108-566: The papal tiara is the crown worn by popes of the Catholic Church for centuries, until 1978 when Pope John Paul I declined a coronation , opting instead for an inauguration. The tiara is still used as a symbol of the papacy. It features on the coat of arms of the Holy See and of the Vatican City State , though not on the pope's personal coat of arms since Pope Benedict XVI replaced
216-409: A papal coronation . The surviving papal tiaras are all in the triple form, the oldest from 1572. A representation of the triregnum combined with two crossed keys of Saint Peter is used as a symbol of the papacy and appears on papal documents, buildings and insignia , and on the flag of Vatican City . Actual use of the papal tiara has declined since the reign of Pope Paul VI , the last pope to have
324-628: A Crusade. Frederick II ignored this and was moderately successful in the Holy Land . King Philip IV of France wanted to use the finances of the Church to pay for his war with the English. Pope Boniface VIII protested, leading to a feud. This state of affairs culminated in the unbridled declaration of papal supremacy, Unam sanctam , in November 1302. In that papal bull , Pope Boniface VIII decreed that "it
432-506: A coronation ceremony. Starting with Pope Benedict XVI , popes have also stopped incorporating a papal tiara into their Coat of Arms. The papal tiara originated from a conical Phrygian cap or frigium. Shaped like a candle-extinguisher , the papal tiara and the episcopal mitre were identical in their early forms. Names used for the papal tiara in the 8th and 9th centuries include camelaucum , pileus , phrygium and pileum phrygium . A circlet of linen or cloth of gold at
540-765: A display of historic Vatican items. Pope Paul VI's "Milan tiara" was donated to and is on display in the crypt church of the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C. , United States of America . Most of the surviving (three-crown) papal tiaras have the shape of a circular beehive , with its central core made of silver . Some were sharply conical, others bulbous. Except for that of Pope Paul VI, all were heavily bejewelled . The three crowns are marked by golden decorations, sometimes in
648-746: A faction of cardinals gave rise to the Western Schism . This started a second line of Avignon popes, subsequently regarded as illegitimate. The last Avignon antipope , Benedict XIII , lost most of his support in 1398, including that of France . After five years besieged by the French, he fled to Perpignan in 1403. The schism ended in 1417 at the Council of Constance . Among the popes who resided in Avignon, subsequent Catholic historiography grants legitimacy to these: The two Avignon-based antipopes were: Benedict XIII
756-495: A meeting of the Estates General , a council of the lords of France, who had supported his position. The King of France issued charges of sodomy , simony , sorcery, and heresy against the pope and summoned him before the council. The pope's response was the strongest affirmation to date of papal sovereignty. In Unam sanctam (18 November 1302), he decreed that "it is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to
864-535: A mosaic from Old Saint Peter's , now in the Museo di Roma . A similar tiara, conical and with only one crown, is seen worn by pope Clement IV in frescoes from the 13th century in Pernes-les-Fontaines , France. The second crown is said to have been added by Pope Boniface VIII as signifying both his spiritual and temporal power, since he declared that God had set him over kings and kingdoms. Boniface VIII's tiara
972-453: A most atypical piece of headgear for an Ottoman sultan, which he probably never normally wore, but which he placed beside him when receiving visitors, especially ambassadors. It was crowned with an enormous feather. Conversely, the papal coronation ceremony, in which the Pope was fanned with flabella (long fans of ostrich feathers) and carried on the sedia gestatoria (portable throne),
1080-405: A new Pope succeeded. The Archbishop of Bordeaux was chosen and took the title of Clement V . He removed the papal seat from Rome to Avignon and the tiara was brought to Lyons from Perugia for his coronation on 14 November 1305. In the inventory which was taken in 1315–16 Boniface VIII's tiara is again described and can be identified by the mention of the large ruby, which is recorded as missing. It
1188-467: A papal coronation, replacing it with a reference to an "inauguration". The use of Papal Tiara in solemn ceremonies was left by Paul VI. Though not currently worn as part of papal regalia , the papal tiara still appears on the coat of arms of the Holy See and the flag of Vatican City . Later in his reign John Paul II approved depictions of his arms without the tiara, as with the mosaic floor piece towards
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#17328476093361296-629: A papal tiara and carrying a papal cross . Avignon Papacy The Avignon Papacy ( Occitan : Papat d'Avinhon ; French : Papauté d'Avignon ) was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven successive popes resided in Avignon (at the time within the Kingdom of Arles , part of the Holy Roman Empire , now part of France ) rather than in Rome (now the capital of Italy ). The situation arose from
1404-453: A relative of the House of Savoy , pursued a particularly ruthless policy against the league to re-establish control over these cities. He convinced Pope Gregory to hire Breton mercenaries. To quell an uprising of the inhabitants of Cesena he hired John Hawkwood and had the majority of the people massacred (between 2,500 and 3,500 people were reported dead). Following such events opposition against
1512-420: A significantly shorter ceremony. As with all other modern coronations, the ceremony itself was only symbolic, as the person involved became Pope and Bishop of Rome the moment he accepted his canonical election in the papal conclave . The two subsequent popes ( John Paul I and John Paul II ) abandoned the monarchial coronation, opting instead for a coronation-less investiture. In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI took
1620-637: A special tiara by Dieter Philippi, a German chief executive officer of a telecommunication company who had commissioned the gift from an artisan workshop located in Sofia . Each year, a large papal tiara is placed on the head of the famous bronze statue of Saint Peter in St. Peter's Basilica from the vigil of the Feast of the Cathedra of Saint Peter on 22 February until the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul on 29 June. This custom
1728-460: A step further and removed the tiara from his papal coat of arms, replacing it with a mitre . Only one other Catholic see uses the tiara in its coat of arms: the Patriarchate of Lisbon . The title of Patriarch of Lisbon was created in 1716 and has been held by the archbishop of Lisbon since 1740. The coat of arms of the Holy See combines the tiara with the crossed keys of St. Peter, while that of
1836-543: Is described as having three circlets corona quae vocatur, regnum cum tribus circuitis aureis . It therefore must have been between the taking of the two inventories in 1295 and 1315 that the second and third circlets were added to the tiara. It was during this period that the fleur-de-lis was used to decorate the circlets. The tiara was kept in the Papal Treasury at Avignon until Gregory XI took it back to Rome, which he entered on 17 January 1377. In 1378 Robert of Geneva
1944-525: Is honour and glory for ever and ever"). Yet others have associated it with the threefold office of Christ , who is Priest, Prophet and King, or "teacher, lawmaker and judge". Another traditional interpretation was that the three crowns refer to the "Church Militant on earth", the "Church Suffering after death and before heaven", and the "Church Triumphant in eternal reward". Yet another interpretation suggested by Archbishop Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo, who designed Pope Benedict XVI's tiara-less coat of arms,
2052-476: Is necessary to salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff." This was directed primarily to King Philip IV of France who responded by saying, "Let thy foolishness know that in temporal things we are subject to no man." In 1303 AD, Pope Boniface VIII followed up with a bull that would excommunicate the king of France and put an interdict over all France. Before this was finalized, Italian allies of
2160-410: Is no certainty about what the three crowns of the tiara symbolise, as is evident from the multitude of interpretations that have been and still are proposed. Some link it to the threefold authority of the "Supreme Pontiff : Universal Pastor (top), Universal Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction (middle) and Temporal Power (bottom)". Others interpret the three tiers as meaning "father of princes and kings, ruler of
2268-449: Is not the time to return to a ceremony and an object considered, wrongly, to be a symbol of the temporal power of the Popes." Paul VI's 1975 Apostolic Constitution Romano Pontifici Eligendo on the manner of electing the Pope, still envisaged that his successors would be crowned. Pope John Paul II, in his 1996 Apostolic Constitution Universi Dominici gregis , removed all mention of
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#17328476093362376-423: Is represented with two crowns in his statues and tomb by Arnolfo di Cambio . The addition of a third crown is attributed to Pope Benedict XI (1303–1304) or Pope Clement V (1305–1314), and one such tiara was listed in an inventory of the papal treasury in 1316 (see "Tiara of Saint Sylvester", below). The first years of the 16th century saw the addition of a small orb and cross to top the tiara. The third crown
2484-441: Is strikingly similar in design to the earlier tiara of Gregory XVI. It remained a particularly popular crown, worn by, among others, Pope Pius XI , Pope Pius XII and Pope John XXIII . Pope Pius XI 's 1922 crown, in contrast was much less decorated and much more conical in shape. Except for the papier-mâché tiara , the lightest tiara was that made for Pope John XXIII in 1959. It weighed just over 0.9 kg (2.0 lb), as did
2592-597: The Holy See and its cardinals: tithes , a ten-percent tax on church property; annates , the income of the first year after filling a position such as a bishopric ; special taxes for crusades that never took place; and many forms of dispensation, from the entering of benefices without basic qualifications like literacy for newly appointed priests to the request of a converted Jew to visit his unconverted parents. Popes such as John XXII , Benedict XII , and Clement VI reportedly spent fortunes on expensive wardrobes, and silver and gold plates were used at banquets . Overall
2700-514: The friars who were commonly regarded as failing to follow the Church's moral commandments by ignoring their vows of chastity and poverty and were despised. This sentiment strengthened movements calling for a return to absolute poverty, relinquishment of all personal and ecclesiastical belongings, and preaching as the Lord and his disciples had. For the Catholic Church , an institution embedded in
2808-471: The papier-mâché tiara made when Pope Pius VII was elected and crowned in exile, and the one made for Pope Paul VI in 1963, which is somewhat bullet-shaped, contains few jewels and, instead of being adorned by three coronets, is marked with three parallel circles and has a double-tiered crown at its base. The tiara given to Pope Pius IX in 1877 by the Vatican's Palatine Honor Guard in honour of his Jubilee
2916-460: The 12th and 13th centuries. The success of the early Crusades added greatly to the prestige of the Popes as secular leaders of Christendom , with monarchs like those of England , France , and even the Holy Roman Emperor merely acting as marshals for the popes and leading "their" armies. One exception was Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor , who was twice excommunicated by the Pope during
3024-569: The 14th century, the tiara of Boniface VIII began to be called the Tiara of St. Sylvester , and became venerated and considered as a relic. This was no doubt suggested by the Donation of Constantine , but it now came to be used only at the coronation of popes, starting with Gregory XI in 1370 and his successor Urban VI in 1378. It was used at no other ceremonies and was kept in the Lateran Treasury. It
3132-526: The 1922 tiara of Pope Pius XI. In contrast, the bullet-shaped tiara of Pope Paul VI weighed 4.5 kg (9.9 lb). The heaviest papal tiara in the papal collection is the 1804 tiara donated by Napoleon I to celebrate both his marriage to Josephine and his coronation as French emperor. It weighs 8.2 kg (18 lb). However it was never worn, as its width was made, some suspected deliberately, too small for Pope Pius VII to wear. A number of popes deliberately had new tiaras made because they found those in
3240-464: The Avignon papacy bought the city of Avignon from the Angevins. Pope Innocent VI (1352–1362), born Etienne Aubert, was less partisan than Clement VI. He was keen on establishing peace between France and England, having worked to this end in papal delegations in 1345 and 1348. His gaunt appearance and austere manners commanded higher respect in the eyes of nobles at both sides of the conflict. However, he
3348-537: The Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520), but he claimed it had nothing to do with the Western Schism or papacy in Avignon. The relationship between the papacy and France changed drastically over the course of the 14th century. Starting with open conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France, it turned to cooperation from 1305 to 1342, and finally to a papacy under strong influence by
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3456-561: The Bold of the Duchy of Burgundy and Margaret III, Countess of Flanders , rather than giving dispensation to one of Edward III of England 's sons to marry Margaret. This clearly showed the partisanship of the papacy; correspondingly, the respect for the church dropped. The most influential decision in the reign of Pope Gregory XI (1370–1378) was the return to Rome, beginning on 13 September 1376 and ending with his arrival on 17 January 1377. Although
3564-461: The Cathars in southern France); the reorganization of the internal administration of the church; and the preservation of an untainted image of the church as the sole instrument of God's will on earth. The latter was directly challenged by Philip IV when he demanded a posthumous trial of his former adversary, the late Boniface VIII, for alleged heresy . Phillip exerted strong influence on the cardinals of
3672-463: The Catholic Church increased the pressure upon the papal court to emulate the governmental practices and procedures of secular courts. The Catholic Church successfully reorganised and centralized its administration under Clement V and John XXII . The papacy now directly controlled the appointments of benefices , abandoning the customary election process that traditionally allotted this considerable income. Many other forms of payment brought riches to
3780-494: The English side over Guy's strong ties with the French court. In a letter Innocent VI himself wrote to the Duke of Lancaster : "Although we were born in France and although for that and other reasons we hold the realm of France in special affection, yet in working for peace we have put aside our private prejudices and tried to serve the interests of everyone." With Pope Urban V (1362–1370),
3888-532: The French court were much stronger than those of his predecessors. At some point he even financed French war efforts out of his own pockets. He reportedly loved luxurious wardrobe and under his rule the extravagant life style in Avignon reached new heights. Clement VI was also pope during the Black Death , the epidemic that swept through Europe between 1347 and 1350 and is believed to have killed about one-third of Europe's population . Also during his reign, in 1348,
3996-476: The French king. During its time in Avignon, the papacy adopted many features of the Royal court: the life-style of its cardinals was more reminiscent of princes than clerics; more and more French cardinals, often relatives of the ruling pope, took key positions; and the proximity of French troops was a constant reminder of where secular power lay, with the memory of Pope Boniface VIII still fresh. The temporal role of
4104-454: The French throne up to 1378. Such partisanship of the papacy was one of the reasons for the dropping esteem for the institution, which in turn was one of the reasons for the schism from 1378 to 1417. In the period of the Schism, the power struggle in the papacy became a battlefield of the major powers, with France supporting the antipopes in Avignon and England supporting the popes in Rome . At
4212-413: The Holy See. Since then popes have used or received as gifts more than twenty tiaras. Several were never worn by a pope, notably those presented as gifts since the last papal coronation in 1963. Papal tiara The papal tiara is a crown that is worn by popes of the Catholic Church from as early as the 8th century to the mid–20th century. It was last used by Pope Paul VI in 1963, and only at
4320-504: The King of France broke into the papal residence and beat Pope Boniface VIII. He died shortly thereafter. Nicholas Boccasini was elected as his successor and took the name Pope Benedict XI . He absolved King Philip IV and his subjects of their actions against Pope Boniface VIII, though the culprits who assaulted Boniface were excommunicated and ordered to appear before a pontifical tribunal. Benedict XI died within eight months of being elected to
4428-516: The Lisbon Patriarchate combines it with a processional cross and a pastoral staff. The Archbishop of Benevento also uses the tiara in its coat of arms. The 16th-century Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent commissioned Venetian craftsmen to make a 4-tiered tiara modeled on the papal design , to demonstrate that his power and authority as Caliph exceeded that of the Pope. This was
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4536-545: The Pope was French born and still under strong influence by the French King, the increasing conflict between factions friendly and hostile to the Pope posed a threat to the papal lands and to the allegiance of Rome itself. When the papacy established an embargo against grain exports during a food scarcity 1374 and 1375, Florence organized several cities into a league against the papacy: Milan , Bologna , Perugia , Pisa , Lucca and Genoa . The papal legate, Robert of Geneva,
4644-399: The Pope was also under the influence of Catherine of Siena , later canonized, who preached for a return to Rome. This resolution was short-lived when, having returned the papal court to Rome, Pope Gregory XI died. A conclave met and elected an Italian pope, Urban VI . Pope Urban alienated the French cardinals, who held a second conclave electing one of their own, Robert of Geneva, who took
4752-479: The Roman pontiff." He was preparing a bull that would excommunicate the King of France and put the interdict over France when in September 1303, William Nogaret , the strongest critic of the papacy in the French inner circle, led a delegation to Rome, with intentionally loose orders by the king to bring the pope, if necessary by force, before a council to rule on the charges brought against him. Nogaret coordinated with
4860-536: The advisers to the King of France were based. The Kingdom of Arles was not yet part of France at that time, formally a part of the Holy Roman Empire . The literature produced by the troubadours in the Languedoc is unique and strongly distinct from that of Royal circles in the north. Even in terms of religion, the South produced its own variety of Christianity, Catharism , which was ultimately declared heretical. The movement
4968-469: The base of the tiara developed into a metal crown, which by about 1300 became two crowns. The first of these appeared at the base of the traditional white papal headgear in the 9th century. When the popes assumed temporal power in the Papal States , the base crown became decorated with jewels to resemble the crowns of princes. Innocent III is represented with an early tiara in a fresco at Sacro Speco and on
5076-412: The beginning of his reign. The name tiara refers to the entire headpiece, including the various crowns, circlets, and diadems that have adorned it through the ages, while the three-tiered form that it took in the 14th century is also called the triregnum or the triple crown , and sometimes as the triple tiara . From 1143 to 1963, the papal tiara was solemnly placed on the pope's head during
5184-502: The bull Salvator Mundi , retracting all privileges granted to the French king by previous popes, and a few weeks later Ausculta fili with charges against the king, summoning him before a council to Rome. In a bold assertion of papal sovereignty, Boniface declared that "God has placed us over the Kings and Kingdoms." In response, Philip wrote "Your venerable conceitedness may know, that we are nobody's vassal in temporal matters," and called for
5292-521: The cardinals of the Colonna family, long-standing rivals against whom the pope had even preached a crusade earlier in his papacy. In 1303 French and Italian troops attacked the pope in Anagni , his home town, and arrested him. He was freed three days later by the population of Anagni. Boniface VIII, then 68 years of age, was deeply shattered by this attack on his own person and died a few weeks later. In reaction to
5400-414: The collection either too small, too heavy, or both. Rather than use the papier-mâché tiara, Pope Gregory XVI had a new lightweight tiara made in the 1840s. In the 1870s, Pope Pius IX, then in his eighties, found the other tiaras too heavy to wear and that of his predecessor, Pope Gregory, too small, so he had a lightweight tiara made also. In 1908 Pope Pius X had another lightweight tiara made as he found that
5508-549: The collegium, and compliance with his demand could mean a severe blow to the church's authority. Much of Clement's politics was designed to avoid such a blow, which he finally did (persuading Phillip to leave the trial to the Council of Vienne, where it lapsed). However, the price won concessions on various fronts; despite strong personal doubts, Clement supported Phillipe's proceedings against the Templars, and he personally ruled to suppress
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#17328476093365616-532: The common expectation of poverty and strict adherence to principles, was used by enemies of the papacy to raise charges against the popes; King Philip of France employed this strategy, as did Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor . In his conflict with the latter, Pope John XXII excommunicated two leading philosophers, Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham , who were outspoken critics of the papacy, and who had found refuge with Louis IV in Munich . In response, William charged
5724-527: The conflict between the papacy and the French crown , culminating in the death of Pope Boniface VIII after his arrest and maltreatment by Philip IV of France . Following the subsequent death of Pope Benedict XI , Philip forced a deadlocked conclave to elect the French Clement V as pope in 1305. Clement refused to move to Rome, and in 1309 he moved his court to the papal enclave at Avignon, where it remained for
5832-409: The control by Charles V of France of the papacy became more direct. Urban V himself is described as the most austere of the Avignon popes after Benedict XII and probably the most spiritual of all. However, he was not a strategist and made substantial concessions to the French crown especially in finances, a crucial issue during the war with England. In 1369 Pope Urban V supported the marriage of Philip
5940-403: The emperor, chose to be crowned with a tiara bearing three crowns. The papal tiara was never worn for liturgical celebrations, such as Mass . At such functions the Pope, like other bishops, wore a mitre. However, a tiara was worn during the solemn entrance and departure processions, and one or more could be placed on the altar during the elaborately ceremonial Pontifical High Mass . The tiara
6048-474: The end of the third session of the Second Vatican Council in 1964, Paul VI descended the steps of the papal throne in St. Peter's Basilica and ascended to the altar, on which he laid the tiara as a sign of the renunciation of human glory and power in keeping with the renewed spirit of the council. It was announced that the tiara would be sold and the money obtained would be given to charity. The tiara
6156-455: The ends with red fringe. Pope Paul VI was crowned with a tiara at the papal coronation. As happened sometimes with previous popes, a new tiara was used, donated by the city of Milan , where he was archbishop before his election. It was not covered in jewels and precious gems, and was sharply cone-shaped. It was also distinctly heavier than the Palatine Tiara previously in use. Near
6264-413: The entrance of St Peter's Basilica, where an ordinary mitre takes the place of the tiara. Otherwise, until the reign of Benedict XVI the tiara was also the ornament surmounting a Pope's personal coat of arms, as a tasseled hat (under which a 1969 Instruction of the Holy See forbade the placing of a mitre, a second hat) surmounted those of other prelates. Pope Benedict XVI's personal coat of arms replaced
6372-461: The eve of his imperial coronation. Others were a gift to a newly elected pope from the See which they had held before their election, or on the occasion of the jubilee of their ordination or election. In some instances, various cities sought to outdo each other in the beauty, value and size of the tiaras they provided to popes from their region. Examples include tiaras given to Popes John XXIII and Paul VI,
6480-410: The form of crosses, sometimes in the shape of leaves. Most are surmounted by a cross set above a monde (globe), representing the universal sovereignty of Christ. Each tiara had attached to the back two lappets ; highly decorated strips of cloth embroidered with golden thread, bearing the coat of arms or another symbol of the pope to whom the tiara had been given. There are two rather unusual tiaras:
6588-404: The former by John's home region, the latter by Paul's previous archiepiscopal see of Milan on their election to the papacy. Popes were not restricted to a particular tiara: for example, photographs show Pope John XXIII, on different occasions, wearing the tiara presented to him in 1959, Pope Pius IX 's 1877 tiara, and Pope Pius XI's 1922 tiara. Pope Paul VI, whose bullet-shaped tiara is one of
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#17328476093366696-414: The head-dress, which is now usually referred to as a tiara, is described as enriched with 48 rubies balas , 72 sapphires , 45 praxini or emeralds , numerous little balas rubies and emeralds and 66 large pearls . At the summit was a very large ruby. Boniface VIII was succeeded in 1303 by Benedict XI , who took the tiara to Perugia . After his death in 1304 there was a period of eleven months before
6804-399: The hood of the regnum was lengthened and the circlet was greatly enriched with precious stones, while toward the end of his papacy a second circlet was added. The increased length had the symbolical meaning of dominion of the una sancta ecclesia over the earth, and demonstrated the meaning of the papal unam sanctum . In the inventory of 1295, the second year of Boniface's papacy,
6912-457: The impasse during the previous conclave , and to escape from the infighting of the powerful Roman families that had produced earlier Popes, such as the Colonna and Orsini families , the Catholic Church looked for a safer place and found it in Avignon, which was surrounded by the lands of the papal fief of Comtat Venaissin . Formally it was part of Arles, but in reality it was under the influence of
7020-480: The intransigence of Popes like Boniface VIII, the French tightened their influence under the papacy, eventually reducing the Popes to puppets and stacking the Papal court with French clerics. The death of Pope Boniface VIII deprived the papacy of its most able politician who could stand against the secular power of the king of France. After the conciliatory papacy of Benedict XI (1303–04), Pope Clement V (1305–1314) became
7128-447: The iron crown of Lombardy at Milan or Monza and the golden imperial crown at Rome and therefore the Pope, too, should wear three crowns." Like a bishop's mitre, a papal tiara has attached to it two lappets , a pair of streamers or pendants that in Latin are called caudae or infulae . These are usually attached at the rear of the tiara, again as on a bishop's mitre, although
7236-428: The mosaic of Pope Clement VIII wearing a triregnum shows them placed forward of the ears. All extant tiaras have them placed at the rear. The lappets, sometimes called " fanons " according to the 2nd definition of the word, are likely relics of the cord used to secure the original form of linen cap or turban around a bishop's head. The 1911 Catholic Encyclopedia describes the lappets on a bishop's mitre as trimmed on
7344-412: The most unusual in design, was the last pope to wear a papal tiara (though any of his successors could, if they wished, revive the custom). Most surviving tiaras are on display in the Vatican, though some were sold off or donated to Catholic bodies. Some of the more popular or historic tiaras, such as the 1871 Belgian tiara, the 1877 tiara and the 1903 golden tiara, have been sent around the world as part of
7452-468: The name Clement VII , to succeed Gregory XI, thus beginning a second line of Avignon popes. Clement VII and his successors are not regarded as legitimate, and are referred to as antipopes by the Catholic Church . This situation, known as the Western Schism , persisted from 1378 until the ecumenical Council of Constance (1414–1418) settled the question of papal succession and declared the French conclave of 1378 to be invalid. A new Pope, Pope Martin V ,
7560-454: The next pontiff . He was born in Gascony , in southern France, but was not directly connected to the French court. He owed his election to the French clerics. He decided against moving to Rome and established his court in Avignon . In this situation of dependency on powerful neighbours in France, three principles characterized the politics of Clement V: the suppression of heretic movements (such as
7668-637: The next 67 years. This absence from Rome is sometimes referred to as the " Babylonian captivity " of the Papacy (cf. Italian cattività avignonese , i.e. "Avignonese captivity"). A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon, all French , and all under the influence of the French Crown. In 1376, Gregory XI abandoned Avignon and moved his court to Rome, arriving in January 1377. After Gregory's death in 1378, deteriorating relations between his successor Urban VI and
7776-446: The normal tiaras in use were too heavy, while the lightweight ones did not fit comfortably. New methods of manufacture in the 20th century enabled the creation of lighter normal tiaras, producing the 900 g (2.0 lb) tiaras of Pius XI and John XXIII. That, combined with the existence of a range of lightweight tiaras from earlier popes, meant that no pope since Pius X in 1908 needed to make his own special lightweight tiara. There
7884-625: The office of the papacy and the Roman Catholic faith. However, the papal tiara disappeared from later depictions of the Popess and showed her wearing more standard medieval female headgear. All tarot cards also contain a representation of the pope, known as " The Hierophant ", in some cases crowned with a papal tiara. For instance, the Rider–Waite tarot deck , currently the widest-circulated deck in existence, depicts The Hierophant or pope as wearing
7992-561: The order. One important issue during the papacy of Pope John XXII (born Jacques Duèze in Cahors , and previously archbishop in Avignon) was his conflict with Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor , who denied the sole authority of the Pope to crown the Emperor. Louis followed the example of Philippe IV, and summoned the nobles of Germany to back his position. Marsilius of Padua justified secular supremacy in
8100-399: The papacy by world leaders or heads of states, including Queen Isabella II of Spain , William I (German Emperor), Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and Napoleon I of France . The tiara provided by the last was made from elements of former papal tiaras destroyed after the capture of Rome, and was given to Pius VII as a 'wedding gift' to mark Napoleon's own marriage to Empress Josephine on
8208-431: The papacy strengthened. Florence came in open conflict with the Pope, a conflict called "the war of the eight saints" in reference to the eight Florentine councilors who were chosen to orchestrate the conflict. The entire city of Florence was excommunicated and as reply the forwarding of clerical taxes was stopped. Trade was seriously hampered and both sides had to find a solution. In his decision about returning to Rome,
8316-424: The papacy. After eleven months, Bertrand de Got, a Frenchman and a personal friend of King Philip IV, was elected as pope and took the name Pope Clement V. Beginning with Clement V , elected 1305, all popes during the Avignon papacy were French. However, this makes French influence seem greater than it was. Southern France ( Occitania ) at that time had a culture quite independent from Northern France, where most of
8424-482: The papal tiara. His immediate successor, Pope John Paul I , decided against a coronation, replacing it with an " inauguration ". It was officialized in 1996 within the apostolic constitution Universi Dominici gregis after which Benedict XVI and Pope Francis did not have a coronation rite with the Papal Tiara. After John Paul I's sudden death, Pope John Paul II told the congregation at his inauguration: "This
8532-453: The pontiff with ostrich -feathered flabella to the location of the coronation. Traditionally, coronations took place in St Peter's Basilica. At the moment of the coronation, the new pope was crowned with the words: Receive the tiara adorned with three crowns and know that you are Father of princes and kings, Ruler of the world, Vicar of our Saviour Jesus Christ. Pope Paul VI opted for
8640-479: The pope with seventy errors and seven heresies. The proceedings against the Knights Templar in the Council of Vienne are representative of this time, reflecting the various powers and their relationships. In 1314 the collegium at Vienne convened to make a ruling concerning the Templars. The council, overall unconvinced about the guilt of the order as a whole, was unlikely to condemn the entire order based on
8748-506: The public life of leading church members began to resemble the lives of princes rather than members of the clergy. This splendor and corruption at the head of the Church found its way to the lower ranks: when a bishop had to pay up to a year's income for gaining a benefice, he sought ways of raising this money from his new office. This was taken to extremes by the pardoners who sold absolutions for all kinds of sins. While pardoners were hated but popularly regarded as helpful to redeem one's soul,
8856-597: The same amount of time as the exile of the Jews in Babylon, making the analogy convenient and rhetorically potent. The Avignon papacy has been and is often today depicted as being totally dependent on the French kings, and sometimes as even being treacherous to its spiritual role and its heritage in Rome. Almost a century and a half later, Protestant reformer Martin Luther wrote his treatise On
8964-577: The scarce evidence brought forward. Exerting massive pressure in order to gain part of the substantial funds of the Order, the King managed to get the ruling he wanted, and Pope Clement V ordered by decree the suppression of the order. In the cathedral of Saint Maurice in Vienne, the King of France and his son, the King of Navarre , were sitting next to him when he issued the decree. Under pain of excommunication , no one
9072-655: The secular structure and its focus on property, this was a dangerous development, and beginning in the early 14th century most of these movements were declared heretical . These included the Fraticelli and Waldensian movements in Italy and the Hussites in Bohemia (inspired by John Wycliffe in England). Furthermore, the display of wealth by the upper ranks of the church, which contrasted with
9180-480: The souls of the examined, taking a lot of time in the proceedings. His interest in pacifying southern France was also motivation for mediating between the King of France and the King of England, before the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War . Under Pope Clement VI (1342–1352) the French interests started dominating the papacy. Clement VI had been Archbishop of Rouen and adviser to Philippe IV before, so his links to
9288-634: The territory of the Holy Roman Empire. This conflict with the Emperor, often fought out in expensive wars, drove the papacy even more into the arms of the French king. Pope Benedict XII (1334–1342), born Jacques Fournier in Pamiers, was previously active in the inquisition against the Cathar movement. In contrast to the rather bloody picture of the Inquisition in general, he was reported to be very careful about
9396-408: The tiara on his official coat of arms with a traditional bishop's mitre. A tiara is used to crown a statue of Saint Peter in St. Peter's Basilica every year on his feast day. Popes commissioned tiaras from jewelers or received them as gifts, with a number remaining in the possession of the Holy See. In 1798, French troops occupied Rome and stole or destroyed all but one of the papal tiaras held by
9504-420: The tiara with a mitre containing three levels reminiscent of the three tiers on the papal tiara. The mitre was retained on Pope Francis' personal coat of arms . In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI promulgated the document Ordo Rituum pro Ministerii Petrini initio Romae Episcopi that confirmed the choice of Pope John Paul II to refuse the tiara and the incoronation rite. In May 2011, Pope Benedict XVI received
9612-547: The tiaras and papal regalia melted down in 1527 to raise the 400,000 ducats ransom demanded by the occupying army of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V . Over twenty silver tiaras exist, of which the earliest, the sole survivor of 1798, was made for Pope Gregory XIII in the 16th century. On 21 March 1800 as Rome was in the hands of the French, Pius VII was crowned in exile, in Venice , with a papier-mâché tiara, for which ladies of Venice gave up their jewels. Many tiaras were donated to
9720-437: The various claimants to the office of pope. The Council of Constance finally resolved the controversy in 1417 when the election of Pope Martin V was accepted by all. Avignon and the small enclave to the east ( Comtat Venaissin ) remained part of the Papal States until 1791 when, under pressure from French Revolutionaries , they were absorbed by the short-lived revolutionary Kingdom of France (1791–92) , which, in turn,
9828-429: The west", referring to the worldly practices of the church hierarchy. The nickname is polemical, in referring to the claim by critics that the prosperity of the church at that time was accompanied by a profound compromise of the papacy's spiritual integrity, especially in the alleged subordination of the powers of the Church to the ambitions of the French kings. As noted, the "captivity" of the popes at Avignon lasted about
9936-454: The world, vicar of Christ ". The words that were used when popes were crowned were: Accipe tiaram tribus coronis ornatam, et scias te esse patrem principum et regum, rectorem orbis in terra vicarium Salvatoris nostri Jesu Christi, cui est honor et gloria in saecula saeculorum ("Receive the tiara adorned with three crowns and know that thou art father of princes and kings, ruler of the world, vicar on earth of our Saviour Jesus Christ, to whom
10044-483: Was "order, jurisdiction and magisterium", while a further theory links the three tiers to the "celestial, human and terrestrial worlds," which the pope is supposed to symbolically link. Lord Twining suggested that just as the Holy Roman Emperors were crowned three times as king of Germany, king of Italy and Roman emperor, so the popes, to stress the equality of their spiritual authority to the temporal authority of
10152-684: Was abolished in favor of the French First Republic the following year. The papacy in the Late Middle Ages played a major temporal role in addition to its spiritual role. The conflict between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor was fundamentally a dispute over which of them was the leader of Christendom in secular matters. In the early 14th century, the papacy was well past the prime of its secular rule – its importance had peaked in
10260-497: Was added to the papal tiara during the Avignon Papacy (1309–1378), giving rise to the form called the triregnum. After Pope Clement V at Avignon , various versions of the three-crown tiara have been worn by popes also in Rome down to Pope Paul VI , who was crowned with one in 1963. Lord Twining wrote of a tiara of Pope Boniface VIII that became known as the Tiara of Saint Sylvester: Under Boniface VIII (1294–1303)
10368-527: Was allowed to speak at that occasion except when asked by the Pope. The Templars who appeared in Vienne to defend their order were not allowed to present their case—the cardinals of the collegium originally ruled that they should be allowed to raise a defense, but the arrival of the King of France in Vienne put pressure on the collegium, and that decision was revoked. After the arrest of the Bishop of Pamiers by Philip IV of France in 1301, Pope Boniface VIII issued
10476-412: Was also indecisive and impressionable, already an old man when being elected Pope. In this situation, the King of France managed to influence the papacy, although papal legates played key roles in various attempts to stop the conflict. Most notably in 1353 the Bishop of Porto , Guy de Boulogne, tried to set up a conference. After initial successful talks the effort failed, largely due to the mistrust from
10584-522: Was also worn when a pope gave his traditional Christmas and Easter Urbi et Orbi blessing ("to the City and the World") from the balcony of St Peter's – the only religious ceremony at which the tiara was worn. The most famous occasion when the tiara was used was the papal coronation, a six-hour ceremony, when the new pope was carried in state on the sedia gestatoria (portable throne), with attendants fanning
10692-559: Was based on the Byzantine imperial ceremonies witnessed in medieval Constantinople . Medieval tarot cards included a card showing a woman wearing a papal tiara and known as the Popess or Papess or the High Priestess . The meaning and symbolism of the card is uncertain. The crowned woman has variously been identified as Pope Joan (who, according to legend, disguised herself as a man and
10800-478: Was elected anti-Pope taking the style Clement VII , and he removed the tiara from Avignon. When the Spaniard, Pedro de Luna, was elected anti-Pope in 1394 styling himself Benedict XIII, he took the tiara from Avignon to Spain, where it remained until Aphonso V of Aragon failed in his attempt to renew the schism, and on his withdrawal of support from the anti-Pope Clement VII in 1419, the tiara was returned to Rome. In
10908-413: Was elected in 1417; other claimants to succeed to Avignon line (though not resident at Avignon) continued until c. 1437. The period has been called the " Babylonian captivity " of the popes. When and where this term originated is uncertain although it may have sprung from Petrarch , who in a letter to a friend (1340–1353) written during his stay at Avignon, described Avignon of that time as the "Babylon of
11016-518: Was elected pope; some cards also show a child, and the Pope Joan legend pictured her as found out when she gave birth during a papal procession), as Mary, Mother of God , or even as Cybele , Isis , or Venus . Cards with a woman wearing a papal tiara, produced during the Protestant Reformation , and apparent images of "Pope Joan" and her child, have been seen as a Protestant attempt to ridicule
11124-632: Was fueled in no small part by the strong sense of independence in the South even though the region had been severely weakened during the Albigensian Crusade a hundred years before. By the time of the Avignon Papacy, the power of the French King in this region was uncontested, although still not legally binding. A stronger impact was made by the move of the Roman Curia from Rome to Poitiers in France in 1305, and then to Avignon in 1309. Following
11232-444: Was last used at the coronation of Nicholas V (1446–55), and in 1485 it was stolen and no more is heard of it. Twining also notes the various allegorical meanings attributed to the three crowns of the papal tiara, but concludes that "it seems more likely that the symbolism is suggested by the idea that took shape in the 13th and 14th centuries that the Emperor was crowned with three crowns—the silver crown of Germany at Aix-la-Chapelle,
11340-492: Was not observed in 2006, but was reintroduced in 2007. Although often referred to as the Papal Tiara, historically there have been many, and 22 remain in existence. Many of the earlier papal tiaras (most notably the tiaras of Pope Julius II and that attributed to Pope Silvester I ) were destroyed, dismantled or seized by invaders (most notably by Berthier's army in 1798), or by popes themselves; Pope Clement VII had all
11448-784: Was purchased by Catholics in the United States and is now kept in the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C. It is on permanent display in Memorial Hall along with the stole that Pope John XXIII wore at the opening of the Second Vatican Council. Paul VI's abandonment of use of one of the most striking symbols of the papacy was highly controversial with many Traditionalist Catholics , some of whom continue to campaign for its reinstatement. Certain voices went so far as to brand Paul VI an antipope , arguing that no valid pope would surrender
11556-450: Was succeeded by three antipopes, who had little or no public following, and were not resident at Avignon: The period from 1378 to 1417, when there were rival claimants to the title of pope, is referred to as the " Western Schism " or "the great controversy of the antipopes" by some Catholic scholars and "the second great schism" by many secular and Protestant historians. Parties within the Catholic Church were divided in their allegiance among
11664-456: Was thus worn in formal ceremonial processions, and on other occasions when the pope was carried on the sedia gestatoria , a portable throne whose use was ended by Pope John Paul II immediately after his election in October 1978. His short-lived predecessor, John Paul I, also chose initially not to use it, but relented when informed that without it the people could not see him. The papal tiara
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