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102-685: Pannonia was a province of the Roman Empire. Pannonia or Pannonian may also refer to: Pannonia In the Early Iron Age , Transdanubia was inhabited by the Pannonians or Pannonii, a collection of Illyrian tribes. The Celts invaded in the Late Iron Age and Gallo-Roman historian Pompeius Trogus writes that the Celts met with heavy resistance from the locals and were not able to overrun

204-571: A border zone. Under his reign, the placement of garrison and the main lines of commerce became permanent. The creation of Roman Dacia had a great effect on Pannonia. In Trajan's Dacian Wars , the Iazyges allied with the Romans, seeking to retain Oltenia where they were expelled by Decebalus. A brief confrontation in 107 was resolved Hadrian , then-governor of Pannonia Inferior and it may have been agreed that

306-666: A couple of Dacian toponyms in south Poland in the Upper Vistula (Polish: Wisla) river basin: Susudava and Setidava (with a manuscript variant Getidava ). This could have been an "echo" of Burebista's expansion. It seems that this northern expansion of the Dacian language, as far as the Vistula river, lasted until AD 170–180 when the migration of the Vandal Hasdingi pushed out this northern Dacian group. This Dacian group, possibly

408-555: A decisive victory over the Goths. Since at that time Romans were still occupying Roman Dacia it is assumed that the Goths didn't cross the Danube from the Roman province. The Goths who survived their defeat didn't even attempt to escape through Dacia, but through Thrace . At the boundaries of Roman Dacia , Carpi ( Free Dacians ) were still strong enough to sustain five battles in eight years against

510-458: A new fort ( Constantiana Daphne ) was built, and ancient roads were repaired in Oltenia . The Lower Danube again became the empire's northern boundary in 369 at the latest, when Emperor Valens met Athanaric —the head of the Goths—in a boat in the middle of the river because the latter had taken an oath "never to set foot on Roman soil". Although Eastern Roman emperors made annual payments to

612-714: A part of the mountains), afterwards broadens out towards the north as far as the Tyregetae ; but I cannot tell the precise boundaries″ On this basis, Lengyel and Radan (1980), Hoddinott (1981) and Mountain (1998) consider that the Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisza river prior to the rise of the Celtic Boii . The hold of the Dacians between the Danube and the Tisza was tenuous. However,

714-555: A praetorian legate with a single legion as the garrison; after Marcus Aurelius , it was under a consular legate, but still with only one legion. The frontier on the Danube was protected by the establishment of the two colonies Aelia Mursia and Aelia Aquincum by Hadrian . Under Diocletian and his successors, a fourfold division of the country was made: Diocletian also moved parts of today's Slovenia out of Pannonia and incorporated them in Noricum . In 324 AD, Constantine I enlarged

816-460: A result of which the military emphasis shifted to the Danube frontier. At the end of 85 or the beginning of 86, the reemerging Dacians under Decebalus raided Moesia , killing its governor and eradicating a legion. After a brief stay, Domitian left Cornelius Fuscus to deal with the situation. After clearing the province of raiders, Fuscus undertook a disastrous campaign and lost his life (86). Finally, in 88, Tettius Julianus defeated Decebalus and

918-401: A short time. Pannonia had sanctuaries for Jupiter , Juno and Minerva , official deities of empire, and also for old Celtic deities. In Aquincum there was one for the mother goddess. The imperial cult was also present. In addition, Judaism and eastern mystery cults also appeared, the latter centered around Mithra , Isis , Anubis and Serapis . Christianity began to spread inside

1020-527: A third campaign over the Danube at about. This campaign was smaller, and its leader, Tigidius Perennis , achieved a victory. Another victorious expedition was conducted in 188. During the Year of the Five Emperors (193), no attack was made on Pannonia. According to Herodian , Septimius Severus ( r.  193–211 ) calmed the barbarian tribes via negotiations before marching off his troops to Italy and gaining

1122-523: A tribal confederacy, which was united only by charismatic leadership in both military-political and ideological-religious domains. At the beginning of the 2nd century BC, under the rule of Rubobostes , a Dacian king in present-day Transylvania , the Dacians' power in the Carpathian basin increased after they defeated the Celts , who previously held power in the region. A kingdom of Dacia also existed as early as

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1224-607: A village in Thracia , of unknown location. Thermi-daua , a town in Dalmatia . Probably a Grecized form of *Germidava . Pulpu-deva , (Phillipopolis) today Plovdiv in Bulgaria . Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisa river prior to the rise of the Celtic Boii and again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians under the king Burebista. It seems likely that the Dacian state arose as

1326-716: The Bastarnae (at the Danube Delta ) to break into Italy and subdue them on the way. Despite Philip's defeat at the hands of the Romans in 197 BC and the failure of the Bastarnae, in this time the Dardani's power crumbled under the pressure from the Macedonians and Scordisci. Finally, Perseus annihilated them, giving way to hundred years of Scordisci hegemony in the Balkans . During this time,

1428-717: The Bellum Batonianum , Tiberius finally defeated all peoples between the Danube and the Adriatic Sea. No Illyrian resistance is known after this, not due to the natives' compliance with the new status quo , but due to their extreme exhaustion. The eligible Pannonian youth were conscripted and commanded to other provinces. The communities taking part in the uprising were afterward relocated and organized into civitates under military supervision. The military occupation of Pannonia may have been carried out in gradual steps. The Romans felt it necessary to resettle certain tribes to

1530-848: The Black Sea to the river Tisza . During that period, the Getae and Dacians conquered a wider territory and Dacia extended from the Middle Danube to the Black Sea littoral (between Apollonia and Pontic Olbia ) and from the Northern Carpathians to the Balkan Mountains. After the death of Burebista in 44 BCE, his Kingdom quickly unraveled, but the Dacians remained a significant enough force to frequently make incursions into Roman territory. Strabo, in his Geography written around AD 20, says: ″As for

1632-508: The Costoboci / Lipița culture , is associated by Gudmund Schütte with towns having the specific Dacian language ending " dava " i.e. Setidava . After the Marcomannic Wars (AD 166–180), Dacian groups from outside Roman Dacia had been set in motion. So too were the 12,000 Dacians "from the neighbourhood of Roman Dacia sent away from their own country". Their native country could have been

1734-508: The Dniester River . Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. Before 300, the Romans erected small forts at Dierna and in other places on the northern bank of the Danube in modern-day Banat. In their wider region, Roman coins from the period—mostly of bronze—have been found. The Huns destroyed Drobeta and Sucidava in the 440s, but the forts were restored under Emperor Justinian I (527–565). Eastern Roman coins from

1836-624: The Drava River didn't participate in nor this, nor the subsequent fights. In 35 BC, Octavian led a campaign against the Iapydes and the Pannonians, in which he captured Siscia in a month-long siege and occupied a large part of the Sava River valley. This was in accordance with Caesar's plan of creating a base for an invasion of Dacia, not realized due to his assassination . However, Octavian only used

1938-509: The Flavian emperors continually moved them to the border. This way they were prevented from interfering in domestic policy , while the conquests were already pacified. Systematic circulation of money in the region situated north of the Drava shows that by this time Roman civilization had firmly taken root there. Domitian 's ( r.  81–96 ) emperorship saw expensive wars with the barbarians, as

2040-623: The Goths highly endangered Rome's clients, who wanted the Empire to give its lands to settlement and extend its protection over the tribes. Rome was unwilling to grant these requests. The Romans may not have been aware of the dangerous situation at the start of the Parthian war of Lucius Verus because they sent a whole legion and many vexillationes away from Pannonia. It is thanks to the diplomatic efforts made by regional governors that tensions were eased until

2142-753: The Rhine and another one under Tiberius crossing the Danube at Carnuntum . Before witnessing any result, Tiberius had to rush back in 6 AD and face a new uprising. The unfolding Bellum Batonianum lasted for three years. The Breuci (under Bato the Breucian ) and Daesitiates (under Bato the Daesitiate and Pinnes ) took the leading role, while the tribes north of the Drava stayed out again. The insurgents attempted to invade Italy and Macedonia , but due to their lack of success they united to besiege Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia). There, Caecina Severus defeated

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2244-623: The hoax of the "Dacian threat" as a pretense to gain control over a large amount of land in the Second Triumvirate . In 15 BC, the future-emperor Tiberius defeated the Scordisci, forcing them to become allies. This was in response to Pannonian and Scordisci incursions the previous year. The following events were part of the Roman Empire 's efforts to reach the Danube and are sometimes known thematically as Bellum Pannonicum . In 14 BC,

2346-653: The southern part of Germany beyond the Albis , the portion which is just contiguous to that river is occupied by the Suevi ; then immediately adjoining this is the land of the Getae , which, though narrow at first, stretching as it does along the Ister [ Danube ] on its southern side and on the opposite side along the mountain-side of the Hercynian Forest (for the land of the Getae also embraces

2448-757: The 270s. There is no evidence that they were invaded in the following decades. Towns, including Apulum and Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa , and the surrounding areas continued to be inhabited but the urban areas diminished. The existence of local Christian communities can be assumed in Porolissum , Potaissa and other settlements. On the other hand, evidence – mainly pottery with " Chi - rho " (Χ-Ρ) signs and other Christian symbols – is "shadowy and poorly understood", according to archaeologists Haynes and Hanson. Urns found in late 3rd-century cemeteries at Bezid , Mediaş , and in other Transylvanian settlements had clear analogies in sites east of

2550-861: The 6th century. The native settlements consisted of pagi (cantons) containing a number of vici (villages), the majority of the large towns being of Roman origin. The cities and towns in Pannonia were: Now in Austria: Now in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Now in Croatia: Now in Hungary: Now in Serbia: Now in Slovakia: Now in Slovenia: The country was fairly productive, especially after

2652-598: The 7th century. In 790s, it was invaded by the Franks , who used the name "Pannonia" to designate the newly formed frontier province, the March of Pannonia . The term Pannonia was also used for Slavic polity like Lower Pannonia that was vassal to the Frankish Empire . Though through roman influence, a dialect of Latin now called Pannonian Latin developed in the region, the several major political shifts would see it extinct around

2754-583: The Barbaricum and the line of the limes was stabilized. The Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD) passed with peace in Pannonia. Flavianus declared for Vespasian and led his legions to Italy against Vitellius . Vespasian ( r.  69 – 79 AD ) invested greatly in the construction of the limes . Discarding the Augustan strategy where the legions' role was with maintaining order in their provinces,

2856-631: The Breucian delivered Pinnes to the Romans, becoming a vassal king of his tribe. However, the revolt flared up once again as the Daesitiates captured and executed Bato the Breucian, and persuaded his people to continue the resistance. Silvanus reconquered them and ousted Bato the Daesitiate into the Dinaric Alps , where he laid down arms in 9 AD. Illyricum was divided into Dalmatia (initially called Illyricum Superius) and Pannonia (initially Illyricum Inferius) in 8 or 9 AD. According to Suetonius , with

2958-609: The Carpathians, suggesting that the Carpians were the first new arrivals in the former province from the neighboring regions. Other Carpian groups, pressured by the Goths, also departed from their homeland and sought refuge in the Roman Empire around 300. Nevertheless, " Carpo-Dacians " were listed among the peoples "mixed with the Huns" as late as 379. The Sarmatians of the Banat were allies of

3060-619: The Carpi, who had then possessed themselves of Dacia and Moesia". Even so, the Germanic and Celtic kingdoms, particularly the Gothic tribes , slowly moved toward the Dacian borders, and within a generation were making assaults on the province. Ultimately, the Goths succeeded in dislodging the Romans and restoring the "independence" of Dacia following Emperor Aurelian 's withdrawal, in 275. In AD 268–269, at Naissus , Claudius II (Gothicus Maximus) obtained

3162-471: The Dacians and the Getae was formed under the rule of Burebista in 82 BC and lasted until the Roman conquest in AD 106. As a result of the wars with the Roman Empire , after the conquest of Dacia, the population was dispersed, and the capital city, Sarmizegetusa Regia , was destroyed by the Romans. However, the Romans built a settlement bearing the same name, Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetuza 40 km away, to serve as

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3264-567: The Dacians became Romanised (see also Origin of Romanians ). In AD 183, war broke out in Dacia: few details are available, but it appears two future contenders for the throne of emperor Commodus , Clodius Albinus and Pescennius Niger , both distinguished themselves in the campaign. According to Lactantius , the Roman emperor Decius (AD 249–251) had to restore Roman Dacia from the Carpo-Dacians of Zosimus "having undertaken an expedition against

3366-416: The Dacians effectively independent. Decebalus was given the status of "king client to Rome", receiving military instructors, craftsmen and money from Rome. To Rome, Domitian brought Italian peasants in Dacian clothing because he couldn't take slaves in the war. To increase the glory of his reign, restore the finances of Rome, and end a treaty perceived as humiliating, Trajan resolved on the conquest of Dacia,

3468-607: The Danube and the Hercynian Forest as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnutum and the plains and level country of the German frontiers there are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges, while the Dacians whom they have driven out hold the mountains and forests as far as the river Theiss". Starting with AD 85, Dacia was once again reunified under King Decebalus . Following an incursion into Roman Moesia , which resulted in

3570-705: The Danube. According to the Posidonius 's record of the Cimbri migration (preserved by Strabo), they were first repulsed by the Boii, then by the Scordisci, and then by the Taurisci towards the Helvetii . This describes the balance of power in the region. In the early 1st century BC, the Dacians emerged as a new dominant power. While their hold on the area between the Danube and the Tisza river

3672-457: The Danubian Germans again under Nerva ( r.  96–98 ). Between 103 and 107, Trajan ( r.  98–117 ) executed the division of the province into Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior . This allowed the Empire to better combat the radically different Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. While Superior had most urbanized areas and a shorter frontier with three legions, Inferior contained one municipium and one legion, virtually being

3774-407: The Goths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted to Rome. In celebration of this victory Constantine took the title Gothicus Maximus and claimed the subjugated territory as the new province of Gothia. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over

3876-446: The Iazyges to make peace. In the same year, the land of the Danubian Germans was occupied by a force Cassius Dio claims to be 40,000 men—the number of soldiers stationed in Pannonia Inferior and Pannonia Superior combined. Control over tribes was taken over by prefects. Valerius Maximianus , born in Pannonia, was an important general here. Any possible plans with the creation of two new provinces—Marcomannia and Sarmatia—were aborted after

3978-419: The Pannonians rose up. Vipsanius Agrippa was sent to the region after another rebellion in 13 BC. After his death the following year, the campaign was taken over by Tiberius, who celebrated his triumph in 11 BC. The province of Illyricum was established between the Sava and the Adriatic Sea . In 10 BC, Tiberius returned to quell a new uprising of the Pannonians and Dalmatae. After winning in 9 BC, he sold

4080-419: The Roman agenda since before the days of Julius Caesar when a Roman army had been beaten at the Battle of Histria . From AD 85 to 89, the Dacians under Decebalus were engaged in two wars with the Romans. In AD 85, the Dacians had swarmed over the Danube and pillaged Moesia. In AD 87, the Roman troops sent by the Emperor Domitian against them under Cornelius Fuscus , were defeated and Cornelius Fuscus

4182-437: The Roman border, fortifications were erected by the Romans on both banks of the Danube . In 328 the emperor Constantine the Great inaugurated the Constantine's Bridge (Danube) at Sucidava, (today Corabia in Romania) in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food cost

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4284-401: The Romans as early as 156 BC and 119 BC. In both wars, the Romans failed to take Siscia (now Sisak , Croatia), which laid in a key position. After these setbacks, Rome instead turned towards Noricum which had both iron and silver mines. As part of a new Celtic migration wave at the end of the 2nd century BC, the Boii left Northern Italy and established themselves as an important power at

4386-456: The Romans from AD 301–308. Roman Dacia was left in AD 275 by the Romans, to the Carpi again, and not to the Goths. There were still Dacians in AD 336, against whom Constantine the Great fought. The province was abandoned by Roman troops, and, according to the Breviarium historiae Romanae by Eutropius , Roman citizens "from the towns and lands of Dacia" were resettled to the interior of Moesia. Under Diocletian , c. AD 296, in order to defend

4488-415: The Romans, from whom they obtained the right to settle in Oltenia . In 376, the region was conquered by Huns , who kept it until the death of Attila in 453. The Gepid tribe, ruled by Ardaric , used it as their base, until in 566, when it was destroyed by the Lombards . Lombards abandoned the country and the Avars (second half of the 6th century) dominated the region for 230 years, until their kingdom

4590-415: The Romans, though as yet they are not absolutely submissive, because of the hopes which they base on the Germans, who are enemies to the Romans." In fact, this occurred because Burebista 's empire split after his death into four and later five smaller states, as Strabo explains, "only recently, when Augustus Caesar sent an expedition against them, the number of parts into which the empire had been divided

4692-452: The Sarmatians "from access to the Danube", says Florus . Locally more important was the offensive of Marcus Vinicius against the tribes east of the Danube Bend , showing an intent of "monopolizing" the Northern Transdanubian region politically. The last decade of the century saw the Marcomanni under their king Maroboduus —settling north of Pannonia. Augustus planned a two-sided attack on them, with one army approaching their territory from

4794-401: The Scythians and are armed in the same manner, being all mounted archers"). Some historians argue that Daxia (mentioned in 3rd century BC ) was the previous home of Indo-Iranian nomads who later came to form the Geto - Dacian people. The extent and location of Dacia varied in its three distinct historical periods (see below): The Dacia of King Burebista (82–44 BC) stretched from

4896-487: The Upper Tisa region, but other places cannot be excluded. The later Roman province Dacia Aureliana , was organized inside former Moesia Superior after the retreat of the Roman army from Dacia, during the reign of emperor Aurelian during AD 271–275. It was reorganized as Dacia Ripensis (as a military province) and Dacia Mediterranea (as a civil province). Ptolemy gives a list of 43 names of towns in Dacia, out of which arguably 33 were of Dacian origin. Most of

4998-415: The ancient Kingdom of Dacia, a large remainder of the land remained outside of Roman Imperial authority. Additionally, the conquest changed the balance of power in the region and was the catalyst for a renewed alliance of Germanic and Celtic tribes and kingdoms against the Roman Empire. However, the material advantages of the Roman Imperial system was attractive to the surviving aristocracy. Afterwards, many of

5100-412: The ancients, it is probable that it contained iron and silver mines. Slavery held a less important role in Pannonia's economy than in earlier established provinces. Rich civilians had domestic slaves do the housework while soldiers who had been awarded with land had their slaves cultivate it. Slaves worked in workshops primarily in western cities for rich industrialist. In Aquincum, they were freed in

5202-611: The annexation of most of Dacia and its reorganisation as a Roman Province , Dacia Felix . Written a few decades after Emperor Trajan 's Roman conquest of parts of Dacia in AD 105–106, Ptolemy's Geographia included the boundaries of Dacia. According to the scholars' interpretation of Ptolemy (Hrushevskyi 1997, Bunbury 1879, Mocsy 1974, Bărbulescu 2005) Dacia was the region between the rivers Tisza , Danube, upper Dniester, and Siret. Mainstream historians accept this interpretation: Avery (1972) Berenger (1994) Fol (1996) Mountain (1998), Waldman Mason (2006). Ptolemy also provided

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5304-432: The archaeologist Parducz argued for a Dacian presence west of the Tisa dating from the time of Burebista. According to Tacitus (AD 56–117) Dacians bordered Germania in the south-east, while Sarmatians bordered it in the east. In the 1st century AD, the Iazyges settled West of Dacia, on the plain between the Danube and the Tisa rivers, according to the scholars' interpretation of Pliny 's text: "The higher parts between

5406-411: The borders of Roman Pannonia to the east, annexing the plains of what is now eastern Hungary, northern Serbia and western Romania up to the limes that he created: the Devil's Dykes . In the 4th-5th century, one of the dioceses of the Roman Empire was known as the Diocese of Pannonia . It had its capital in Sirmium and included all four provinces that were formed from historical Pannonia, as well as

5508-411: The boundaries of lIIyricum to the bank of the Danube. Pannonia was invaded by the Dacians in 10 BC. The Romans launched campaigns through the Danube in order to secure it as the imperial border and defend the threatened new land. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus 's (consul 16 BC) operation in 1 AD extended as far as the Elbe. In 10 AD, Cornelius Lentulus Augur was able to debar not just the Dacians, but also

5610-474: The capital of the new Roman province of Dacia . A group of " Free Dacians ", may have remained outside the Roman Empire in the territory of modern-day Northern Romania until the start of the Migration Period . The Dacians are first mentioned in the writings of the Ancient Greeks , in Herodotus ( Histories Book IV XCIII: "[Getae] the noblest as well as the most just of all the Thracian tribes") and Thucydides ( Peloponnesian Wars , Book II: "[Getae] border on

5712-493: The capture of the famous Treasure of Decebalus, and control over the Dacian gold mines of Transylvania . The result of his first campaign (101–102) was the siege of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa and the occupation of part of the country. Emperor Trajan recommenced hostilities against Dacia and, following an uncertain number of battles, and with Trajan's troops pressing towards the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa , Decebalus once more sought terms. Decebalus rebuilt his power over

5814-432: The dangerous Dacians. At first, the primary goal of the Roman administration was the conclusion of the barbarian conflicts outside the province. In Nero 's time ( r.  54 – 68 AD ) as many as 100,000 barbarians were moved from Pannonia to Moesia by Plautius Silvanus Aelianus , and 50,000 may have been settled in Pannonia by Tampius Flavianus . During his important governorship, money began to circulate in

5916-417: The death of Marcus in 180. Commodus returned to the old border and client system, to which new residents were seemingly willing to join. As the barbarians pillaged during the war, taking cattle and captives away en masse, the destruction and loss of life in Pannonia was huge. Commodus vigorously started to strengthen the limes with new fortifications. Minor raids on the province continued to occur, prompting

6018-415: The death of governor of Moesia Superior and Dacia Claudius Fronto and praetorian prefect Macrinius Vindex . Claudius Pompeianus and future-emperor Pertinax returned part of the spoils taken by the enemy and led the offensive starting from 172. Against severe losses, the Romans forced first the Quadi, then the Marcomanni to surrender (172-173), while the military emphasis shifted to the Iazyges. Despite

6120-408: The death of its governor, Gaius Oppius Sabinus , a series of conflicts between the Romans and Dacians ensued. Although the Romans gained a major strategic victory at Tapae in AD 88, Emperor Domitian offered the Dacians favourable terms, in exchange for which Roman suzerainty was recognised. However, Emperor Trajan restarted the conflicts in AD 101-102 and then again in AD 105–106, which ended with

6222-406: The disloyal Danubian Germans. When the Romans started supporting the Lugii against them, they made a pact with the Iazyges. This produced another war, almost completely unknown except for another catastrophe and destruction of a legion at the hands of the nomads. In 92 or 93, he finished the war, but held only an ovation , indicating he probably had further plans in Pannonia. We hear of war with

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6324-446: The dispatched forces could get back. When the threat became fully clear, Marcus even raised new legions. The first attack came in the winter of 166-167, from the Lombards and Ubii , between Brigetio and Arrabona . It was quickly repulsed by two auxiliary units. Cassius Dio tells of a legation of 11 tribes led by the Marcomanni subsequently petitioning the governor of Pannonia Superior, Iallius Bassus to concede. This may have been

6426-417: The east. His conquests brought the Roman Empire to its greatest extent. Rome's borders in the east were governed indirectly in this period, through a system of client states , which led to less direct campaigning than in the west. Some of the history of the war is given by Cassius Dio . Trajan erected the Column of Trajan in Rome to commemorate his victory. Although the Romans conquered and destroyed

6528-500: The empire, demonstrated by a Roman invasion in 332 against the Goths, their enemies. Sarmatians were admitted into the empire in 379, but other Sarmatian groups remained in the Tisa plains up until the 460s. The Victohali , Taifals , and Thervingians are tribes mentioned for inhabiting Dacia in 350, after the Romans left. Archeological evidence suggests that Gepids were disputing Transylvania with Taifals and Tervingians. Taifals, once independent from Gothia, became federati of

6630-399: The ending of a new campaign but the reestablishment of foederatus relationship by the investiture of a new Quadi king. Discharges and detachments of troops happened. Findings of hoards of coins likely buried during the rule of Marcus Aurelius ( r.  161–180 ) evidence turmoil due to barbarian attacks. Large-scale population movements in Northern and Eastern Europe related to

6732-417: The faces of their leaders. These were at first modelled on Macedonian and, later, Roman currency . Upon the Scordisci's withdrawal and settlement, they and the Dardani (in Dardania ) both became strong powers opposing each other. The Dardani consistently raided Macedon and developed close ties to Rome. Philip V , who was a vehement enemy of the Dardani, allied with the Scordisci and in 179 BC persuaded

6834-404: The first half of the 2nd century BC under King Oroles . Conflicts with the Bastarnae and the Romans (112–109 BC, 74 BC), against whom they had assisted the Scordisci and Dardani , greatly weakened the resources of the Dacians. Burebista (Boerebista), a contemporary of Julius Caesar , ruled Geto-Dacian tribes between 82 BC and 44 BC. He thoroughly reorganised the army and attempted to raise

6936-423: The first half of the 6th century suggest a significant military presence in Oltenia —a region also characterized by the predominance of pottery with shapes of Roman tradition. The territory between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea (today Dobrogea in Romania) remained a fully integrated part of the Roman Empire, even after the abandonment of Trajan's Dacia. It was transformed into a separate province under

7038-400: The following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in AD 105. In response Trajan again marched into Dacia, attacking the Dacian capital in the Siege of Sarmizegethusa , and razing it to the ground; the defeated Dacian king Decebalus committed suicide to avoid capture. With part of Dacia quelled as the Roman province Dacia Traiana . Trajan subsequently invaded the Parthian empire to

7140-419: The frozen Danube during the winter and ravaging the Roman cities in the province of Moesia , which was under Roman occupation. Strabo testified: "although the Getae and Daci once attained to very great power, so that they actually could send forth an expedition of two hundred thousand men, they now find themselves reduced to as few as forty thousand, and they have come close to the point of yielding obedience to

7242-409: The great forests had been cleared by Probus and Galerius . Before that time, timber had been one of its most important exports. Its chief agricultural products were oats and barley , from which the inhabitants brewed a kind of beer named sabaea. Vines and olive trees were little cultivated. Pannonia was also famous for its breed of hunting dogs. Although no mention is made of its mineral wealth by

7344-528: The insurgents, who retreated into the Fruška gora Mountains . He annihilated them the following year when they tried to intercept him on his way to join Tiberius at Siscia. Tiberius competently initiated a scorched-earth policy which was unsatisfactory for Augustus, who sent more generals, including Germanicus and Plautius Silvanus (consul 2 BC) to the war theatre . A capitulation was forced out in 8 AD, and Bato

7446-541: The last attempt at making peace, as next, a barbarian coalition formed to fight Rome. In 168, Marcus and Verus returned to Aquileia and set up their base there. The Marcomanni and Quadi broke through the border and the Alps' crosses, besieging the city and burning the small town of Opitergium . The peak of the Antonine Plague in the peninsula was at this time, causing Verus's death. The next years' heavy fighting resulted in

7548-494: The last years of Hadrian's reign, which his adopted son and joint governor of the Pannonian provinces, Aelius Caesar successfully handled until he died in 138. Command of Pannonia Superior was taken over by Haterius Nepos , who ended the war with a Roman victory, becoming the last person to be awarded with ornamenta triumphalia . Under Antoninus Pius 's ( r.  138–161 ) quiet reign, some coins were issued propagating not

7650-428: The latter included the added suffix "dava" (meaning settlement, village). But, other Dacian names from his list lack the suffix (e.g. Zarmisegethusa regia = Zermizirga). In addition, nine other names of Dacian origin seem to have been Latinised. The cities of the Dacians were known as -dava , -deva , -δαυα ("-dawa" or "-dava", Anc. Gk. ), -δεβα ("-deva", Byz. Gk. ) or -δαβα ("-dava", Byz. Gk. ), etc. . Gil-doba ,

7752-519: The local limes . Systematic integration into the Empire accompanied by the establishment of settled Roman life progressed subsequently. In 50 AD, Vannius was overthrown by Vangio and Sido , who enjoyed the emperor's support. By this date, the nomadic Sarmatian population of the Iazyges had taken possession of the Danube–Tisza Interfluve , helping the Romans by being a buffer state against

7854-505: The moral standard and obedience of the people by persuading them to cut their vines and give up drinking wine. During his reign, the Dacian Kingdom expanded to its maximum extent. The Bastarnae and Boii were conquered, and even the Greek towns of Olbia and Apollonia on the Black Sea ( Pontus Euxinus ) recognized Burebista 's authority. In 53 BC, Caesar stated that the Dacian territory

7956-514: The name of Scythia Minor around 293. The existence of Christian communities in Scythia Minor became evident under Emperor Diocletian (284–305). He and his co-emperors ordered the persecution of Christians throughout the empire, causing the death of many between 303 and 313. Under Emperor Constantine the Great (306–337), a bridge across the Danube was constructed at Sucidava ,

8058-504: The neighboring peoples in an attempt to keep the peace in the Balkans, the Avars regularly invaded Scythia Minor from the 580s. The Romans abandoned Sucidava in 596 or 597, but Tomis , which was the last town in Scythia Minor to resist the invaders, only fell in 704. Transylvania and northern Banat, which belonged to Dacia before Trajan conquest, had no direct contact with the Roman Empire from

8160-491: The nomads would instead take possession of the region between the Tisza and the Apuseni Mountains , not incorporated into the new province. However, taking advantage of Trajan's death and the preoccupation of the Empire with the Parthian war , they joined forces with the relative Roxolani and attacked again in 117, to which Dacia's governor, Julius Quadratus Bassus fell victim. Hadrian ( r.  117–138 ) traveled to

8262-481: The north (64 BC), the territory he was to cross is noted to have belonged to the Pannonians. Immediately after Burebista's death ( c.  44 BC ), Dacia 's kingdom dissolved too, leaving no entity in the region that Rome would make allowances for. The Pannonians were driven into conflict due to their support of the Dalmatae in their strife against Rome, but weren't long-term and known enemies. The tribes north of

8364-547: The province as foederati . The Eastern Roman Empire controlled southern parts of Pannonia in the 6th century, during the reign of Justinian I . The Byzantine province of Pannonia with its capital at Sirmium was temporarily restored, but it included only a small southeastern part of historical Pannonia. Afterwards, it was again invaded by the Avars in the 560s, and the Slavs , who first may settled c. 480s but became independent only from

8466-409: The province benefited from many constructions. The road network was fully repaired, civilian and military buildings were inaugurated, military camps were improved and cities were protected with walls thus increasing their rank. Pannonia Superior was under the consular legate, who had formerly administered the single province, and had three legions under his control. Pannonia Inferior was at first under

8568-635: The province in the 2nd century. Its popularity didn't decrease even during the big persecutions in the late 3rd century. In the 4th century, basilicas and funeral chapels were built. We know of the Church of Saint Quirinus in Savaria and numerous early Christian memorials from Aquincum, Sopianae, Fenékpuszta, and Arian Christian ones from Csopak. The ancient name Pannonia is retained in the modern term Pannonian plain . Dacia Dacia ( / ˈ d eɪ ʃ ə / , DAY -shə ; Latin: [ˈd̪aː.ki.a] )

8670-602: The provinces of Dalmatia , Noricum Mediterraneum and Noricum Ripense. In the 4th century, the Romans (especially under Valentinian I ) fortified the villas and relocated barbarians to the border regions. In 358 they won a great victory over the Sarmatians , but raids didn't stop. In 401 the Visigoths fled to the province from the Huns , and the border guarding peoples fled to Italia from them, but were beaten by Uldin in exchange for

8772-586: The region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army. The new frontier in Dacia was along the Brazda lui Novac line supported by Castra of Hinova , Rusidava and Castra of Pietroasele . The limes passed to the north of Castra of Tirighina-Bărboși and ended at Sasyk Lagoon near

8874-618: The same year, Burebista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into four (later five) parts under separate rulers. One of these entities was Cotiso 's state, to whom Augustus betrothed his own five-year-old daughter Julia. He is well known from the line in Horace ( Occidit Daci Cotisonis agmen , Odes, III. 8. 18). The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However they were by no means subdued, and in later times to maintain their independence they seized every opportunity to cross

8976-477: The sides agreed to make peace. Vangio and Sido were most likely dead by now, the Marcomanni and Quadi denied vassal duties. When the emperor's punitive expedition (partially sent through Dacian territory) was repelled in 89, he—despite the damages suffered—settled for mild terms with Decebalus, instead committing his forces elsewhere. In the same year, he held his triumphs over the Dacians and Chatti , but not over

9078-710: The southern part of Transdanubia. Some tribes advanced as far as Delphi , with the Scordisci settling in Syrmia (279 BC) upon being forced to withdraw. The arrival of the Celts in Transdanubia disrupted the flow of amber from the Baltic Sea region , through the Amber Road , to the Illyrians. They founded many villages. Those that held prominent economic significance developed into oppida . Independent tribes minted their own coins with

9180-635: The spot and invested Marcius Turbo as governor of both Dacia and Pannonia Inferior to defeat the barbarians. The Roxolani were pacified first. Turbo's authorization was over in 119 as Iazyx peace envoys appeared in Rome. The postal connection between the two provinces through the Danube–Tisza Interfluve—which aggravated relations with the Sarmatians—was completed. War with the Quadi broke out again in

9282-493: The territory of the peoples north of the Drava, which, for them, had no economic, but strategic significance. Augustus formed a kind of alliance where the Romans would act as supervisors, and it was not until his death (14 AD) that legions would be moved over from South Pannonia. The second emperor Tiberius ( r.  17 – 37 AD ) founded multiple coloniae in the province and developed its road network. However, due to these land's unsuitability for cultivation, it

9384-451: The throne. In the coming years, the arrival of foreign groups led to new conflicts, but these were centered on Dacia and Pannonia only experienced collateral effects. The Severans' rule was supported by the Pannonian military and other provinces of the collective "Illyricum" region, which became politically important. In 202, a thorough visit to Pannonia by the imperial house was organized. Partly during this tour and throughout Severus' reign,

9486-678: The transferring of Eastern Pannonia. In 433 Rome completely handed over the territory to Attila for the subjugation of the Burgundians attacking Gaul . During the Migration Period in the 5th century, some parts of Pannonia were ceded to the Huns in 433 by Flavius Aetius , the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire . After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in 454, large numbers of Ostrogoths were settled by Emperor Marcian in

9588-470: The tribe started raiding the new province of Macedonia , and — Strabo says— expanded as far as Paeonia , Illyria and Thrace . Aquileia 's foundation in 181 BC was the first step towards the Roman takeover of Pannonia. The town functioned as the starting station of the Amber Road and the starting point of attacks in that direction. The Scordisci, in alliance with the Dalmatae were in armed conflict with

9690-500: The winter incursion of the Iazyges was crushed (173-174), the Quadi overthrew their Roman-installed king and started to support the nomads. While the two nations tried to negotiate, Marcus eventually defeated both of them in separate campaigns. The second phase of the war started in 177. The attacking barbarians were kept in check, with Marcus and his son, the newly acclaimed Commodus ( r.  177–192 ) coming to Pannonia. A decisive campaign by Tarrutenius Paternus in 179 convinced

9792-577: The youth of the Breuci and Amantini as slaves in Italy and held an ovation . His operations between 12 and 9 BC included constant expeditions into territories north of the Drava and almost certainly brought the whole Transdanubia under Roman control even though there's no direct evidence to that. Through Tiberius Nero, then my stepson and legate, I brought under Roman authority Pannonian peoples which no Roman army had approached before I became princeps and advanced

9894-474: Was a hard task to persuade veterans to comply with settling there, and he had to silence a mutiny right when assuming power. He sent his son Drusus Julius Caesar to create tranquility and depose Maroboduus, who needed Roman support for his war against Arminius . This ultimately caused the rise of Vannius (20 AD), who ruled over an extended realm. It was Claudius ( r.  41 – 54 AD ) who finished Pannonia's occupation and began to construct of

9996-566: Was five, though at the time of the insurrection it had been four. Such divisions, to be sure, are only temporary and vary with the times". Decebalus ruled the Dacians between AD 87 and 106. The frontiers of Decebal's Dacia were marked by the Tisa River to the west, by the trans-Carpathians to the north and by the Dniester River to the east. His name translates into " strong as ten men ". When Trajan turned his attention to Dacia, it had been on

10098-514: Was killed by the Dacians by authority of their ruler, Diurpaneus. After this victory, Diurpaneus took the name of Decebalus , but the Romans were victorious in the Battle of Tapae in AD 88 and a truce was drawn up. The next year, AD 88, new Roman troops under Tettius Julianus , gained a significant advantage, but were obligated to make peace following the defeat of Domitian by the Marcomanni , leaving

10200-590: Was loose, they had considerable influence in the territories beyond. In 88 BC, Scipio Asiaticus (consul 83 BC) defeated the Scordisci so badly that they retreated to the eastern part of Syrmia. Taking advantage of this situation, the Dacian king Burebista vanquished them sometime between 65 and 50 BC, and subsequently the Boii and the Taurisci too. Thanks to the ebb of these entities, several local tribes regained their independence and influence. In context of Mithridates VI Eupator 's unfulfilled plan to invade Italy from

10302-562: Was on the eastern border of the Hercynian Forest . Burebista suppressed the indigenous minting of coinages by four major tribal groups, adopting imported or copied Roman denarii as a monetary standard. During his reign, Burebista transferred Geto-Dacians capital from Argedava to Sarmizegetusa Regia . For at least one and a half centuries, Sarmizegetusa was the Dacians' capital and reached its peak under King Decebalus . The Dacians appeared so formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which his death in 44 BC prevented. In

10404-511: Was the land inhabited by the Dacians , its core in Transylvania , stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It thus roughly corresponds to present-day Romania , as well as parts of Moldova , Bulgaria , Serbia , Hungary , Slovakia , and Ukraine . A Dacian kingdom that united

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