The Carpi or Carpiani were a tribe that resided in the eastern parts of modern Romania in the historical region of Moldavia from no later than c. AD 140 and until at least AD 318.
175-617: The ethnic affiliation of the Carpi remains disputed, as there is no direct evidence in the surviving ancient literary sources. A strong body of modern scholarly opinion considers that the Carpi were a tribe of the Dacian nation. Other scholars have linked the Carpi to a variety of ethnic groups, including Sarmatians , Thracians , Slavs , Germanic peoples , Balts and Celts . About a century after their earliest mention by Ptolemy , during which time their relations with Rome appear to have been peaceful,
350-558: A kaymakam -led internal administration. The emerging movement for a union of the Danubian Principalities (a demand first voiced in 1848, and a cause cemented by the return of revolutionary exiles) was advocated by the French and their Sardinian allies, supported by Russia and Prussia, but was rejected or suspicioned by all other overseers. After an intense campaign, a formal union was ultimately granted: nevertheless, elections for
525-468: A hillfort ), where they were surrounded and besieged by Philip's forces. The remaining Carpi forces, which had scattered, rallied and launched an attempt to relieve the siege. The besieged staged a mass sortie to distract the Romans' attention from the approach of the relief-force. But the latter were intercepted and routed by Philip's equites Maurorum ( Berber light cavalry from N. Africa). The breakout itself
700-606: A tax reform (which nonetheless confirmed tax exemptions for the privileged ), as well as major urban works in Bucharest and other cities. In 1834, Wallachia's throne was occupied by Alexandru II Ghica —a move in contradiction with the Adrianople treaty, as he had not been elected by the new Legislative Assembly ; he was removed by the suzerains in 1842 and replaced with an elected prince, Gheorghe Bibescu . Opposition to Ghica's arbitrary and highly conservative rule, together with
875-469: A Provisional Government, which made Dreptate, Frăție ("Justice, Brotherhood") the national motto . Although sympathetic to the anti-Russian goals of the revolution, the Ottomans were pressured by Russia into repressing it: Ottoman troops entered Bucharest on 13 September. Russian and Turkish troops, present until 1851, brought Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei to the throne, during which interval most participants in
1050-520: A century (268-379). These not only broke the transdanubian tribes on the battlefield, but also pursued a policy of large-scale resettlement of defeated tribespeople in the Danubian provinces of the empire. This was motivated by the need to re-populate the Danubian provinces, which had been ravaged by plague and barbarian invasions during the period 250–270. 272: The emperor Aurelian (reigned 270–275) scored
1225-636: A change of 'ownership'. Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma people's arrival with the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era, the Romanians taking the Roma from the Mongols as slaves and preserving their status. Other historians consider that they were enslaved while captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from
1400-450: A clay hearth placed at the centre of the dwelling. The more numerous sunken-earth huts are usually of oval or round shape. The sedentary people generally cremated their dead, both adults and children, according to Bichir : all the 43 purely "Daco-Carpic" (sedentary) cemeteries used only cremation . The ashes from the cremation were, in the great majority of cases, buried inside urns. Some graves contained grave-goods, but no weapons other than
1575-432: A common language. Linguists such as Polomé and Katičić expressed reservations about both theories. The Dacians are generally considered to have been Thracian speakers, representing a cultural continuity from earlier Iron Age communities loosely termed Getic, Since in one interpretation, Dacian is a variety of Thracian, for the reasons of convenience, the generic term ‘Daco-Thracian" is used, with "Dacian" reserved for
1750-573: A debated relationship with the neighbouring Thracian language and may be a subgroup of it. Dacians were somewhat culturally influenced by the neighbouring Scythians and by the Celtic invaders of the 4th century BC . The Dacians were known as Geta (plural Getae ) in Ancient Greek writings, and as Dacus (plural Daci ) or Getae in Roman documents, but also as Dagae and Gaete as depicted on
1925-470: A defeat on Murad II with the help of Pippo Spano . The peace signed in 1428 inaugurated a period of internal crisis, as Dan had to defend himself against Radu II , who led the first in a series of boyar coalitions against established princes. Victorious in 1431 (the year when the boyar-backed Alexander I Aldea took the throne), boyars were dealt successive blows by Vlad II Dracul (1436–1442; 1443–1447), who nevertheless attempted to compromise between
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#17328455118312100-413: A linguistic group. However, not a single Carpi personal name is preserved in the surviving ancient sources, other than the name "Carpi" itself, which cannot be ascribed with confidence to any linguistic group. According to traditional Romanian historiography, as well as to several non-Romanian scholars, the Carpi were a people of the Dacian tongue and culture Heather, who supports this view, suggests that
2275-499: A major victory over the Carpi, for which he was granted the title Carpicus Maximus by the Senate. He then resettled a large number of Carpi prisoners around Sopiana ( Pécs , Hungary) in the Roman province of Pannonia . This appears to have inaugurated the policy of resettling the Carpi in the empire. 296-305: In 296, the emperor Diocletian (reigned 284–305) went to war against the Carpi,
2450-511: A mixture of indigenous peoples and Indo-Europeans from the time of Proto-Indo-European expansion in the Early Bronze Age (3,300–3,000 BC) when the latter, around 1500 BC, conquered the indigenous peoples. The indigenous people were Danubian farmers, and the invading people of the 3rd millennium BC were Kurgan warrior-herders from the Ukrainian and Russian steppes. Indo-Europeanization
2625-567: A prince without any claim to noble heritage, was imposed on the throne and consequently agreed to a decrease in autonomy (increasing taxes and carrying out an armed intervention in Transylvania – supporting the pro-Turkish John Zápolya ). Conflicts between boyar families became stringent after the rule of Pătrașcu the Good , and boyar ascendancy over rulers was obvious under Petru the Younger (1559–1568;
2800-460: A regional power in and around the city of Sarmizegetusa . Sarmizegetusa was their political and spiritual capital. The ruined city lies high in the mountains of central Romania. Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia ( / w ɒ ˈ l eɪ k i ə / ; Romanian : Țara Românească , lit. 'The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country'; Old Romanian : Țeara Rumânească , Romanian Cyrillic alphabet : Цѣра Рꙋмѫнѣскъ )
2975-426: A reign dominated by Doamna Chiajna and marked by huge increases in taxes), Mihnea Turcitul , and Petru Cercel . The Ottoman Empire increasingly relied on Wallachia and Moldavia for the supply and maintenance of its military forces ; the local army , however, soon disappeared due to the increased costs and the much more obvious efficiency of mercenary troops. Initially profiting from Ottoman support, Michael
3150-551: A request of several European powers), and sanction the end of Phanariote rules: in Wallachia, the first prince to be considered a local one after 1715 was Grigore IV Ghica . Although the new system was confirmed for the rest of Wallachia's existence as a state, Ghica's rule was abruptly ended by the devastating Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 . The 1829 Treaty of Adrianople placed Wallachia and Moldavia under Russian military rule, without overturning Ottoman suzerainty , awarding them
3325-405: A result of its close concentration of personnel and frequent movements between provinces, thus probably losing about a third of its strength. Taking advantage of Roman military disarray, the transdanubian barbarians launched repeated massive invasions of imperial territory. The exact number, dates and events of these invasions are uncertain due to the confused and fragmentary nature of the sources. It
3500-747: A sedentary culture, labelled "Daco-Carpic" by Bichir, started around 106 and disappeared around 318; A smaller culture displayed characteristics usually associated with nomadic peoples from the Eurasian steppes , labelled "Sarmatian" by Bichir. By 1976, 117 sedentary settlements had been identified, the great majority (89) located West of the Siret (thus inside Dacia's borders as defined by Ptolemy). The inhabitants lived in both surface-dwellings and sunken-floor huts. The single-roomed surface-dwellings were made of wattle and beaten-earth, usually of rectangular or square form, varying from 9 sq m to 30 sq m in size. Each contained
3675-400: A single dagger. Mundane goods include knives, keys, and belt-buckles; valuable goods include Sarmatian-style mirrors, silver ear-rings, gold pendants and beads. Pottery found in sedentary sites includes the hand-made "porous" type, grey wheel-made ware, red-fired pottery and imported Roman ware. Bichir describes the first two as continuing Dacian La Tène pottery, and points to the presence of
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#17328455118313850-482: A turn of linguistic luck utterly in favor of the Wallachians' eastward posterity, this toponym, at least according to the phonotactics of modern Turkish, is homophonous with another word, افلاك , meaning "heavens" or "skies".). In old Albanian, the name was " Gogënia ", which was used to denote non-Albanian speakers. Arabic chronicles from the 13th century had used the name of Wallachia instead of Bulgaria . They gave
4025-621: Is Havasalföld , literally "Snowy lowlands", the older form of which is Havaselve , meaning "Land beyond the snowy mountains" ("snowy mountains" refers to the Southern Carpathians (the Transylvanian Alps) ); its translation into Latin, Transalpina was used in the official royal documents of the Kingdom of Hungary. In Ottoman Turkish , the term Eflâk Prensliği , or simply Eflâk افلاق , appears. (Note that in
4200-515: Is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania . It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians . Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Muntenia (Greater Wallachia) and Oltenia (Lesser Wallachia). Dobruja could sometimes be considered a third section due to its proximity and brief rule over it. Wallachia as a whole is sometimes referred to as Muntenia through identification with
4375-486: Is a list of recorded incursions in which Carpi participation is specifically attested to by the sources: 238: The Carpi launched their first recorded major incursion into Roman territory south of the Danube, during the brief joint rule of the adolescent Gordian III and the senators Balbinus and Pupienus Maximus . This was apparently provoked by the refusal of the governor of Moesia Inferior , Tullius Menophilus, to grant
4550-453: Is difficult. In the 19th century, Tomaschek (1883) proposed the form "Dak", meaning those who understand and can speak , by considering "Dak" as a derivation of the root da ("k" being a suffix); cf. Sanskrit dasa , Bactrian daonha . Tomaschek also proposed the form "Davus", meaning "members of the clan/countryman" cf. Bactrian daqyu , danhu "canton". Since the 19th century, many scholars have proposed an etymological link between
4725-415: Is found under various forms within ancient sources. Greeks used the forms Δάκοι " Dakoi " ( Strabo , Dio Cassius , and Dioscorides ) and Δάοι "Daoi" (singular Daos). The form Δάοι "Daoi" was frequently used according to Stephan of Byzantium . Latins used the forms Davus , Dacus , and a derived form Dacisci (Vopiscus and inscriptions). There are similarities between the ethnonyms of
4900-411: Is inconsistent with the rest of the narrative, it may be a confusion with the invasion of 256). Roman forces on the lower Danube were unable to prevent them from marauding at will, probably due to their losses at Abrittus and the impact of the plague. Eventually, the barbarians were intercepted on their way home by Aemilianus , commander of the army of Pannonia . At first, his men were fearful of engaging
5075-453: Is likely that, when Greco-Roman sources refer to conflicts with the Costoboci, Carpi or Goths, they are referring to coalitions of different groups under the currently hegemonic tribe. Given the Carpi's repeated raids South of the Danube and clashes with the Romans during the 3rd century, it is likely by ca. 230, the Carpi had extended their hegemony over eastern Wallachia, previously dominated by
5250-562: Is possible that there were invasions every year and that parts of the Danubian provinces were occupied by marauding bands of barbarians year-round, during the period 251–270. From Zosimus, the following major events may be discerned: 252-253: The Carpi joined Goths and two Sarmatian tribes (the Urugundi and the Borani ) in an invasion of Roman territory, ravaging Moesia and Thrace . (Zosimus states that they then crossed into Asia Minor , but as this
5425-678: Is recorded as claiming the Carpicus title for a sixth time, at some time during his reign. 318: The emperor Constantine I the Great (reigned 312–337) is recorded as holding the Carpicus Maximus title in an inscription of that year. This most likely represents a victory over the Carpi in 316–317, when Constantine is documented as resident in the Balkans for the first time since his appointment as Caesar in 306. Each of these acclamations probably implied
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5600-631: Is somewhere in the vicinity of the river Duria, the present-day Váh (Waag). Dacians lived on both sides of the Danube. According to Strabo , Moesians also lived on both sides of the Danube. According to Agrippa , Dacia was limited by the Baltic Ocean in the North and by the Vistula in the West. The names of the people and settlements confirm Dacia's borders as described by Agrippa. Dacian people also lived south of
5775-435: Is supported by Romanian historian Ioan I. Russu (1967). Mircea Eliade attempted, in his book From Zalmoxis to Genghis Khan , to give a mythological foundation to an alleged special relation between Dacians and the wolves: Evidence of proto-Thracians or proto-Dacians in the prehistoric period depends on the remains of material culture . It is generally proposed that a proto-Dacian or proto-Thracian people developed from
5950-492: Is that Roman emperors did not use the long-established imperial victory-title ( cognomen ex virtute ) Dacicus Maximus (literally: "the greatest Dacian") for victories over the Carpi, but instead adopted the separate title Carpicus Maximus . This was introduced by Philip the Arab in 247, the first Roman emperor to defeat the Carpi in person. Such titles were usually ethnographic, not geographical (i.e. Dacicus meant "victorious over
6125-498: Is that of Moesian (or Mysian) for the language of an intermediate area immediately to the south of Danube in Serbia, Bulgaria and Romanian Dobruja: this and the dialects north of the Danube have been grouped together as Daco-Moesian. The language of the indigenous population has left hardly any trace in the anthroponymy of Moesia, but the toponymy indicates that the Moesii on the south bank of
6300-508: The Ad hoc Divans of 1859 profited from a legal ambiguity (the text of the final agreement specified two thrones, but did not prevent any single person from simultaneously taking part in and winning elections in both Bucharest and Iași ). Alexander John Cuza , who ran for the unionist Partida Națională , won the elections in Moldavia on 5 January; Wallachia, which was expected by the unionists to carry
6475-406: The seimeni rebellion of 1655). Furthermore, the growing importance of appointment to high office in front of land ownership brought about an influx of Greek and Levantine families, a process already resented by locals during the rules of Radu Mihnea in the early 17th century. Matei Basarab , a boyar appointee, brought a long period of relative peace (1632–1654), with the noted exception of
6650-573: The Battle of Nicopolis ), and accepted a peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1417, after Mehmed I took control of Turnu Măgurele and Giurgiu . The two ports remained part of the Ottoman state, with brief interruptions, until 1829. In 1418–1420, Michael I defeated the Ottomans in Severin, only to be killed in battle by the counter-offensive; in 1422, the danger was averted for a short while when Dan II inflicted
6825-620: The Carpi or Carpiani . Probably the earliest mention of them, under the name Καρπιανοί ( Carpiani in Latin) is in the Geographia of the 2nd-century Greek geographer Ptolemy , composed c. AD 140. The name Carpi or Carpiani may derive from the same root as the name of the Carpathian mountain range that they occupied, also first mentioned by Ptolemy under the name Καρπάτης - Karpátēs . The root may be
7000-514: The Danube , conceded to recognize him as overlord in 1368, but rebelled again in the same year; his rule also witnessed the first confrontation between Wallachia and the Ottoman Empire (a battle in which Vladislav was allied with Ivan Shishman ). As the entire Balkans became an integral part of the growing Ottoman Empire (a process that concluded with the fall of Constantinople to Sultan Mehmed
7175-639: The Dâmboviţa River bridge to collect tax following the law. The presence of Bulgarian customs officers at the Carpathians indicates a Bulgarian suzerainty over those lands, though Radu's imperative tone hints at a strong and increasing Wallachian autonomy. Under Radu I and his successor Dan I , the realms in Transylvania and Severin continued to be disputed with Hungary. Basarab was succeeded by Nicholas Alexander , followed by Vladislav I . Vladislav attacked Transylvania after Louis I occupied lands south of
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7350-508: The European rebellions of the same year ). Their pan-Wallachian coup d'état was initially successful only near Turnu Măgurele , where crowds cheered the Islaz Proclamation (9 June); among others, the document called for political freedoms , independence, land reform , and the creation of a national guard. On 11–12 June the movement was successful in deposing Bibescu and establishing
7525-476: The Free Dacians into Roman Dacia is also uncertain. Supporters of a Dacian ethnicity for the Carpi have tended to assume that they participated in campaigns where Roman emperors claimed the title Dacicus Maximus , in addition to those resulting in a Carpicus Maximus acclamation. But all incursions in which the Carpi are specifically reported by ancient sources were into Moesia Inferior, not Dacia. The following
7700-751: The Ghicas , backed their own choice of princes ( Antonie Vodă din Popești and George Ducas ) before promoting themselves—with the ascension of Șerban Cantacuzino (1678–1688). Wallachia became a target for Habsburg incursions during the last stages of the Great Turkish War around 1690, when the ruler Constantin Brâncoveanu secretly and unsuccessfully negotiated an anti-Ottoman coalition. Brâncoveanu's reign (1688–1714), noted for its late Renaissance cultural achievements (see Brâncovenesc style ), also coincided with
7875-687: The Growth of the Ottoman Empire brought increased pressures on Wallachia: political control was accompanied by Ottoman economical hegemony, the discarding of the capital in Târgoviște in favour of Bucharest (closer to the Ottoman border, and a rapidly growing trade center), the establishment of serfdom under Michael the Brave as a measure to increase manorial revenues, and the decrease in importance of low-ranking boyars (threatened with extinction, they took part in
8050-668: The Isthmus of Corinth . The barbarians were eventually routed by Gallienus' lieutenant Aureolus , who brought large numbers of prisoners to Rome. 259-260: "The Scythians, including every people of their country" (i.e. including the Carpi) launched a massive invasion over the Danube, taking advantage of the military and political chaos in the empire. It appears that the barbarians divided into two armies. One invaded Greece and, despite its new walls, succeeded in storming and sacking Athens . The other group crossed Illyricum into Italy, and appeared before
8225-716: The Moesia Inferior province. The Roman limes was initially built along the Olt River in 119 before being moved slightly to the east in the second century, during which time it stretched from the Danube up to Rucăr in the Carpathians. The Roman line fell back to the Olt in 245 and, in 271, the Romans pulled out of the region. The area was subject to Romanization also during the Migration Period , when most of present-day Romania
8400-561: The Mongol invasion of Europe , Cuman domination was ended—a direct Mongol rule over Wallachia was not attested. Part of Wallachia was probably briefly disputed by the Kingdom of Hungary and Bulgarians in the following period, but it appears that the severe weakening of Hungarian authority during the Mongol attacks contributed to the establishment of the new and stronger polities attested in Wallachia for
8575-569: The Oltenian banat , who sought Ottoman support in their rivalry with Mihnea cel Rău (1508–1510) and replaced him with Vlăduț . After the latter proved to be hostile to the bans, the House of Basarab formally ended with the rise of Neagoe Basarab , a Craioveşti. Neagoe's peaceful rule (1512–1521) was noted for its cultural aspects (the building of the Curtea de Argeş Cathedral and Renaissance influences). It
8750-599: The Ottoman Empire ; this lasted until the 19th century. In 1859, Wallachia united with Moldavia to form the United Principalities , which adopted the name Romania in 1866 and officially became the Kingdom of Romania in 1881. Later, following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the resolution of the elected representatives of Romanians in 1918, Bukovina , Transylvania and parts of Banat , Crișana , and Maramureș were allocated to
8925-512: The Pannonians and therefore first became known to the Romans. According to Strabo's Geographica , the original name of the Dacians was Δάοι " Daoi ". The name Daoi (one of the ancient Geto-Dacian tribes) was certainly adopted by foreign observers to designate all the inhabitants of the countries north of Danube that had not yet been conquered by Greece or Rome. The ethnographic name Daci
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#17328455118319100-451: The Peace of Bucharest , the rule of Jean Georges Caradja , although remembered for a major plague epidemic , was notable for its cultural and industrial ventures. During the period, Wallachia increased its strategic importance for most European states interested in supervising Russian expansion; consulates were opened in Bucharest, having an indirect but major impact on Wallachian economy through
9275-548: The Pechenegs , Turkic peoples who extended their rule west through the tenth and 11th century, until they were defeated around 1091, when the Cumans of southern Ruthenia took control of the lands of Wallachia. Beginning with the tenth century, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and later Western sources mention the existence of small polities, possibly peopled by, among others, Vlachs led by knyazes and voivodes . In 1241, during
9450-504: The Poieneşti site (the only one fully investigated by 1976), 6 adults and 17 children were buried (compared with 62 cremated). Of these, 2 adults and 7 children were found to have artificially elongated crania . This custom, achieved by tightly binding an infant's skull during its early growth phase, is associated with steppe nomads. Bichir identifies the adults as nomads and the children as the progeny of mixed nomad-sedentary marriages. From
9625-459: The Romanian-language name of țigani domnești ("Gypsies belonging to the lord"). The two other categories comprised țigani mănăstirești ("Gypsies belonging to the monasteries"), who were the property of Romanian Orthodox and Greek Orthodox monasteries, and țigani boierești ("Gypsies belonging to the boyars"), who were enslaved by the category of landowners. The abolition of slavery
9800-760: The Russo-Turkish War of 1806–12 was partly instigated by the Porte 's deposition of Constantine Ypsilantis in Bucharest—in tune with the Napoleonic Wars , it was instigated by the French Empire , and also showed the impact of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (with its permissive attitude towards Russian political influence in the Danubian Principalities ); the war brought the invasion of Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich . After
9975-458: The Southern Carpathians , and is traditionally divided between Muntenia in the east (as the political center, Muntenia is often understood as being synonymous with Wallachia), and Oltenia (a former banat ) in the west. The division line between the two is the Olt River . Wallachia's traditional border with Moldavia coincided with the Milcov River for most of its length. To the east, over
10150-522: The endonym of the Dacians and wolves. However, according to Romanian historian and archaeologist Alexandru Vulpe , the Dacian etymology explained by daos ("wolf") has little plausibility, as the transformation of daos into dakos is phonetically improbable and the Draco standard was not unique to Dacians. He thus dismisses it as folk etymology . Another etymology, linked to the Proto-Indo-European language roots *dhe- meaning "to set, place" and dheua → dava ("settlement") and dhe-k → daci
10325-405: The 140's onwards, they are not mentioned in Roman accounts of several campaigns in the Dacian region in the second century. For example, in Rome's vast and protracted conflict with the trans-danubian tribes, known as the Marcomannic Wars (166-80), during which Dacia province suffered at least two major invasions (167, 170), only their neighbours the Costoboci are mentioned specifically. Silence on
10500-436: The 1653 Battle of Finta , fought between Wallachians and the troops of Moldavian prince Vasile Lupu —ending in disaster for the latter, who was replaced with Prince Matei's favourite, Gheorghe Ștefan , on the throne in Iași . A close alliance between Gheorghe Ștefan and Matei's successor Constantin Șerban was maintained by Transylvania's George II Rákóczi , but their designs for independence from Ottoman rule were crushed by
10675-461: The 1840s and 1850s. Most of the slaves were of Roma (Gypsy) ethnicity. The very first document attesting the presence of Roma people in Wallachia dates back to 1385, and refers to the group as ațigani (from the Greek athinganoi , the origin of the Romanian term țigani , which is synonymous with "Gypsy"). Although the Romanian terms robie and sclavie appear to be synonyms, in terms of legal status, there are significant differences: sclavie
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#173284551183110850-404: The 8th to 7th centuries BC, the migration of the Scythians from the east into the Pontic Steppe pushed westwards and away from the steppes the related Scythic Agathyrsi people who had previously dwelt on the Pontic Steppe around the Lake Maeotis . Following this, the Agathyrsi settled in the territories of present-day Moldova , Transylvania and possibly Oltenia , where they mingled with
11025-420: The Balkan theatre to subordinates with inadequate forces, as they were fully occupied, the former in the East fighting the Persians, the latter on the Rhine trying to stem a massive Germanic incursion. The whole of Greece was placed on invasion alert: the Athenians rebuilt their city walls for the first time since they were demolished by the republican general Sulla in 87 BC and the Peloponnesians re-fortified
11200-403: The Boii south across the Danube and out of their territory, at which point the Boii abandoned any further plans for invasion. Some Hungarian historians consider the Dacians and Getae the same as the Scythian tribes of the Dahae , Massagetae , also the exonym Daxia one with Dacia. North of the Danube, Dacians occupied a larger territory than Ptolemaic Dacia, stretching between Bohemia in
11375-413: The Brave ascended to the throne in 1593, and attacked the troops of Murad III north and south of the Danube in an alliance with Transylvania's Sigismund Báthory and Moldavia's Aron Vodă (see Battle of Călugăreni ). He soon placed himself under the suzerainty of Rudolf II , the Holy Roman Emperor , and, in 1599–1600, intervened in Transylvania against Poland 's king Sigismund III Vasa , placing
11550-410: The Carpi are not mentioned specifically by Zosimus and the other chroniclers and their role is thus uncertain. The late third century saw the military recovery of the empire under the iron rule of the so-called " Illyrian emperors ", a tightly knit group of career soldiers with shared origins in the Danubian provinces and regiments. Their successors, often their descendants, dominated the empire for over
11725-410: The Carpi emerged in c. 238 as among Rome's most persistent enemies. In the period AD 250–270, the Carpi were an important component of a loose coalition of transdanubian barbarian tribes that also included Germanic and Sarmatian elements. These were responsible for a series of large and devastating invasions of the Balkan regions of the empire which nearly caused its disintegration in the " Crisis of
11900-427: The Carpi in just two years (302-303 inclusive). These victories are attested by the 4 additional Carpicus titles claimed by Diocletian and his three imperial colleagues (known as the Tetrarchs . (It was apparently their practice to claim victory-titles collectively, thus all four claimed Carpicus titles for the victories achieved by Galerius). 305-311: After acceding as Augustus (full emperor) in 305, Galerius
12075-405: The Carpi name was adopted as the collective name of the Free Dacian tribes when they achieved a degree of political unification in the early 3rd century. However, a significant number of scholars dispute that the Carpi were ethnic Dacians , and have identified them variously as Sarmatians, Daco-Thracians, Celts, or even proto-Slavs . This is because the region between the rivers Siret and Dniester
12250-399: The Carpi's demand for an annual subsidy to keep the peace, as was already paid to the Goths and other tribes on the lower Danube. This lends support to the possibility that, until this time, the Carpi had been long-term allies of the Romans and were aggrieved that they were in effect penalised for their loyalty. However, the governor succeeded in driving out the Carpi in 239. 245–247: During
12425-478: The Carpi's territory, according to Bichir. This is based on the large number of coin-hoards found in Moldavia (90), and about 100 isolated coins. However, the circulation of Roman coins seems to have virtually ceased after 218, as no coin-hoards and only 7 isolated coins have been found from after Caracalla , who ruled AD 211–218. Nomadic-culture graves are predominantly of the inhumation type, found, by 1976, in 38 places in Moldavia . These are predominantly found on
12600-600: The Carpi. The Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World places the Carpi between the river Hierasus ( Siret ) and the river Porata ( Prut ) However, it is not possible to reliably define the territories of these groups due to the imprecision of the ancient geographical sources. Also, it is likely that in many areas, ethnic groups overlapped and the ethnic map was a patchwork of dispersed sub-groups. The Sarmatians and Bastarnae are attested, in both literature and archaeology, all over Wallachia , Moldavia and Bessarabia . It
12775-576: The Conqueror in 1453), Wallachia became engaged in frequent confrontations in the final years of the reign of Mircea I (r. 1386–1418). Mircea initially defeated the Ottomans in several battles, including the Battle of Rovine in 1394, driving them away from Dobruja and briefly extending his rule to the Danube Delta , Dobruja and Silistra (c. 1400–1404). He swung between alliances with Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor , and Jagiellon Poland (taking part in
12950-513: The Dacians and those of Dahae (Greek Δάσαι Δάοι, Δάαι, Δαι, Δάσαι Dáoi , Dáai , Dai , Dasai ; Latin Dahae , Daci ), an Indo-European people located east of the Caspian Sea , until the 1st millennium BC. Scholars have suggested that there were links between the two peoples since ancient times. The historian David Gordon White has, moreover, stated that the "Dacians ... appear to be related to
13125-585: The Dacians", not "victorious in Dacia") The emperors Aurelian and Constantine I claimed both the Dacicus and Carpicus titles. The existence of a separate victory-title for the Carpi may imply that the Romans did not consider the Carpi to be ethnic-Dacians. The same argument may also apply against a Sarmatian or Germanic identity for the Carpi, as Sarmaticus and Germanicus were also established titles in Philip's time. However,
13300-479: The Dahae". (Likewise White and other scholars also believe that the names Dacii and Dahae may also have a shared etymology – see the section following for further details.) By the end of the first century AD, all the inhabitants of the lands which now form Romania were known to the Romans as Daci, with the exception of some Celtic and Germanic tribes who infiltrated from the west, and Sarmatian and related people from
13475-442: The Danube north-south bend, Wallachia neighbours Dobruja ( Northern Dobruja ). Over the Carpathians, Wallachia shared a border with Transylvania ; Wallachian princes have for long held possession of areas north of the line ( Amlaș , Ciceu , Făgăraș , and Hațeg ), which are generally not considered part of Wallachia proper. The capital city changed over time, from Câmpulung to Curtea de Argeș , then to Târgoviște and, after
13650-523: The Danube, encountered his troops' strong opposition. From its establishment in 681 to approximately the Hungarians ' conquest of Transylvania at the end of the tenth century, the First Bulgarian Empire controlled the territory of Wallachia. With the decline and subsequent Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria (from the second half of the tenth century up to 1018), Wallachia came under the control of
13825-770: The Danube, north of the Haemus Mountains, and the Triballi in the valley of the Morava, shared a number of characteristic linguistic features with the Dacii south of the Carpathians and the Getae in the Wallachian plain, which sets them apart from the Thracians though their languages are undoubtedly related. Dacian culture is mostly followed through Roman sources. Ample evidence suggests that they were
14000-483: The Danube. Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Dacians and Getae were always considered as Thracians by
14175-600: The Goths (who had settled north of the Danube) in 332. The period of Goth rule ended when the Huns arrived in the Pannonian Basin and, under Attila , attacked and destroyed some 170 settlements on both sides of the Danube. Byzantine influence is evident during the fifth to sixth century, such as the site at Ipotești–Cândești culture , but from the second half of the sixth century and in
14350-606: The Habsburg monarchy on the other. Mavrocordatos himself was deposed by a boyar rebellion, and arrested by Habsburg troops during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18 , as the Ottomans had to concede Oltenia to Charles VI of Austria (the Treaty of Passarowitz ). The region, organized as the Banat of Craiova and subject to an enlightened absolutist rule that soon disenchanted local boyars,
14525-628: The Kingdom of Romania, thereby forming the modern Romanian state. The name Wallachia is an exonym , generally not used by Romanians themselves, who used the denomination "Țara Românească" – Romanian Country or Romanian Land, although it does appear in some Romanian texts as Valahia or Vlahia . It derives from the term walhaz used by Germanic peoples and Early Slavs to refer to Romans and other speakers of foreign languages. In Northwestern Europe , this gave rise to Wales , Cornwall , and Wallonia , among others, while in Southeast Europe it
14700-475: The Mongols. While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars, the bulk of them came from south of the Danube at the end of the 14th century, some time after the foundation of Wallachia . The arrival of the Roma made slavery a widespread practice. Traditionally, Roma slaves were divided into three categories. The smallest was owned by the hospodars , and went by
14875-628: The Ottoman Sultan and the Holy Roman Empire . The following decade was marked by the conflict between the rival houses of Dănești and Drăculești . Faced with both internal and external conflict, Vlad II Dracul reluctantly agreed to pay the tribute demanded of him by the Ottoman Empire, despite his affiliation with the Order of the Dragon , a group of independent noblemen whose creed had been to repel
15050-548: The Ottoman invasion. As part of the tribute, the sons of Vlad II Dracul ( Radu cel Frumos and Vlad III Dracula ) were taken into Ottoman custody. Recognizing the Christian resistance to their invasion, leaders of the Ottoman Empire released Vlad III to rule in 1448 after his father's assassination in 1447. Known as Vlad III the Impaler or Vlad III Dracula, he immediately put to death the boyars who had conspired against his father, and
15225-538: The Provisional Government included the emancipation ( dezrobire ) of the Roma as one of the main social demands. By the 1850s the movement gained support from almost the whole of Romanian society, and the law from February 1856 emancipated all slaves to the status of taxpayers (citizens). With an area of approximately 77,000 km (30,000 sq mi), Wallachia is situated north of the Danube (and of present-day Bulgaria ), east of Serbia and south of
15400-554: The Rhine army into Italy. Further major "Scythian" invasions took place in 265-266 and possibly the largest of all, 267-268 , which was a seaborne invasion which penetrated the Aegean Sea , landed in Macedonia and proceeded to ravage Thrace. However, it was eventually stopped by the emperor Claudius II Gothicus , who destroyed the barbarian host at Naissus (268). Unlike previous invasions,
15575-633: The Rhine, Danube and in the East; at least 11 generals launched military coups; the empire was split into three autonomous pieces; and Valerian himself was captured by the Persians and died after several years in their captivity, the first Roman emperor to suffer such a humiliation. 256-257: The Carpi, with the same allies as in 253, burst into Moesia, ravaged Thrace and lay siege unsuccessfully to Thessalonica in Macedonia . Valerian and Gallienus were obliged to leave
15750-612: The Roman empire's inhabitants. The impact on the barbarian regions would have resulted in many weakened tribes and empty regions that may have induced the stronger tribes to expand. A well-known example is the Goths . These were probably recorded by the Roman historian Tacitus , under the name Gotones , as inhabiting the area East of the Vistula river in central Poland in AD 100. By 250, the Goths had moved South into western Ukraine and were frequently raiding
15925-497: The Romans' first major conflict with this people since its defeat by Aurelian 23 years earlier. The war ended in 297 with a crushing Roman victory. A panegyric of 297 hails "the recent disasters [suffered by] the Carpi" ( proxima illa ruina Carporum ). Diocletian claimed the title Carpicus Maximus for the first time. In 298, Diocletian handed the lower Danube command to his Caesar (deputy emperor), Galerius . In an intensive series of campaigns, Galerius inflicted four more defeats on
16100-476: The Roxolani. There is no dispute among scholars that some Decebalic-era Dacian settlements in Moldavia (mostly west of the Siret, with a few on the east bank (including Piroboridava , identified with Poiana-Tecuci ), were abandoned by 106, most likely, according to Bichir, as a result of the Roman conquest of Dacia . From this time, Bichir identifies two distinct cultures in Moldavia, existing side by side. One,
16275-414: The Roxolani. In addition, an apparently separate force of Goths and Bastarnae also entered Moesia Inferior, led by Kniva's two top lieutenants. Jordanes claims that the barbarians totaled 300,000 men, but Byzantine chroniclers often grossly inflate barbarian numbers, typically by a factor of ten (e.g. Zosimus' claim that 60,000 Alamanni fell at the Battle of Strasbourg in 357, against the 6,000 recorded by
16450-665: The Sîntana-de-Mureş "variant" of the Chernyakhov culture common to much of the North-Pontic region of south eastern Europe in the period 200–400. There is no direct evidence in surviving Roman imperial era sources, literary or epigraphic, regarding the language of the Carpi. In the near-total absence of inscriptions in the barbaricum , the only valid (though not infallible) indicator of the linguistic affiliation of barbarian peoples are personal names, which can sometimes be ascribed to
16625-472: The Third Century ". In the period 270–318, the Roman "military emperors" acted to remove the Carpi threat to the empire's borders. Multiple crushing defeats were inflicted on the Carpi in 273, 297, 298-308 and in 317. After each, massive numbers of Carpi were forcibly transferred by the Roman military to the Roman province of Pannonia (modern western Hungary ) as part of the emperors' policy of repopulating
16800-521: The alliance as broken—he had Vladimirescu executed, and faced the Ottoman intervention without Pandur or Russian backing, suffering major defeats in Bucharest and Drăgășani (before retreating to Austrian custody in Transylvania ). These violent events, which had seen the majority of Phanariotes siding with Ypsilantis, made Sultan Mahmud II place the Principalities under its occupation (evicted by
16975-473: The ancients (Dio Cassius, Trogus Pompeius, Appian , Strabo and Pliny the Elder), and were both said to speak the same Thracian language . The linguistic affiliation of Dacian is uncertain, since the ancient Indo-European language in question became extinct and left very limited traces, usually in the form of place names, plant names and personal names. Thraco-Dacian (or Thracian and Daco-Mysian) seems to belong to
17150-567: The area near the Carpathian Mountains and west of the Black Sea . They are often considered a subgroup of the Thracians . This area includes mainly the present-day countries of Romania and Moldova , as well as parts of Ukraine , Eastern Serbia , Northern Bulgaria , Slovakia , Hungary and Southern Poland . The Dacians and the related Getae spoke the Dacian language , which has
17325-586: The ascendancy of Greeks , compromised with the Greek revolutionaries in the Filiki Eteria and allied itself with the regents, while seeking Russian support (see also: Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire ). On 21 March 1821 Vladimirescu entered Bucharest. For the following weeks, relations between him and his allies worsened, especially after he sought an agreement with the Ottomans; Eteria's leader Alexander Ypsilantis , who had established himself in Moldavia and, after May, in northern Wallachia, viewed
17500-414: The barbarians, because of their aura of invincibility after Abrittus, but Aemilianus' leadership steadied them. At an unknown location near the Danube, the Romans launched a surprise attack and scored a complete victory. They chased the barbarians over the river and deep into their homelands, recovering vast quantities of plunder and liberating thousands of Roman civilians who had been abducted. Possibly among
17675-483: The barbarians. Kniva's horde stormed the city of Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulgaria) and spent the winter of 250/251 in the province. In the meantime, Decius rebuilt his field army in Moesia Inferior . In 251, as the barbarian army headed home towards the Danube, laden with a vast quantity of plunder, they were intercepted by the emperor at Abrittus in Moesia Inferior. In a hard-fought battle, Kniva's main force
17850-573: The battle after an agreement between the Craiovești and Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent ; Prince Radu eventually confirmed Süleyman's position as suzerain and agreed to pay an even higher tribute. Ottoman suzerainty remained virtually unchallenged throughout the following 90 years. Radu Paisie , who was deposed by Süleyman in 1545, ceded the port of Brăila to Ottoman administration in the same year. His successor Mircea Ciobanul (1545–1554; 1558–1559),
18025-495: The borders of Wallachia, which interfered with their control of trade routes. In retaliation, the Saxons distributed grotesque poems of cruelty and other propaganda, demonizing Vlad III Dracula as a drinker of blood. These tales strongly influenced an eruption of vampiric fiction throughout the West and, in particular, Germany. They also inspired the main character in the 1897 Gothic novel Dracula by Bram Stoker . In 1462, Vlad III
18200-403: The contemporary and more reliable Ammianus Marcellinus ). Thus 30,000 is a more plausible, but still formidable, estimate for Kniva's invasion, divided into two divisions. The Carpi contingent numbered 3,000 men, according to Jordanes. Facing the invasion were the Roman emperor "Trajan" Decius , an experienced general and Philip's commander on the Danube front, who had succeeded his patron after
18375-577: The coordinates of Wallachia and specified that Wallachia was named al-Awalak and the dwellers ulaqut or ulagh . The area of Oltenia in Wallachia was also known in Turkish as Kara-Eflak ("Black Wallachia") and Kuçuk-Eflak ("Little Wallachia"), while the former has also been used for Moldavia. In the Second Dacian War (AD 105) western Oltenia became part of the Roman province of Dacia , with parts of later Wallachia included in
18550-477: The country during the Russo-Turkish-Austrian War , deposing Nicholas Mavrogenes in 1789. A period of crisis followed the Ottoman recovery: Oltenia was devastated by the expeditions of Osman Pazvantoğlu , a powerful rebellious pasha whose raids even caused prince Constantine Hangerli to lose his life on suspicion of treason (1799), and Alexander Mourousis to renounce his throne (1801). In 1806,
18725-641: The country, a move towards centralism . In 1768, during the Fifth Russo-Turkish War , Wallachia was placed under its first Russian occupation (helped along by the rebellion of Pârvu Cantacuzino ). The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) allowed Russia to intervene in favour of Eastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects, curtailing Ottoman pressures—including the decrease in sums owed as tribute —and, in time, relatively increasing internal stability while opening Wallachia to more Russian interventions. Habsburg troops, under Prince Josias of Coburg , again entered
18900-506: The desired effect of sustaining peace on the Danube. Hard on the heels of military catastrophe, the Roman army was crippled by the outbreak of a devastating smallpox pandemic, the so-called Plague of Cyprian (251 - c. 270). The effects of the Cyprianic pandemic are described by Zosimus as even worse than the earlier Antonine outbreak, which probably killed 15-30% of the empire's inhabitants. The Roman army would have suffered heavy casualties as
19075-515: The devastated Danubian provinces with surrendered barbarian tribes. Since the Carpi are no longer mentioned in known documents after 318, it is possible that the Carpi were largely removed from the Carpathian region by c. 318 or, if any remained, it is possible that they mingled with other peoples resident or immigrating into Moldavia, such as the Sarmatians or Goths. The Greco-Romans called this people
19250-526: The duration of his reign, the union was irreversible after the ascension of Carol I in 1866 (coinciding with the Austro-Prussian War , it came at a time when Austria, the main opponent of the decision, was not in a position to intervene). Slavery ( Romanian : robie ) was part of the social order from before the founding of the Principality of Wallachia, until it was abolished in stages during
19425-504: The east. The name Daci , or "Dacians" is a collective ethnonym . Dio Cassius reported that the Dacians themselves used that name, and the Romans so called them, while the Greeks called them Getae. Opinions on the origins of the name Daci are divided. Some scholars consider it to originate in the Indo-European * dha-k -, with the stem * dhe - 'to put, to place', while others think that
19600-531: The eastern (satem) group of Indo-European languages. There are two contradictory theories: some scholars (such as Tomaschek 1883; Russu 1967; Solta 1980; Crossland 1982; Vraciu 1980) consider Dacian to be a Thracian language or a dialect thereof. This view is supported by R. G. Solta, who says that Thracian and Dacian are very closely related languages. Other scholars (such as Georgiev 1965, Duridanov 1976) consider that Thracian and Dacian are two different and specific Indo-European languages which cannot be reduced to
19775-544: The emperor by unobservedly crossing the Haemus ( Balkan ) mountains into Thracia , which was largely undefended. The emperor, who was left several days' march behind, was obliged to rush his army into Thracia by forced marches. At Beroe (Stara Zagora, Bulgaria), Kniva launched a surprise attack on the emperor's exhausted army, inflicting a major defeat. Decius was obliged to withdraw the remnants of his shattered force to Moesia Inferior and to leave Thracia to be pillaged at will by
19950-512: The empire in conjunction with local tribes. It was in this context of upheaval that, in the middle of the third century, the Carpi emerged as a major barbarian threat to Rome's lower Danubian provinces. They were described by Jordanes as "a race of men very eager to make war, and often hostile to the Romans". A series of major Carpi incursions into the empire are recorded, either alone or in alliance with their neighbouring Sarmatian or Germanic tribes (including Roxolani , Bastarnae, Goths). However,
20125-414: The entire remaining Carpi people were transferred into the empire. There are several indications that the Carpi may have been largely eliminated north of the Danube by 318: Dacians The Dacians ( / ˈ d eɪ ʃ ən z / ; Latin : Daci [ˈdaːkiː] ; Ancient Greek : Δάκοι, Δάοι, Δάκαι ) were the ancient Indo-European inhabitants of the cultural region of Dacia , located in
20300-491: The fall of the Árpád dynasty opened the way for the unification of Wallachian polities, and to independence from Hungarian rule. Wallachia's creation, held by local traditions to have been the work of one Radu Negru (Black Radu), is historically connected with Basarab I of Wallachia (1310–1352), who rebelled against Charles I of Hungary and took up rule on either side of the Olt, establishing his residence in Câmpulung as
20475-431: The first common institutions and semblance of a constitution (see Regulamentul Organic ). Wallachia was returned ownership of Brăila , Giurgiu (both of which soon developed into major trading cities on the Danube ), and Turnu Măgurele . The treaty also allowed Moldavia and Wallachia to freely trade with countries other than the Ottoman Empire, which signalled substantial economic and urban growth, as well as improving
20650-550: The first ruler of the House of Basarab . Basarab refused to grant Hungary the lands of Făgăraș , Almaș and the Banate of Severin , defeated Charles in the Battle of Posada (1330), and, according to Romanian historian Ștefan Ștefănescu , extended his lands to the east, to comprise lands as far as Kiliya in the Budjak (reportedly providing the origin of Bessarabia ); the supposed rule over
20825-531: The following decades. One of the first written pieces of evidence of local voivodes is in connection with Litovoi (1272), who ruled over land each side of the Carpathians (including Hațeg Country in Transylvania), and refused to pay tribute to Ladislaus IV of Hungary . His successor was his brother Bărbat (1285–1288). The continuing weakening of the Hungarian state by further Mongol invasions (1285–1319) and
21000-532: The following peoples recorded in ancient sources correspond to Ptolemy's Karpiani : If so, their locations could imply that the Carpi had very gradually migrated westwards in the period 400 BC - AD 140, a view championed by Kahrstedt. These names' common element carp- appears frequently in Dacian and Thracian placenames and personal names. But there is no consensus that these groups are in fact Carpi. Bichir suggests that they were Thraco-Dacian tribes distantly related to
21175-616: The indigenous population of Thracian origins. When the Agathyrsi were later completely assimilated by the Geto-Thracian populations;, their fortified settlements became the centres of the Getic groups who would later transform into the Dacian culture; an important part of the Dacian people descended from the Agathyrsi. When the La Tène Celts arrived in the 4th century BC, the Dacians were under
21350-507: The influence of the Scythians. Alexander the Great attacked the Getae in 335 BC on the lower Danube, but by 300 BC they had formed a state founded on a military democracy, and began a period of conquest. More Celts arrived during the 3rd century BC, and in the 1st century BC the people of Boii tried to conquer some of the Dacian territory on the eastern side of the Teiss river. The Dacians drove
21525-536: The language or dialect that was spoken north of Danube, in present-day Romania and eastern Hungary, and "Thracian" for the variety spoken south of the Danube. There is no doubt that the Thracian language was related to the Dacian language which was spoken in what is today Romania, before some of that area was occupied by the Romans. Also, both Thracian and Dacian have one of the main satem characteristic changes of Indo-European language, *k and *g to *s and *z. With regard to
21700-405: The larger of the two traditional sections. Wallachia was founded as a principality in the early 14th century by Basarab I after a rebellion against Charles I of Hungary , although the first mention of the territory of Wallachia west of the river Olt dates to a charter given to the voivode Seneslau in 1246 by Béla IV of Hungary . In 1417, Wallachia was forced to accept the suzerainty of
21875-598: The late 17th century, to Bucharest . Contemporary historians estimate the population of Wallachia in the 15th century at 500,000 people. In 1859, the population of Wallachia was 2,400,921 (1,586,596 in Muntenia and 814,325 in Oltenia ). According to the latest 2011 census data, the region has a total population of 8,256,532 inhabitants, distributed among the ethnic groups as follows (as per 2001 census): Romanians (97%), Roma (2.5%), others (0.5%). The largest cities (as per
22050-683: The late Roman map Tabula Peutingeriana . It was Herodotus who first used the ethnonym Getae in his Histories . In Greek and Latin, in the writings of Julius Caesar , Strabo , and Pliny the Elder , the people became known as 'the Dacians'. Getae and Dacians were interchangeable terms, or used with some confusion by the Greeks. Latin poets often used the name Getae . Vergil called them Getae four times, and Daci once, Lucian Getae three times and Daci twice, Horace named them Getae twice and Daci five times, while Juvenal one time Getae and two times Daci . In AD 113, Hadrian used
22225-561: The later "Dacia." In the 1st century AD, Strabo suggested that its stem formed a name previously borne by slaves: Greek Daos, Latin Davus (-k- is a known suffix in Indo-European ethnic names). In the 18th century, Grimm proposed the Gothic dags or "day" that would give the meaning of "light, brilliant". Yet dags belongs to the Sanskrit word-root dah- , and a derivation from Dah to Δάσαι "Daci"
22400-444: The latter was murdered by mutinous troops in 249, and Caius Trebonianus Gallus , who had been appointed governor of Moesia Superior in the previous year by Decius. It appears that, for the purpose of dealing with the threat, Gallus was given command of forces in the frontier forts along the Danube, while the emperor commanded a mobile force of crack units. After losing two encounters with the Romans in Moesia Inferior, Kniva surprised
22575-587: The latter was not preserved by the princes that followed, as Kilia was under the rule of the Nogais c. 1334. There is evidence that the Second Bulgarian Empire ruled at least nominally the Wallachian lands up to the Rucăr– Bran corridor as late as the late 14th century. In a charter by Radu I , the Wallachian voivode requests that tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria order his customs officers at Rucăr and
22750-473: The latter was the C. Valerius Serapio (probably a Greek) who dedicated an undated altar found at Apulum ( Alba Iulia ) in Roman Dacia , as thanksgiving for his rescue from the Carpi ( liberatus a Carpis ) Aemilianus was hailed as emperor by his victorious troops and marched on Rome, where Gallus' forces killed their leader rather than fight against the Danubian army. However, only three months later, Aemilianus
22925-628: The leadership of the Gothic king Kniva . Kniva's invasion had apparently been provoked by the termination of the Goths' annual Roman subsidy by the emperor Philip. Judging by their actions, the invaders' war aims were limited to pillage: the capture of as many slaves, horses, treasure and other goods as possible to take back to their homelands across the Danube. Kniva's horde apparently included Goths, Taifali and Vandals , as well as some renegade Roman army veterans. Given Zosimus' description of "Scythians", it almost certainly included Sarmatian elements such as
23100-474: The leadership of the three states, was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by Nicolae Bălcescu . Following Michael's downfall, Wallachia was occupied by the Polish–Moldavian army of Simion Movilă (see Moldavian Magnate Wars ), who held the region until 1602, and was subject to Nogai attacks in the same year. The last stage in
23275-503: The mountain range (i.e. the name means "mountains of the Carpi") and those who claim the reverse. In the latter case, Carpiani could mean simply "people of the Carpathians". But the similarity between the two names may be coincidence, and they may derive from different roots. For example, it has been suggested that the name may derive from the Slavic root-word krepu meaning "strong" or "brave". Romanian scholar Vasile Pârvan considered that
23450-535: The name Daci originates in * daca 'knife, dagger' or in a word similar to dáos, meaning 'wolf' in the related language of the Phrygians . One hypothesis is that the name Getae originates in Indo-European * guet- 'to utter, to talk'. Another hypothesis is that Getae and Daci are the Iranian names of two Iranian-speaking Scythian groups that had been assimilated into the larger Thracian-speaking population of
23625-406: The peasant situation. Many of the provisions had been specified by the 1826 Akkerman Convention between Russia and the Ottomans, but it had never been fully implemented in the three-year interval. The duty of overseeing of the Principalities was left to Russian general Pavel Kiselyov ; this period was marked by a series of major changes, including the reestablishment of a Wallachian Army (1831),
23800-684: The plains, rarely on the Carpathian foothills (i.e. East of the Siret), either singly or in small groups of 2-13 graves, including men, women and children. The great majority of nomadic-culture graves are flat (non-tumular), in contrast to nomadic barrow-graves found from the Dniester region eastwards. However, some secondary barrow-burials (i.e. using pre-existing barrows) have been found, mostly dating from 200 onwards. The nomadic graves always contain grave-goods, often including weapons, and mirrors engraved with tamgas (ritual or tribal symbols associated with nomadic steppe cultures). Six cemeteries in Bichir's list contain both cremation and inhumation graves. At
23975-435: The poetic term Getae for the Dacians. Modern historians prefer to use the name Geto-Dacians . Strabo describes the Getae and Dacians as distinct but cognate tribes. This distinction refers to the regions they occupied. Strabo and Pliny the Elder also state that Getae and Dacians spoke the same language. By contrast, the name of Dacians , whatever the origin of the name, was used by the more western tribes who adjoined
24150-465: The protection they extended to Sudiți traders (who soon competed successfully against local guilds). The death of prince Alexander Soutzos in 1821, coinciding with the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence , established a boyar regency which attempted to block the arrival of Scarlat Callimachi to his throne in Bucharest. The parallel uprising in Oltenia , carried out by the Pandur leader Tudor Vladimirescu , although aimed at overthrowing
24325-403: The putative Proto-Indo-European word * ker/sker , meaning "peak" or "cliff" (cf. Lithuanian karpyti "mountain peaks looking like a saw", Albanian karpë "rock", Romanian (ş)carpă "precipice", Sanskrit kar "cut", and Latin scarpa , cfr. Italian scarpata , English escarpment ). Scholars who support this derivation are divided between those who believe the Carpi gave their name to
24500-411: The ratio of sedentary to nomadic graves, Bichir concludes that the sedentary folk constituted the majority of the population of Moldavia. In the mixed cemeteries documented by Bichir, nomadic graves constitute about 28% of the total. However, in Moldavia as a whole, nomadic graves represent no more than 1% of all graves. After 318, according to Bichir, the "Daco-Carpic" culture was in Moldavia replaced by
24675-403: The region under his authority; his brief rule also extended to Moldavia later in the following year. For a brief period, Michael the Brave ruled (in a personal, but not formal, union) most of the territories where Romanians lived, rebuilding the base of the ancient Kingdom of Dacia . The rule of Michael the Brave, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and
24850-403: The remaining legions on the Danube, they proclaimed their commander Gallus emperor. The latter concluded a peace with the Goths, which permitted them to return home with their booty intact and guaranteed resumed subsidies. Although Zosimus denounces the terms as shameful, it was probably the only realistic option open to Gallus in the circumstances. But Gallus' resumption of subsidies did not have
25025-417: The resurgent Vlad III and Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân during his 11-year reign. Subsequently, Radu IV the Great (Radu cel Mare, who ruled 1495–1508) reached several compromises with the boyars, ensuring a period of internal stability that contrasted his clash with Bogdan III the One-Eyed of Moldavia. The late 15th century saw the ascension of the powerful Craiovești family, virtually independent rulers of
25200-422: The revolution were sent into exile. Briefly under renewed Russian occupation during the Crimean War , Wallachia and Moldavia were given a new status with a neutral Austrian administration (1854–1856) and the Treaty of Paris : a tutelage shared by Ottomans and a Congress of Great Powers (Britain, France, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia , the Austrian Empire, Prussia, and, albeit never again fully, Russia), with
25375-410: The rise of Imperial Russia under Tsar Peter the Great —he was approached by the latter during the Russo-Turkish War of 1710–11 , and lost his throne and life sometime after sultan Ahmed III caught news of the negotiations. Despite his denunciation of Brâncoveanu's policies, Ștefan Cantacuzino attached himself to Habsburg projects and opened the country to the armies of Prince Eugene of Savoy ; he
25550-453: The rise of liberal and radical currents, was first felt with the protests voiced by Ion Câmpineanu (quickly repressed); subsequently, it became increasingly conspiratorial , and centered on those secret societies created by young officers such as Nicolae Bălcescu and Mitică Filipescu . Frăția , a clandestine movement created in 1843, began planning a revolution to overthrow Bibescu and repeal Regulamentul Organic in 1848 (inspired by
25725-415: The role of the Carpi in the coalition's incursions is not always clear, as the most comprehensive account, that of the 6th-century chronicler Zosimus , is chronologically confused and often denotes the participants under the vague term " Scythians " (meaning inhabitants of the geographical region called Scythia (i.e. roughly modern Ukraine), not ethnic Scythians ). The involvement of the Carpi in attacks by
25900-413: The role of the Carpi in these conflicts may imply that they were Roman allies in this period. Around AD 200 a phase of major population movements started in the European barbaricum (the region outside the borders of the empire). The cause of this dislocation is unknown, but an important factor may have been the Antonine Plague (165-180), a devastating smallpox pandemic, which may have killed 15-30% of
26075-424: The rule of emperor Philip the Arab (244-249), the Carpi crossed the Danube and laid waste Moesia Inferior. After the theatre governors failed to repel the invasion, the emperor took personal command and launched a major counter-attack. After a prolonged struggle, the Carpi were driven back across the Danube. Pursued by the Romans into their homeland, the main body of Carpi took refuge in a major stronghold (presumably
26250-436: The same vote, returned a majority of anti-unionists to its divan . Those elected changed their allegiance after a mass protest of Bucharest crowds, and Cuza was voted prince of Wallachia on 5 February (24 January Old Style ), consequently confirmed as Domnitor of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia ( of Romania from 1862) and effectively uniting both principalities . Internationally recognized only for
26425-406: The seventh century, Slavs crossed the territory of Wallachia and settled in it, on their way to Byzantium, occupying the southern bank of the Danube. In 593, the Byzantine commander-in-chief Priscus defeated Slavs, Avars and Gepids on future Wallachian territory, and, in 602, Slavs suffered a crucial defeat in the area; Flavius Mauricius Tiberius , who ordered his army to be deployed north of
26600-547: The slaying of at least 5,000 Carpi (as traditionally required for the grant of a Triumph in Rome). For the Carpi, these defeats were accompanied by mass deportations and resettlement inside the empire. According to Ammianus, Diocletian's regime continued to settle Carpi in Pannonia, and, apparently, in Scythia Minor (i.e. the coastal region of modern Romania). Eutropius reports that "enormous numbers" were transferred. Heather interprets these reports as implying hundreds of thousands of deportees. According to Victor , writing in 361,
26775-459: The so-called "Dacian cup", a cup of distinctive design, as evidence of a Dacian base to this culture. However, he admits that the pottery also shows Roman and Sarmatian influence. The sedentary folk appear to have been generally illiterate, as no "Daco-Carpic" inscription was ever found during the very intensive excavations carried out in the region. The sedentary culture did not issue its own coinage. However, Roman coinage circulated "intensely" in
26950-714: The state were Muntenia (The Land of Mountains), Țara Rumânească (the Romanian Land), Valahia, and, rarely, România. The spelling variant Țara Românească was adopted in official documents by the mid-19th century; however, the version with u remained common in local dialects until much later. For long periods after the 14th century, Wallachia was referred to as Vlashko ( Bulgarian : Влашко ) by Bulgarian sources, Vlaška ( Serbian : Влашка ) by Serbian sources, Voloschyna ( Ukrainian : Волощина ) by Ukrainian sources, and Walachei or Walachey by German -speaking (most notably Transylvanian Saxon ) sources. The traditional Hungarian name for Wallachia
27125-437: The term "Getic" (Getae), even though attempts have been made to distinguish between Dacian and Getic, there seems no compelling reason to disregard the view of the Greek geographer Strabo that the Daci and the Getae, Thracian tribes dwelling north of the Danube (the Daci in the west of the area and the Getae further east), were one and the same people and spoke the same language. Another variety that has sometimes been recognized
27300-400: The troops of Mehmed IV in 1658–1659. The reigns of Gheorghe Ghica and Grigore I Ghica , the sultan's favourites, signified attempts to prevent such incidents; however, they were also the onset of a violent clash between the Băleanu and Cantacuzino boyar families, which was to mark Wallachia's history until the 1680s. The Cantacuzinos, threatened by the alliance between the Băleanus and
27475-405: The victory-title argument is not conclusive, as 3rd-century emperors used three titles simultaneously to indicate victories against the Iranians, Parthicus ("Victorious over the Parthians "), Medicus (" Medes ") and Persicus (" Persians "). Note: *Some of the titles above are attested to in multiple inscriptions. Although the Carpi are recorded as resident in the Dacian region from at least
27650-420: The walls of Rome, forcing the Roman Senate to arm the civilian population to man the ramparts, as Gallienus was fully occupied on the Rhine fighting a coup d'état by one of his generals ( Postumus ). Recognising that there was no possibility of taking the city and sacking it, the Gothic-led host proceeded to ravage the whole of Italy. They were finally driven out by Gallienus' lieutenant Macrianus , who brought
27825-400: The west and the Dnieper cataracts in the east, and up to the Pripyat , Vistula , and Oder rivers in the north and northwest. In 53 BC, Julius Caesar stated that the Dacian territory was on the eastern border of the Hercynian forest . According to Strabo's Geographica , written around AD 20, the Getes (Geto-Dacians) bordered the Suevi who lived in the Hercynian Forest , which
28000-408: Was a common practice in Eastern Europe at the time, and there is some debate over whether the Romani people came to Wallachia as free people or as slaves. In the Byzantine Empire , they were slaves of the state and it seems the situation was the same in Bulgaria and Serbia until their social organization was destroyed by the Ottoman conquest, which would suggest that they came as slaves who had
28175-436: Was also a period of increased influence for the Saxon merchants in Brașov and Sibiu , and of Wallachia's alliance with Louis II of Hungary . Under Teodosie , the country was again under a four-month-long Ottoman occupation, a military administration that seemed to be an attempt to create a Wallachian Pashaluk . This danger rallied all boyars in support of Radu de la Afumaţi (four rules between 1522 and 1529), who lost
28350-400: Was also invaded by Goths and Sarmatians known as the Chernyakhov culture , followed by waves of other nomads . In 328, the Romans built a bridge between Sucidava and Oescus (near Gigen ) which indicates that there was a significant trade with the peoples north of the Danube. A short period of Roman rule in the area is attested under Emperor Constantine the Great , after he attacked
28525-410: Was brought to Wallachia in 1715 by the very same ruler. The tense relations between boyars and princes brought a decrease in the number of taxed people (as a privilege gained by the former), a subsequent increase in total taxes, and the enlarged powers of a boyar circle in the Divan. In parallel, Wallachia became the battleground in a succession of wars between the Ottomans on one side and Russia or
28700-405: Was carried out following a campaign by young revolutionaries who embraced the liberal ideas of the Enlightenment . The earliest law which freed a category of slaves was in March 1843, which transferred the control of the state slaves owned by the prison authority to the local authorities, leading to their sedentarizing and becoming peasants. During the Wallachian Revolution of 1848 , the agenda of
28875-496: Was characterized as both a national hero and a cruel tyrant . He was cheered for restoring order to a destabilized principality, yet showed no mercy toward thieves, murderers or anyone who plotted against his rule. Vlad demonstrated his intolerance for criminals by utilizing impalement as a form of execution. Vlad fiercely resisted Ottoman rule, having both repelled the Ottomans and been pushed back several times. The Transylvanian Saxons were also furious with him for strengthening
29050-419: Was complete by the beginning of the Bronze Age. The people of that time are best described as proto-Thracians, which later developed in the Iron Age into Danubian-Carpathian Geto-Dacians as well as Thracians of the eastern Balkan Peninsula. Between 15th–12th century BC, the Dacian-Getae culture was influenced by the Bronze Age Tumulus-Urnfield warriors who were on their way through the Balkans to Anatolia. In
29225-407: Was contained, forcing the Carpi to sue for peace. This was granted to them on apparently lenient terms by Philip, who was eager to conclude the campaign in time for the forthcoming celebrations of the 1,000th anniversary of the City of Rome's foundation (April 248). Philip was acclaimed Carpicus Maximus . 250-251: The Carpi participated in a massive transdanubian invasion of Moesia and Thrace under
29400-403: Was defeated by Mehmed the Conqueror during his offensive at the Night Attack at Târgovişte before being forced to retreat to Târgoviște and accepting to pay an increased tribute. Meanwhile, Vlad III faced parallel conflicts with his brother, Radu cel Frumos, (r. 1437/1439–1475), and Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân . This led to the conquest of Wallachia by Radu, who would face his own struggles with
29575-476: Was himself deposed and executed in 1716. Immediately following the deposition of Prince Ștefan, the Ottomans renounced the purely nominal elective system (which had by then already witnessed the decrease in importance of the Boyar Divan over the sultan's decision), and princes of the two Danubian Principalities were appointed from the Phanariotes of Constantinople . Inaugurated by Nicholas Mavrocordatos in Moldavia after Dimitrie Cantemir , Phanariote rule
29750-472: Was in turn assassinated by the same troops, who defected to Valerian (reigned 253–260), the commander of forces on the Rhine , who had marched into Italy to rescue Gallus. Valerian was proclaimed emperor and promptly elevated his son Gallienus (reigned 253–268) as Augustus (co-emperor). This father-and-son team presided over the most chaotic period of the empire's history before the 5th century. The empire suffered multiple and massive barbarian invasions on
29925-449: Was of great ethnic diversity during the Roman imperial era, the Barrington Atlas listing Agathyrsi , Bastarnae , Britolagai , Costoboci , Roxolani , Thrakes , and Tyragetae . Also, some modern authors surmise the existence of ethnic groups formed in loco from mixed origins (but mostly with an indigenous Dacian/Sarmatian base e.g. the Goths ). The evidence to support a Dacian identity: A possible argument against Dacian ethnicity
30100-516: Was returned to Wallachia in 1739 (the Treaty of Belgrade , upon the close of the Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39) ). Prince Constantine Mavrocordatos , who oversaw the new change in borders, was also responsible for the effective abolition of serfdom in 1746 (which put a stop to the exodus of peasants into Transylvania ); during this period, the ban of Oltenia moved his residence from Craiova to Bucharest , signalling, alongside Mavrocordatos' order to merge his personal treasury with that of
30275-406: Was routed. The emperor then led his men across a bog in order to engage Kniva's reserve force, which guarded the barbarians' booty. But the emperor had underestimated the difficulty of the terrain: the Romans became immobilised in the mire and reportedly every one of them perished, including the emperor himself, massacred at long range by Kniva's archers or drowned. When news of this disaster reached
30450-421: Was the term corresponding to the legal institution during the Roman era , where slaves were considered goods instead of human beings and the owners had ius vitae necisque over them (right to end the life of the slave); while robie is the feudal institution where the slaves were legally considered human beings and they had reduced legal capacity. The exact origins of slavery in Wallachia are not known. Slavery
30625-603: Was used to designate Romance -speakers, and subsequently shepherds in general. In Slavonic texts of the Early Middle Ages , the name Zemli Ungro-Vlahiskoi ( Земли Унгро-Влахискои or "Hungaro-Wallachian Land") was also used as a designation for the region. The term, translated in Romanian as "Ungrovalahia", remained in use up to the modern era in a religious context, referring to the Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan seat of Hungaro-Wallachia , in contrast to Thessalian or Great Vlachia in Greece or Small Wallachia (Mala Vlaška) in Serbia. The Romanian-language designations of
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