoslavia, since on that day Ciano had met with
8466-617: The runways and prevented the Wellingtons from taking off. This did not deter the British. On the night of 11 June, 36 RAF Whitleys took off from bases in Yorkshire in order to bomb targets in Turin , the industrial heart of Italy. The bombers refuelled in the Channel Islands , before proceeding. Most were forced to divert over the Alps because of icing conditions and turbulence. During the early hours of 12 June, ten bombers reached Turin, and
8568-450: The same time as the armistice with Germany (signed 22 June). Italy was allowed to occupy the territory it had captured in the brief fighting, a demilitarised zone was created on the French side of the border, Italian economic control was extended into south-east France up to the Rhône and Italy obtained certain rights and concessions in certain French colonies . An armistice control commission,
8670-599: The same who had met with the Germans: Huntziger, General Maurice Parisot, a peacetime friend of Badoglio's, General Jean Bergeret, Admiral Maurice Le Luc, Charles Rochat of the Foreign Ministry and Léon Nöel, former ambassador to Poland. Italy was represented by Badoglio, Cavagnari, Ciano, Roatta and Francesco Pricolo . The first meeting of the two delegations took place at 1930 hours at the Villa Incisa all'Olgiata on
8772-576: The two countries over the conflict in Spain, and German sympathy towards Italy following European backlash to the Ethiopian War. The aftermath of the treaty saw the increasing ties between Italy and Germany, and Mussolini falling under Adolf Hitler 's influence from which "he never escaped". In October 1938, in the aftermath of the Munich Agreement , Italy demanded concessions from France. These included
8874-517: The war, construction work continued round the clock on the entire wall, including the section fronting Germany. The Alpine Wall was garrisoned by the Guardia alla Frontiera (GAF), and the Occidental Front was divided into ten sectors and one autonomous subsector. When Italy entered the war, sectors I and V were placed under the command of XV Army Corps, sectors II, III and IV under II Army Corps and sectors VI, VII, VIII, IX and X under I Army Corps. During
8976-479: Was General Emilio Battisti . The 7th Army was held in reserve at Turin, and a further ten mobile divisions, the Army of the Po (later Sixth Army), were made available. However, most of these latter divisions were still in the process of mobilizing and not yet ready for battle. Supporting Army Group West was 3,000 pieces of artillery and two independent armoured regiments. After the campaign opened, further tank support
9078-632: Was a mere proclamation and not a royal decree and lacked legal force. Technically, it also restricted Mussolini's command to forces in combat but this distinction was unworkable. On 4 June, Mussolini issued a charter sketching out a new responsibility for the Supreme General Staff ( Stato Maggiore Generale , or Stamage for short): to transform his strategic directives into actual orders for the service chiefs. On 7 June Superesercito (the Italian army supreme command) ordered Army Group West to maintain "absolute defensive behaviour both on land and [in the] air", casting in doubt Mussolini's comment to Badoglio about
9180-806: Was appointed second lieutenant of the Engineers in August 1911. He was assigned to the dirigibles Battalion and with it he took part in the Italian-Turkish war of 1910–1911. He participated in the First World War in the rank of captain of the Engineers, obtained in September 1915. He obtained the airship pilot's license in December 1915, and that of commander in August 1917. During the war he took part in more than sixty missions on board of various airships. For his courage he
9282-546: Was chief of staff of the 2nd Territorial Air Zone (2a Zona Aerea Territoriale). Between 1931 and 1932 he commanded the 1st Air Bombardment Brigade (1ª Brigata Aerea da Bombardamento). He was Deputy Chief of Staff of the Regia Aeronautica between December 1932 and October 1933, when he was assigned to command the 2nd Territorial Air Zone (Z.A.T.), in July 1938 he became commander of the 2nd Air Corps (2ª Squadra aerea). On 10 November 1939 he became undersecretary of state and chief of staff of
9384-542: Was decorated with two silver and two bronze medals. Immediately after the war he was assigned command of the airship Norge , he was also made second-in-command of the Accademia Aeronautica and head of the secretariat of the Commander General of Regia Aeronautica. In 1926 he commanded the airship Wing, in 1928 he was promoted to colonel, from 1 January to 30 May 1928 he commanded the 21st Wing and until 1929 he
9486-414: Was joined by the under-secretary of war, General Ubaldo Soddu , who had no operational command, but who served as Mussolini's connection to the front and was appointed deputy chief of the Supreme General Staff on 13 June. Graziani's adjutant, General Mario Roatta , remained in Rome to transmit the orders of Mussolini—restrained somewhat by Marshal Badoglio—to the front. Many of Roatta's orders, like "be on
9588-494: Was left with three Alpine divisions, some Alpine battalions, the Alpine fortress demibrigades , and two Alpine chasseurs demibrigades with 175,000–185,000 men. Only 85,000 men were based on the frontier: 81,000 in 46 battalions faced Italy, supported by 65 groups of artillery and 4,500 faced Switzerland, supported by three groups of artillery. Olry also had series-B reserve divisions: second-line troops, typically comprising reservists in their forties. Series-B divisions were
9690-435: Was not a wise course of action, arguing that the Italian military was unprepared, divisions were not up to strength, troops lacked equipment, the empire was equally unprepared, and the merchant fleet was scattered across the globe. On 5 June, Mussolini told Badoglio, "I only need a few thousand dead so that I can sit at the peace conference as a man who has fought". According to the post-war memoires of Paul Paillole , in 1940
9792-417: Was persuaded to reverse policy by German pressure in the week of 2–8 February, a view shared by the British ambassador in Rome, Percy Loraine . On 1 March, the British announced that they would block all coal exports from Rotterdam to Italy. Italian coal was one of the most discussed issues in diplomatic circles in the spring of 1940. In April Britain began strengthening their Mediterranean Fleet to enforce
9894-531: Was promised the use of two airfields, north of Marseille as advanced bases for bombers flying from the United Kingdom. The headquarters of No. 71 Wing arrived at Marseille on 3 June as Haddock Force . It comprised Whitley and Wellington bombers from No. 10 , 51 , 58 , 77 , 102 and 149 Squadrons . The French held back part of the Armée de l'Air in case Italy entered the war, as Aerial Operations Zone of
9996-502: Was provided by the 133rd Armoured Division Littorio bringing the total number of tanks deployed to around 200. The Littorio had received seventy of the new type M11/39 medium tanks shortly before the declaration of war. Despite the numerical superiority, the Italian military was plagued by numerous issues. During the 1930s, the army had developed an operational doctrine of rapid mobile advances backed by heavy artillery support. Starting in 1938, General Alberto Pariani initiated
10098-411: Was refused. On 29 May, Mussolini convinced King Victor Emmanuel III , who was constitutionally the supreme commander of the Italian armed forces, to delegate his authority to Mussolini and on 4 June Badoglio was already referring to him as supreme commander. On 11 June the king issued a proclamation to all troops, naming Mussolini "supreme commander of the armed forces operating on all fronts". This
10200-466: Was responsible for supporting operations on the Alpine front. Italian aerial defences were weak. As early as August 1939 Italy had requested from Germany 150 batteries of 88-mm anti-aircraft (AA) guns . The request was renewed in March 1940, but declined on 8 June. On 13 June, Mussolini offered to send one Italian armoured division to serve on the German front in France in exchange for 50 AA batteries. The offer
10302-513: Was some skirmishing between patrols and the French forts of the Ligne Alpine exchanged fire with their Italian counterparts of the Vallo Alpino . On 17 June, France announced that it would seek an armistice with Germany. On 21 June, with a Franco-German armistice about to be signed, the Italians launched a general offensive along the Alpine front, the main attack coming in the northern sector and
10404-419: Was too late to change the demands. At 1915 hours on 24 June, at the Villa Incisa, after receiving his government's permission, General Huntziger signed the armistice on behalf of the French and Marshal Badoglio for the Italians signed the armistice. Both armistices came into effect at thirty-five minutes past midnight (0035 hours) on 25 June. Just minutes before the signing, Huntziger had asked Badoglio to strike
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