162-397: Naomi Rebekah Wolf (born 1962) is an American feminist author, journalist, and conspiracy theorist . After the 1991 publication of her first book, The Beauty Myth , Wolf became a prominent figure in the third wave of the feminist movement . Feminists including Gloria Steinem and Betty Friedan praised her work. Others, including Camille Paglia , criticized it. In the 1990s, Wolf was
324-466: A Globe and Mail article in 2014, considering how modern Western women, born in inclusive, egalitarian liberal democracies, are assuming positions of leadership in neofascist political movements. Give Me Liberty: A Handbook for American Revolutionaries was written as a sequel to The End of America . The book looks at times and places in history where citizens faced the closing of an open society and successfully fought back. Vagina: A New Biography
486-538: A famine , at a time when three million people in the country were suffering from hunger . Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in public health , encouraging opposition to such public health measures as vaccination and water fluoridation . They have been linked to outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases . Other effects of conspiracy theories include reduced trust in scientific evidence , radicalization and ideological reinforcement of extremist groups, and negative consequences for
648-521: A primary against Baker. Since leaving Clinton's employ in 1996, Morris has said he has become profoundly "disillusioned" with the actions of the Clintons in the late 1990s. He has since formed a career as a political commentator and critic of the Clintons (particularly Hillary), appearing on Fox News programs such as Hannity & Colmes , Hannity , and The O'Reilly Factor , and on various local and nationally syndicated radio talk shows . Morris
810-477: A scientific theory can be disproven by a single perceived deficiency, even though such events are extremely rare. In addition, both disregarding the claims and attempting to address them will be interpreted as proof of a conspiracy. Other conspiracist arguments may not be scientific; for example, in response to the IPCC Second Assessment Report in 1996, much of the opposition centered on promoting
972-413: A "crippled epistemology", in which a person encounters or accepts very few relevant sources of information. A conspiracy theory is more likely to appear justified to people with a limited "informational environment" who only encounter misleading information. These people may be " epistemologically isolated" in self-enclosed networks . From the perspective of people within these networks, disconnected from
1134-458: A "mothers' manifesto", including flexi-time for both parents, neighborhood toy banks, and a radical mothers' movement. In her New York Times review, Claire Dederer wrote that Wolf "barely pauses to acknowledge that Caesareans are, at times, a necessary and even lifesaving intervention" and that she does "her best writing when she's observing her own life" as a memoirist, calling Wolf's work in this idiom not "self-indulgent. It seems vital, and in
1296-899: A "narrow agenda" where "you will look in vain for much discussion of older women, of black women, of women with low incomes, of mothers." Calling Wolf a "media star", Walter wrote: "She is particularly good, naturally, on the role of women in the media." Promiscuities (1997) reports on and analyzes the shifting patterns of contemporary adolescent sexuality. Wolf argues that literature is rife with examples of male coming-of-age stories, covered autobiographically by D. H. Lawrence , Tobias Wolff , J. D. Salinger , and Ernest Hemingway , and misogynistically by Henry Miller , Philip Roth and Norman Mailer , while female accounts of adolescent sexuality have been systematically suppressed. Schools, in Wolf's opinion, should teach their students "sexual gradualism", masturbation, mutual masturbation and oral sex, which she sees as
1458-422: A "shallow" theorist observes an event and asks Cui bono ? ("Who benefits?"), jumping to the conclusion that a posited beneficiary is responsible for covertly influencing events. On the other hand, the "deep" conspiracy theorist begins with a hunch and then seeks out evidence. Rothbard describes this latter activity as a matter of confirming with certain facts one's initial paranoia. Belief in conspiracy theories
1620-432: A "theory", but over time, "conspiracy" and "theory" have become decoupled, as modern conspiracism is often without any kind of theory behind it. Jesse Walker (2013) has identified five kinds of conspiracy theories: Michael Barkun has identified three classifications of conspiracy theory: Murray Rothbard argues in favor of a model that contrasts "deep" conspiracy theories to "shallow" ones. According to Rothbard,
1782-688: A 'genderquake' that turned American women into 'the political ruling class'—seems grossly exaggerated." Melissa Benn in the London Review of Books called the book Wolf's "call for a realpolitik in which 'sisterhood and capital' might be allies". Michiko Kakutani of The New York Times assailed Fire with Fire for its "dubious oversimplifications and highly debatable assertions" and its "disconcerting penchant for inflationary prose", but approved of Wolf's "efforts to articulate an accessible, pragmatic feminism, …helping to replace strident dogma with common sense." Time magazine reviewer Martha Duffy dismissed
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#17328556916801944-679: A Republican strategist before joining the Clinton administration, where he helped Clinton recover from the Republican Revolution by advising him to adopt more moderate policies. The president consulted Morris in secret beginning in 1994. Clinton's communications director George Stephanopoulos has said, "Over the course of the first nine months of 1995, no single person had more power over the president." Morris went on to become campaign manager of Clinton's successful 1996 bid for re-election as president, but his tenure on that political campaign
2106-511: A Washington, D.C., hotel balcony. News of the impending publication broke during the third day of the 1996 Democratic Convention. The Electronic Telegraph reported unverified claims that in order to impress Rowlands, Morris invited her to listen in on his conversations with President Clinton. It was reported that Rowlands worked for $ 200 an hour and that after he solicited her for sex, Morris gave Rowlands access to President Clinton's campaign speeches before they were delivered and also let her hear
2268-399: A black-and-white world in which good is struggling against evil. The general public is cast as the victim of organised persecution, and the motives of the alleged conspirators often verge on pure maniacal evil. At the very least, the conspirators are said to have an almost inhuman disregard for the basic liberty and well-being of the general population. More grandiose conspiracy theories portray
2430-583: A brother, Aaron, and a half-brother, Julius, from her father's earlier relationship; it remained a secret until Wolf was in her 30s. Wolf attended Lowell High School and debated in regional speech tournaments as a member of the Lowell Forensic Society . She attended Yale University , receiving her Bachelor of Arts in English literature in 1984. From 1985 to 1987, she was a Rhodes Scholar at New College, Oxford . Wolf's initial period at Oxford University
2592-514: A consequence, the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proven or disproven. Studies have linked belief in conspiracy theories to distrust of authority and political cynicism . Some researchers suggest that conspiracist ideation —belief in conspiracy theories—may be psychologically harmful or pathological. Such belief is correlated with psychological projection , paranoia , and Machiavellianism . Psychologists usually attribute belief in conspiracy theories to
2754-484: A difficult period in my life, I fell into arrears. But since then, I have paid almost $ 3 million in state and federal taxes." In 2012, the lien that had been placed on his house was lifted. Morris is a first cousin once removed of the late attorney Roy Cohn . Morris has written several books, many co-authored with his wife, Eileen McGann. He authored Condi vs. Hillary in which he argues that only Condoleezza Rice could block Hillary Clinton's anticipated 2008 bid for
2916-741: A fringe character" despite the fact that she had "once informed my own feminism so deeply." In Fire with Fire (1993), Wolf wrote about politics, female empowerment, and women's sexual liberation. She wished to persuade women to reject " victim feminism " in favor of "power feminism". She argued for diminishing the issue of opposing men, avoiding divisive issues such as abortion and the rights of lesbians, and considering more universal issues like violence against women, pay disparities and sexual harassment. Mary Nemeth wrote in Maclean's that her "central thesis—that when Anita Hill in 1991 accused U.S. Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment she provoked
3078-501: A generalized dismissal. Conspiracy theory rhetoric exploits several important cognitive biases , including proportionality bias , attribution bias , and confirmation bias . Their arguments often take the form of asking reasonable questions, but without providing an answer based on strong evidence. Conspiracy theories are most successful when proponents can gather followers from the general public, such as in politics, religion and journalism. These proponents may not necessarily believe
3240-480: A harsh critic of the Clintons and wrote several books that criticize them, including Rewriting History , a rebuttal to then-U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton 's Living History . Morris was the strategist for Republican Christy Mihos 's campaign in the 2010 Massachusetts gubernatorial election , and supported Mitt Romney in 2012. He has appeared in the past on Fox News for political commentary, especially appearing on The O'Reilly Factor and Hannity . After
3402-626: A highly mediated form of narcissism devoid of any actual brain/politics connection." In The New York Review of Books , Zoë Heller wrote that the book "offers an unusually clear insight into the workings of her mystic feminist philosophy", that the part of the book about the history of the vagina's representation is "full of childlike generalizations", and that Wolf's understanding of science "is pretty shaky too". In an interview with The New York Times , Wolf rejected claims that she had written more freely than her sources could sustain. In The New York Observer , Nina Burleigh suggested that critics of
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#17328556916803564-402: A lack of evidence for them. They are reinforced by circular reasoning : both evidence against the conspiracy and absence of evidence for it are misinterpreted as evidence of its truth. Stephan Lewandowsky observes "This interpretation relies on the notion that, the stronger the evidence against a conspiracy, the more the conspirators must want people to believe their version of events." As
3726-462: A matter of two months after repeated crushing defeats in the opinion polls due to her husband's alleged Mafia ties. He even went so far as to suggest that Hillary Clinton would drop out to focus on her 2008 presidential campaign. In 2005 Morris wrote that Hurricane Katrina "has the capacity to shape the second Bush term in the same way September 11 shaped his first term—not only in rebuilding New Orleans but in taking preventative steps around
3888-408: A more credible approach than total abstinence and without the risks of full intercourse. Wolf uses cross-cultural material to try to demonstrate that women have, across history, been celebrated as more carnal than men. She also argues that women must reclaim the legitimacy of their sexuality by shattering the polarization of women between virgin and whore . Partly an account of her own sexual history,
4050-705: A nation-state. The book details how this pattern was implemented in Nazi Germany , Fascist Italy , and elsewhere, and analyzes its emergence and application of all 10 steps in American political affairs since the September 11 attacks . Alex Beam wrote in the International Herald Tribune (reprinted in The New York Times ): "In the book, Wolf insists that she is not equating [George W.] Bush with Hitler, nor
4212-480: A number of psychopathological conditions such as paranoia , schizotypy , narcissism , and insecure attachment , or to a form of cognitive bias called " illusory pattern perception ". It has also been linked with the so-called Dark triad personality types, whose common feature is lack of empathy . However, a 2020 review article found that most cognitive scientists view conspiracy theorizing as typically nonpathological, given that unfounded belief in conspiracy
4374-429: A party organized to celebrate Wolf's publishing deal for this book, the male host invited guests to make pasta pieces shaped like vulvas. Wolf came to view this as mocking, and recounted feeling pressured to remain silent as the butt of a joke, something she said women often feel pressured to do. She said the incident resulted in her having writer's block for the next six months. Wolf's book Outrages: Sex, Censorship, and
4536-484: A permanent reshaping of our nation's politics." In a subsequent interview on Fox News, Morris added: "I called it as I saw it from the polling and I did the best I could and I also worked very hard for Romney." He elaborated on the latter point by explaining that he thought it was his duty to help the Romney campaign by countering pessimism about Romney's chances. In March 2021, it was reported by The New York Times that he
4698-443: A political advisor to the presidential campaigns of Bill Clinton and Al Gore . Wolf's later books include the bestseller The End of America in 2007 and Vagina: A New Biography . Critics have challenged the quality and accuracy of her books' scholarship; her serious misreading of court records for Outrages (2019) led to its U.S. publication being canceled. Wolf's career in journalism has included topics such as abortion and
4860-458: A procedural objection to the report's creation. Specifically, it was claimed that part of the procedure reflected a conspiracy to silence dissenters, which served as motivation for opponents of the report and successfully redirected a significant amount of the public discussion away from the science. Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to prejudice , witch hunts , wars , and genocides . They are often strongly believed by
5022-426: A punch, but Hillary Clinton pulled her husband off Morris. In both versions of the story, she consoled Morris and apologized to him, stating that Bill behaved as such only with those he cared for most. According to Morris, she did this to keep him quiet about the incident. He says the incident was the reason for denying Bill Clinton's request to work on the 1992 campaign. Morris has become a vocal and regular critic of
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5184-404: A reduction in conspiracy beliefs. Other possible strategies to mitigate the effect of conspiracy theories include education, media literacy, and increasing governmental openness and transparency. Due to the relationship between conspiracy theories and political extremism, the academic literature on deradicalization is also important. One approach describes conspiracy theories as resulting from
5346-470: A relaxation of conventional beauty norms. In her introduction, she scaffolds her work upon the achievements of second-wave feminists and offers the following analysis: The more legal and material hindrances women have broken through, the more strictly and heavily and cruelly images of female beauty have come to weigh upon us ... [D]uring the past decade, women breached the power structure; meanwhile, eating disorders rose exponentially and cosmetic surgery became
5508-476: A result of a conspiracy between interested parties; spec. a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event". It cites a 1909 article in The American Historical Review as the earliest usage example, although it also appeared in print for several decades before. The earliest known usage was by
5670-513: A role in Clinton's successful 1992 presidential campaign, which instead was headed by David Wilhelm , James Carville , George Stephanopoulos , and Paul Begala . After the 1994 midterm elections, in which Republicans took control of both houses of the United States Congress and gained considerable power in the states, Clinton once again sought Morris' help to prepare for the 1996 presidential election . In his writings, Morris "recounts
5832-459: A second term as president. In July 2012, Morris predicted that Mitt Romney would choose Florida Senator Marco Rubio as his running mate as an effort to court the Latino vote; Romney ultimately chose Paul Ryan . In August 2012, Morris predicted that Bill Clinton was going to vote for Mitt Romney , but that he would still speak in favor of Obama because "his wife is hostage." In October 2012, Morris
5994-449: A sense radical, in the tradition of 1970's feminists who sought to speak to every aspect of women's lives." Wolf's The Treehouse: Eccentric Wisdom from My Father on How to Live, Love, and See is an account of her midlife crisis. She revalues her father's love, and his role as an artist and a teacher during a year living in a house in upstate New York. In a promotional interview with The Herald (Glasgow), Wolf related her experience of
6156-511: A site intended to register non-scientific political public opinion on various issues. Morris worked as a strategist for Christy Mihos , who sought the Republican nomination to run for Governor of Massachusetts in 2010 against incumbent Deval Patrick overseeing strategy, polling, and advertising. At the Republican state convention, Mihos lost to Charlie Baker by 89 percent to 11 percent; by failing to reach 15 percent, Mihos did not qualify for
6318-648: A stigmatized mode of thought that separates them from the masses who believe the official account. Michael Barkun describes a conspiracy theory as a "template imposed upon the world to give the appearance of order to events". Real conspiracies, even very simple ones, are difficult to conceal and routinely experience unexpected problems. In contrast, conspiracy theories suggest that conspiracies are unrealistically successful and that groups of conspirators, such as bureaucracies , can act with near-perfect competence and secrecy. The causes of events or situations are simplified to exclude complex or interacting factors, as well as
6480-417: A study conducted in 2016 found that 10% of Americans think the chemtrail conspiracy theory is "completely true" and 20–30% think it is "somewhat true". This puts "the equivalent of 120 million Americans in the 'chemtrails are real' camp". Belief in conspiracy theories has therefore become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore . Conspiracy theories are widely present on
6642-419: A vision of Jesus : "just this figure who was the most perfected human being – full of light and full of love. …There was light coming out of him holographically, simply because he was unclouded." In The End of America: Letter of Warning to a Young Patriot , Wolf takes a historical look at the rise of fascism, outlining 10 steps necessary for a fascist group or government to destroy the democratic character of
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6804-566: A weekly half-hour show on Newsmax TV , Dick Morris Democracy . Morris was host of a daily radio talk show on WPHT in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania , from 2013 to 2015. Morris cited his desire to campaign for 2016 Republican candidates as his reason for leaving. In 2021, Morris launched a one-hour radio program on WABC in New York City, airing from noon to 2 PM on Sunday afternoons with co-host Doug DiPierro. Morris has appeared in, and wrote
6966-481: A woman's genitals. Los Angeles Times columnist Meghan Daum wrote: "By asserting that what's between a woman's ears is directly informed by what's between her legs—'the vagina mediates female confidence, creativity and sense of transcendence,' Wolf writes—it acts as a perverse echo of Republican efforts to limit reproductive rights." In the book, according to Suzanne Moore in The Guardian , "feminism becomes simply
7128-557: A year, according to the book Morris wrote about the campaign, Behind the Oval Office . Wolf managed to "persuade me to pursue school uniforms, tax breaks for adoption, simpler cross-racial adoption laws and more workplace flexibility." The advice she gave was without payment, Morris said in November 1999, as Wolf was fearful the knowledge of her involvement in the campaign might have negative consequences for Clinton. During Al Gore 's bid for
7290-503: Is also a regular columnist and Pundits Blogger for The Hill , a nonpartisan daily newspaper based in Washington, D.C., and for Newsmax , a conservative online news website. Morris regularly makes predictions about candidates' chances of winning elections during these appearances. Regarding the 2004 Democratic presidential nomination, he initially stated that Howard Dean 's candidacy could be written off right away. He had earlier discussed
7452-422: Is associated with biases in reasoning, such as the conjunction fallacy . Clare Birchall at King's College London describes conspiracy theory as a "form of popular knowledge or interpretation". The use of the word 'knowledge' here suggests ways in which conspiracy theory may be considered in relation to legitimate modes of knowing. The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims,
7614-510: Is closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory contend. Theories involving multiple conspirators that are proven to be correct, such as the Watergate scandal , are usually referred to as investigative journalism or historical analysis rather than conspiracy theory. Bjerg (2016) writes: "the way we normally use the term conspiracy theory excludes instances where the theory has been generally accepted as true. The Watergate scandal serves as
7776-418: Is common across both historical and contemporary cultures, and may arise from innate human tendencies towards gossip, group cohesion, and religion. One historical review of conspiracy theories concluded that "Evidence suggests that the aversive feelings that people experience when in crisis—fear, uncertainty, and the feeling of being out of control—stimulate a motivation to make sense of the situation, increasing
7938-459: Is correlated with antigovernmental orientations and a low sense of political efficacy, with conspiracy believers perceiving a governmental threat to individual rights and displaying a deep skepticism that who one votes for really matters. Conspiracy theories are often commonly believed, some even being held by the majority of the population. A broad cross-section of Americans today gives credence to at least some conspiracy theories. For instance,
8100-491: Is eliciting could be a hopeful sign of a new surge of feminist consciousness." Camille Paglia , whose Sexual Personae was published the same year as The Beauty Myth , derided Wolf as unable to perform "historical analysis" and called her education "completely removed from reality". These comments touched off a series of debates between Wolf and Paglia in the pages of The New Republic . Caryn James wrote in The New York Times : No other work has so forcefully confronted
8262-427: Is entirely socially constructed , and that the patriarchy determines the content of that construction with the objective to maintain women's subjugation. Wolf proposes the concept of an "iron maiden", an intrinsically unreachable norm that is then used to physically and mentally punish women for failing to achieve and adhere to it. She condemns the fashion and beauty industries for exploiting women, but also writes that
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#17328556916808424-474: Is generally based not on evidence, but in the faith of the believer. Noam Chomsky contrasts conspiracy theory to institutional analysis which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behavior of publicly known institutions, as recorded in, for example, scholarly documents or mainstream media reports. Conspiracy theory conversely posits the existence of secretive coalitions of individuals and speculates on their alleged activities. Belief in conspiracy theories
8586-401: Is generally of low quality. For example, conspiracy theories are often dependent on eyewitness testimony , despite its unreliability, while disregarding objective analyses of the evidence. Conspiracy theories are not able to be falsified and are reinforced by fallacious arguments . In particular, the logical fallacy circular reasoning is used by conspiracy theorists: both evidence against
8748-425: Is in a supportive role and the president is in an initiatory role…I used those terms as shorthand in talking about the difference in their job descriptions". Wolf told Katharine Viner of The Guardian in 2001: "I believe his agenda for women was a really historic agenda. I was honored to bring the concerns of women to Gore's table. I'm sorry that he didn't win and the controversy was worth it for me." She told Viner
8910-836: Is much more difficult to convince people who already believe in conspiracy theories. Conspiracist belief systems are not based on external evidence, but instead use circular logic where every belief is supported by other conspiracist beliefs. In addition, conspiracy theories have a "self-sealing" nature, in which the types of arguments used to support them make them resistant to questioning from others. Characteristics of successful strategies for reaching conspiracy theorists have been divided into several broad categories: 1) Arguments can be presented by "trusted messengers", such as people who were formerly members of an extremist group. 2) Since conspiracy theorists think of themselves as people who value critical thinking, this can be affirmed and then redirected to encourage being more critical when analyzing
9072-489: Is not simply a conspiracy , which refers to any covert plan involving two or more people. In contrast, the term "conspiracy theory" refers to hypothesized conspiracies that have specific characteristics. For example, conspiracist beliefs invariably oppose the mainstream consensus among those people who are qualified to evaluate their accuracy, such as scientists or historians . Conspiracy theorists see themselves as having privileged access to socially persecuted knowledge or
9234-560: Is so lame, her evidence so easily knocked down." Marilyn Yalom in The Washington Post called the book "persuasive" and praised its "accumulated evidence". Revisiting The Beauty Myth in 2019 for The New Republic , literary critic Maris Kreizman recalls that reading it as an undergraduate made her "world burst open", but as she matured, Kreizman saw Wolf's books as "poorly argued tracts" with Wolf making "wilder and wilder assertions" over time. Kreizman "began to write [Wolf] off as
9396-469: Is to challenge any action or statement from authorities, using even the most tenuous justifications. Responses are then assessed using a double standard, where failing to provide an immediate response to the satisfaction of the conspiracy theorist will be claimed to prove a conspiracy. Any minor errors in the response are heavily emphasized, while deficiencies in the arguments of other proponents are generally excused. In science, conspiracists may suggest that
9558-611: The "Washington Madam" , Debra Jeane Palfrey . In it, he wrote that Morris was a client of Palfrey's escort agency, and the first individual he (Sibley) planned to call in Palfrey's defence. In his 1997 book, Behind the Oval Office , Morris wrote that, following an argument in the Arkansas Governor's Mansion in May 1990, he strode toward the exit and was tackled by Clinton. In 2003, Morris further stated that Clinton cocked his arm back to throw
9720-672: The Occupy Wall Street movement in articles for media outlets such as The Nation , The New Republic , The Guardian , and The Huffington Post . Since around 2014, Wolf has been described by journalists and media outlets as a conspiracy theorist . She has been criticized for posting misinformation on topics such as beheadings carried out by ISIS , the Western African Ebola virus epidemic , and Edward Snowden . Wolf has objected to COVID-19 lockdowns and criticized COVID-19 vaccines . In June 2021, her Twitter account
9882-609: The Orange Democratic Movement ticket. With four weeks to the national elections, an editorial in one of the leading dailies called into question the legalities of Morris' consulting work from the perspective of his presence in and lack of legal ability to work in Kenya "pro bono" or "through the back door". The outcome of the December 27, 2007, elections in Kenya is still disputed due to allegations of electoral fraud and rigging by
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#173285569168010044-567: The Rothschild family , which may have led to effects on discussions about China's currency policy . Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media , contributing to conspiracism emerging as a cultural phenomenon in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The general predisposition to believe conspiracy theories cuts across partisan and ideological lines. Conspiratorial thinking
10206-542: The Soviet Union , and Turkey . AIDS denialism by the government of South Africa , motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS. QAnon and denialism about the 2020 United States presidential election results led to the January 6 United States Capitol attack , and belief in conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods led the government of Zambia to reject food aid during
10368-559: The Teach the Controversy campaign to promote intelligent design , which often claims that there is a conspiracy of scientists suppressing their views. If they successfully find a platform to present their views in a debate format, they focus on using rhetorical ad hominems and attacking perceived flaws in the mainstream account, while avoiding any discussion of the shortcomings in their own position. The typical approach of conspiracy theories
10530-509: The Time article was unclear; she declined to be interviewed on the record. In a New York Times interview with Melinda Henneberger, Wolf said she had been appointed in January 1999 and denied having advised Gore on his wardrobe. Wolf said she had mentioned the term "alpha male" only once in passing and that it "was just a truism, something the pundits had been saying for months, that the vice president
10692-673: The University of Tübingen . Butter wrote in 2020 that the CIA document Concerning Criticism of the Warren Report , which proponents of the theory use as evidence of CIA motive and intention, does not contain the phrase "conspiracy theory" in the singular, and only uses the term "conspiracy theories" once, in the sentence: "Conspiracy theories have frequently thrown suspicion on our organisation [ sic ], for example, by falsely alleging that Lee Harvey Oswald worked for us." A conspiracy theory
10854-508: The Web in the form of blogs and YouTube videos, as well as on social media . Whether the Web has increased the prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is an open research question. The presence and representation of conspiracy theories in search engine results has been monitored and studied, showing significant variation across different topics, and a general absence of reputable, high-quality links in
11016-411: The antisemitic conspiracy theories found among political extremists on both the far right and far left . More generally, belief in conspiracy theories is associated with holding extreme and uncompromising viewpoints, and may help people in maintaining those viewpoints. While conspiracy theories are not always present in extremist groups, and do not always lead to violence when they are, they can make
11178-740: The economy . Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media , the Internet , and social media , emerging as a cultural phenomenon of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. They are widespread around the world and are often commonly believed, some even held by the majority of the population. Interventions to reduce the occurrence of conspiracy beliefs include maintaining an open society , encouraging people to use analytical thinking , and reducing feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, or powerlessness. The Oxford English Dictionary defines conspiracy theory as "the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as
11340-440: The ultrasound technician who gives her the first glimpse of her new baby. Wolf laments her C-section and examines why the procedure is common in the U.S., advocating a return to midwifery. The book's second half is anecdotal, focusing on inequalities between parents with respect to child care. In the section describing being on the operating table having a Caesarean, Wolf compares herself to Jesus at his crucifixion . She outlines
11502-452: The 2012 election, Morris did not appear on Fox News for almost three months. On February 5, 2013, Fox announced that it would not renew Morris' contract. In addition to his numerous inaccurate predictions, Morris had been criticized for accepting paid ads on his Website from candidates whom he discussed on the air, a clear conflict of interest. Beginning in 2013, Morris' Super PAC For America disbursed approximately $ 1.7mm for "fundraising" to
11664-411: The 2012 presidential election, Morris did not appear on Fox News for three months, and the network ultimately opted not to renew his contract. Morris was born in 1948 in New York City, New York, the son of writer Terry Lesser Morris , an early proponent of confessional human interest stories , and attorney Eugene J. Morris. He attended Stuyvesant High School in New York City, where he was active on
11826-591: The American author Charles Astor Bristed , in a letter to the editor published in The New York Times on January 11, 1863. He used it to refer to claims that British aristocrats were intentionally weakening the United States during the American Civil War in order to advance their financial interests. England has had quite enough to do in Europe and Asia, without going out of her way to meddle with America. It
11988-516: The Clintons since his departure, in particular Hillary Rodham Clinton and her bid for the presidency. Morris has written extensively about the Clintons (see below) and also contributed to Hillary: The Movie , a documentary about Rodham Clinton when she was still a 2008 presidential candidate. Later, after Bill Clinton's comments about the similarities between Barack Obama 's popularity and that of presidential candidate Jesse Jackson in 1988, Morris put out an article on his blog that asserted that this
12150-541: The Criminalization of Love was based on the 2015 doctoral thesis she completed under the supervision of literary scholar Stefano-Maria Evangelista, a Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford . It studies the repression of homosexuality in relation to attitudes toward divorce and prostitution, and also in relation to the censorship of books. Outrages was published in the UK in May 2019 by Virago Press . On June 12, 2019, Outrages
12312-460: The English Press and public, which is most readily accounted for on the conspiracy theory . The term is also used as a way to discredit dissenting analyses. Robert Blaskiewicz comments that examples of the term were used as early as the nineteenth century and states that its usage has always been derogatory. According to a study by Andrew McKenzie-McHarg, in contrast, in the nineteenth century
12474-461: The First Lady’s numerous kindnesses to his aging (and of course Jewish ) parents." On August 29, 1996, Morris resigned from the Clinton campaign after tabloid reports stated that he had been involved with a prostitute, Sherry Rowlands, as reported by The Washington Post . A New York tabloid newspaper, Star , had obtained and published a set of photographs allegedly of Morris and the woman on
12636-618: The Obama campaign, which he stated would cost Obama the election: On November 7, 2012, the day after the election, Morris published an article in The Hill titled "Why I was wrong". Morris stated that he had "egg on his face" and that the "key reason for my bum prediction is that I believed, mistakenly, that the 2008 surge in black, Latino and young voter turnout would recede in 2012 to 'normal' levels. Didn't happen. These high levels of minority and young voter participation are here to stay. And, with them,
12798-536: The President's voice during a telephone conservation. According to Rowlands, Morris had a fondness for sucking toes. It was also alleged he had an out-of-wedlock child from an affair with a Texas woman. Morris resigned on the same day that Bill Clinton spoke and accepted the nomination at the Democratic National Convention . In his resignation statement, he said that "while I served I sought to avoid
12960-577: The UN's going to take over'? Well, they're beginning to have a case." In April 2009, Morris keynoted an animated debate at the Yale Political Union on the topic "Resolved: Save Capitalism from President Obama". During the 2012 United States presidential election , Morris received widespread attention for his inaccurate predictions and controversial statements about candidates. In a March 2011 column for The Hill , Morris predicted that Obama would not win
13122-464: The United States with Nazi Germany, then proceeds to do just that." A month before the 2008 presidential election , she announced her intention to propose means to arrest Bush. "Americans are facing a coup, as of this morning, October 1st", she said in a radio interview. Several years later in 2013, Mark Nuckols argued in The Atlantic that Wolf's supposed historical parallels between incidents from
13284-477: The Western world, with conspirators often alleged to enact their plans via sorcery or witchcraft; one common belief identifies modern technology as itself being a form of sorcery, created with the goal of harming or controlling the people. In China , one widely published conspiracy theory claims that a number of events including the rise of Hitler , the 1997 Asian financial crisis , and climate change were planned by
13446-468: The academy and sort of embraced the idea that all gender is socially constructed and so here is a book that is actually looking at science…though there has been some criticisms of the book from some feminists…who say, "well you can't look at the science because that means we have to grapple with the science"…to me the feminist task of creating a just world isn't changed at all by this fascinating neuroscience that shows some differences between men and women. At
13608-484: The anti-feminism that emerged during the conservative, yuppified 1980's, or so honestly depicted the confusion of accomplished women who feel emotionally and physically tortured by the need to look like movie stars. Even by the standards of pop-cultural feminist studies, The Beauty Myth is a mess, but that doesn't mean it's wrong. James also wrote that the book's "claims of an intensified anti-feminism are plausible, but Ms. Wolf doesn't begin to prove them because her logic
13770-570: The appeal of a conspiracy theory is based in prejudice, emotional conviction, or insufficient evidence. A conspiracy theory is distinct from a conspiracy ; it refers to a hypothesized conspiracy with specific characteristics, including but not limited to opposition to the mainstream consensus among those who are qualified to evaluate its accuracy, such as scientists or historians . Conspiracy theories tend to be internally consistent and correlate with each other; they are generally designed to resist falsification either by evidence against them or
13932-403: The basis of her first book, The Beauty Myth . Wolf ultimately returned to Oxford, completing her Doctor of Philosophy degree in English literature in 2015. Her thesis, supervised by Stefano Evangelista of Trinity College , formed the basis of her 2019 book Outrages: Sex, Censorship, and the Criminalization of Love . The thesis (which the journal Times Higher Education called "error-strewn")
14094-464: The beauty myth pervades all aspects of human life. Wolf believes that women should have "the freedom to do anything we choose with our faces and bodies without being penalized by an ideology that uses attitudes, economic pressure, and even legal judgments about women's looks to psychologically and politically destroy us." She claims that the "beauty myth" has targeted women in five areas: labor, religion, sex, violence, and hunger. Finally, Wolf advocates for
14256-400: The book a "calumny against gay people" in the 19th century and said that Wolf "presents child rapists and those taking part in acts of bestiality as being gay men in consensual relationships and that is completely wrong". The Daily Telegraph reported that there had been calls for Wolf's 2015 DPhil to be reexamined, and for Virago to withdraw the book. In a statement to The Guardian , Wolf said
14418-641: The book as "flawed", but wrote that Wolf was "an engaging raconteur" who was also "savvy about the role of TV—especially the Thomas-Hill hearings and daytime talk shows—in radicalizing women, including homemakers", characterizing the book as advocating an inclusive strain of feminism that welcomed abortion opponents. Feminist author Natasha Walter wrote in The Independent that the book "has its faults, but compared with The Beauty Myth it has energy and spirit, and generosity too." But Walter criticized it for having
14580-499: The book had been reviewed "by leading scholars in the field" and "it is clear that I have accurately represented the position". Oxford University stated that a "statement of clarification" to Wolf's thesis had been received and approved, and would be "available for consultation in the Bodleian Library in due course". In March 2021, Times Higher Education reported that Wolf's original thesis remained unavailable six years after it
14742-543: The book urges women to "redeem the slut in ourselves and rejoice in being bad girls". Promiscuities generally received negative reviews. In The New York Times , Kakutani wrote that Wolf is "a frustratingly inept messenger: a sloppy thinker and incompetent writer" who "tries in vain to pass off tired observations as radical aperçus , subjective musings as generational truths, sappy suggestions as useful ideas". Of Wolf's claims about accounts of female sexuality being suppressed, Kakutani wrote: "Where has Ms. Wolf been? What about
14904-445: The book were so vehement "because (a) their editors handed the book to them for review because they thought it was an Important Feminist Book when it's actually slight and (b) there's a grain of truth in what she's trying to say." In response to the criticism, Wolf said in a television interview: Anything that shows documentation of the brain and vagina connection is going to alarm some feminists…also feminism has kind of retreated into
15066-444: The center would "train the same kinds of terrorists who caused the... attacks". In a 2005 book on the 2008 presidential campaign, Morris stated that it was most likely that Hillary Clinton would face Condoleezza Rice for the presidency. Morris's critics reacted by mocking his mistaken predictions of past races. Appearing on Fox News' Hannity and Colmes on January 29, 2008, Morris said that those voting for John Edwards were "at
15228-546: The cities from whence our ancestors fled." On the day before the 2012 U.S. presidential election , Morris predicted on his website and in an article in The Hill that the Republican candidate, Mitt Romney , would win the presidency in a landslide "approaching the magnitude of Obama 's against McCain ." Specifically, he stated that Romney would win 325 electoral votes and that Obama would win 213. Obama ended up winning 332 electoral votes with Romney winning 206, meaning Morris
15390-462: The complex wildlife of female sexuality and desire." In contrast, The Library Journal excoriated the book, writing, "Overgeneralization abounds as she attempts to apply the microcosmic events of this mostly white, middle-class, liberal milieu to a whole generation. …There is a desperate defensiveness in the tone of this book which diminishes the force of her argument." "I feel absolutely staggered by what I discovered after giving birth", Wolf said at
15552-414: The conspiracy and an absence of evidence for it are re-interpreted as evidence of its truth, whereby the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proved or disproved. The epistemic strategy of conspiracy theories has been called "cascade logic": each time new evidence becomes available, a conspiracy theory is able to dismiss it by claiming that even more people must be part of
15714-521: The conspiracy theory is false, attempting to discredit the source, explaining how the logic is invalid or misleading, and providing links to fact-checking websites. It can also be effective to use these strategies in advance, informing people that they could encounter misleading information in the future, and why the information should be rejected (also called inoculation or prebunking). While it has been suggested that discussing conspiracy theories can raise their profile and make them seem more legitimate to
15876-562: The conspiracy theory. 3) Approaches demonstrate empathy, and are based on building understanding together, which is supported by modeling open-mindedness in order to encourage the conspiracy theorists to do likewise. 4) The conspiracy theories are not attacked with ridicule or aggressive deconstruction, and interactions are not treated like an argument to be won; this approach can work with the general public, but among conspiracy theorists it may simply be rejected. Interventions that reduce feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, or powerlessness result in
16038-458: The conspiracy theory; instead, they may just use it in an attempt to gain public approval. Conspiratorial claims can act as a successful rhetorical strategy to convince a portion of the public via appeal to emotion . Conspiracy theories typically justify themselves by focusing on gaps or ambiguities in knowledge, and then arguing that the true explanation for this must be a conspiracy . In contrast, any evidence that directly supports their claims
16200-510: The conspirators as being Evil Incarnate: of having caused all the ills from which we suffer, committing abominable acts of unthinkable cruelty on a routine basis, and striving ultimately to subvert or destroy everything we hold dear. A conspiracy theory may take any matter as its subject, but certain subjects attract greater interest than others. Favored subjects include famous deaths and assassinations, morally dubious government activities, suppressed technologies, and " false flag " terrorism. Among
16362-717: The convict was pardoned or the sentence was commuted. He cited a website for the Old Bailey Criminal Court, which Wolf had referred to in the interview as one of her sources. Reviewers have described other errors of scholarship in the work. At the Hay Festival in Wales in May 2019, a few days after her exchange with Sweet, Wolf defended her book and said she had already corrected the error. At an event in Manhattan in June, she said she
16524-402: The cover-up. Any information that contradicts the conspiracy theory is suggested to be disinformation by the alleged conspiracy. Similarly, the continued lack of evidence directly supporting conspiracist claims is portrayed as confirming the existence of a conspiracy of silence; the fact that other people have not found or exposed any conspiracy is taken as evidence that those people are part of
16686-511: The debate team. He managed Jerrold Nadler 's campaign for class president . Morris was also involved in the first campaign of Richard Gottfried for New York State Assembly in 1970. Morris graduated from Stuyvesant in 1964, then attended Columbia University , where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree , graduating in 1967. At Columbia, he roomed with Nadler. Morris first worked with Bill and Hillary Clinton during Bill Clinton's successful 1978 bid for Governor of Arkansas . Morris did not have
16848-448: The effects of workplace rumors, which share some characteristics with conspiracy theories and result in both decreased productivity and increased stress. Subsequent effects on managers include reduced profits, reduced trust from employees, and damage to the company's image. Conspiracy theories can divert attention from important social, political, and scientific issues. In addition, they have been used to discredit scientific evidence to
17010-574: The election in a landslide, but incorrectly predicted that Obama would win Missouri, Arkansas, North Carolina, Arizona, Tennessee, and West Virginia by comfortable margins, while Louisiana, Georgia and South Carolina would be tossups. Of those states, Obama only won North Carolina in a close margin. After Obama won the 2008 election, Morris was critical of him. In early 2009, Morris said: "Those crazies in Montana who say, 'We're going to kill ATF agents because
17172-458: The election that after the election "either I'm gonna have to go through a big reckoning, or they [the mainstream pollsters] are." Jon Stewart mocked the idea on The Daily Show , calling Dick Morris the "King of Wrong Mountain" and claiming that pundits live in a "reckoning-free zone." Morris was the least accurate major pundit in predicting the 2012 presidential election. In Morris's article in The Hill , he identified some "key mistakes" by
17334-418: The embargo period so that she could seek legal advice. The extension request was declined. Conspiracy theorist A conspiracy theory is an explanation for an event or situation that asserts the existence of a conspiracy (generally by powerful sinister groups, often political in motivation), when other explanations are more probable. The term generally has a negative connotation , implying that
17496-592: The era of the European dictators and modern America are based on a highly selective reading in which Wolf omits significant details and misuses her sources. In The Daily Beast , Michael C. Moynihan called the book "an astoundingly lazy piece of writing." The End of America was adapted for the screen as a documentary by filmmakers Annie Sundberg and Ricki Stern, best known for The Devil Came on Horseback and The Trials of Darryl Hunt . It premiered in October 2008, and
17658-532: The estimate that 150,000 women were dying every year from anorexia . Sommers said she traced the source to the American Anorexia and Bulimia Association, which said it was misquoted; the figure refers to sufferers, not fatalities. Wolf's citation came from a book by Brumberg, who referred to an American Anorexia and Bulimia Association newsletter and misquoted the newsletter. Wolf acknowledged the error and changed it in future editions. Sommers gave an estimate for
17820-543: The fastest-growing specialty ... [P]ornography became the main media category, ahead of legitimate films and records combined, and thirty-three thousand American women told researchers that they would rather lose ten to fifteen pounds than achieve any other goal ... More women have more money and power and scope and legal recognition than we have ever had before; but in terms of how we feel about ourselves physically, we may actually be worse off than our unliberated grandmothers. Christina Hoff Sommers criticized Wolf for publishing
17982-404: The first time. Morris has consulted for candidates in other countries of the western hemisphere, including the campaigns of Fernando de la Rua for President of Argentina (1999), Jorge Batlle for President of Uruguay (1999), Vicente Fox for President of Mexico (2000), and Raphael Trotman for President of Guyana (2006). Morris and his wife, Eileen McGann, are behind www.vote.com ,
18144-710: The general public or in a legal context. Conspiratorial strategies also share characteristics with those used by lawyers who are attempting to discredit expert testimony, such as claiming that the experts have ulterior motives in testifying, or attempting to find someone who will provide statements to imply that expert opinion is more divided than it actually is. It is possible that conspiracy theories may also produce some compensatory benefits to society in certain situations. For example, they may help people identify governmental deceptions, particularly in repressive societies, and encourage government transparency . However, real conspiracies are normally revealed by people working within
18306-709: The government of Zambia to reject food aid during a famine , at a time when 3 million people in the country were suffering from hunger . Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in public health . People who believe in health-related conspiracy theories are less likely to follow medical advice , and more likely to use alternative medicine instead. Conspiratorial anti-vaccination beliefs, such as conspiracy theories about pharmaceutical companies , can result in reduced vaccination rates and have been linked to outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases . Health-related conspiracy theories often inspire resistance to water fluoridation , and contributed to
18468-506: The group more extreme, provide an enemy to direct hatred towards, and isolate members from the rest of society. Conspiracy theories are most likely to inspire violence when they call for urgent action, appeal to prejudices, or demonize and scapegoat enemies. Conspiracy theorizing in the workplace can also have economic consequences. For example, it leads to lower job satisfaction and lower commitment, resulting in workers being more likely to leave their jobs. Comparisons have also been made with
18630-474: The impact of the Lancet MMR autism fraud . Conspiracy theories are a fundamental component of a wide range of radicalized and extremist groups, where they may play an important role in reinforcing the ideology and psychology of their members as well as further radicalizing their beliefs. These conspiracy theories often share common themes, even among groups that would otherwise be fundamentally opposed, such as
18792-457: The incorrect references to the execution of men for sodomy included in the hardback edition. Interviewed about the new edition, Sweet said that the book continues to misread historical sources: "Dr Wolf has misrepresented the experiences of victims of child abuse and violent sexual assault. This is the most profound offence against her discipline, as well as the memories of real people on the historical record". Cultural historian Fern Riddell called
18954-582: The incumbent president, Mwai Kibaki , the Party of National Unity and erroneous reporting by the Electoral Commission of Kenya (ECK). Massive protests and tribal tensions have since erupted between the president's Kikuyu tribe and the majority of other tribes not favorably aligned to the outcome. Major mediations have commenced between concerned parties, including possible formation of a coalition and/or interim government until reelections are held. Following
19116-489: The information available to the rest of society, believing in conspiracy theories may appear to be justified. In these cases, the solution would be to break the group's informational isolation. Public exposure to conspiracy theories can be reduced by interventions that reduce their ability to spread, such as by encouraging people to reflect before sharing a news story. Researchers Carlos Diaz Ruiz and Tomas Nilsson have proposed technical and rhetorical interventions to counter
19278-414: The likelihood of Dean defeating John Kerry after early strong showings by the former Vermont governor. Kerry defeated Dean and all his other rivals and won the nomination. In a column in The Hill on June 22, 2005, Morris predicted that Hillary Clinton would face her "worst nightmare" in her 2006 Senate race against Republican candidate Judge Jeanine Pirro , whose campaign subsequently collapsed within
19440-402: The likelihood of perceiving conspiracies in social situations." Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to prejudice , propaganda , witch hunts , wars , and genocides . They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of terrorist attacks , and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh and Anders Breivik , as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany ,
19602-481: The limelight because I did not want to become the message. Now, I resign so I will not become the issue." In his response, President Clinton praised Morris as a "friend", and publicly thanked him for his years of service. Privately, several of Clinton's aides were furious that in his resignation statement Morris credited himself with helping the President "come back from being buried in a landslide" and that Morris ended by comparing himself to Robert F. Kennedy . Morris
19764-475: The longest-standing and most widely recognized conspiracy theories are notions concerning the assassination of John F. Kennedy , the 1969 Apollo Moon landings , and the 9/11 terrorist attacks , as well as numerous theories pertaining to alleged plots for world domination by various groups, both real and imaginary. Conspiracy beliefs are widespread around the world. In rural Africa, common targets of conspiracy theorizing include societal elites, enemy tribes, and
19926-454: The men in Gore's campaign, at the equivalent level, were paid more than she was. In 1991, Wolf gained international attention as a spokeswoman of third-wave feminism after the publication of her first book, The Beauty Myth , an international bestseller. The New York Times named it "one of the seventy most influential books of the twentieth century". She argues that "beauty" as a normative value
20088-462: The moment... those that can't decide which they don't like more—a black or a woman getting elected". Morris elaborated that exit polls showed some Edwards voters were unsure if a woman or an African-American, in reference to then Democratic Primary front runners Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama , could get elected to the presidency for the first time in 2008. In the weeks leading up to the 2008 election, Morris correctly predicted that Obama would win
20250-499: The nation to bolster our defenses against natural and man-made disasters and terror strikes. Responding to disasters is a source of presidential strength and popularity, and Bush is about to show how it is done." In August 2011, Morris began a petition on his website opposing federal funding for the Park51 Muslim community center, claiming that the center is "designed to celebrate the attacks that killed 3,000 Americans", and that
20412-544: The number of fatalities in 1990 as 100–400. The annual anorexia casualties in the U.S. were estimated to be around 50 to 60 per year in the mid-1990s. In 1995, for an article in The Independent on Sunday , British journalist Joan Smith recalled asking Wolf to explain her unsourced assertion in The Beauty Myth that the UK "has 3.5 million anorexics or bulimics (95 per cent of them female), with 6,000 new cases yearly". Wolf replied, according to Smith, that she had calculated
20574-493: The opposite stance in a 2004 article in The Hill when he suspected "foul play" on the part of the exit pollsters in the US presidential race. In a November 13, 2007 press conference in Nairobi , Kenya , Morris announced that he would be offering his consultancy services pro bono for the campaign to elect Raila Odinga as President of Kenya in the 2007 presidential election running on
20736-419: The perpetrators of terrorist attacks, and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh , Anders Breivik and Brenton Tarrant , as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union . AIDS denialism by the government of South Africa , motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS, while belief in conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods led
20898-512: The plot, rather than considering that it may be because no conspiracy exists. This strategy lets conspiracy theories insulate themselves from neutral analyses of the evidence, and makes them resistant to questioning or correction, which is called "epistemic self-insulation". Conspiracy theorists often take advantage of false balance in the media. They may claim to be presenting a legitimate alternative viewpoint that deserves equal time to argue its case; for example, this strategy has been used by
21060-475: The presidency in the 2000 election , Wolf was hired as a consultant. Her ideas and participation in the campaign generated considerable media coverage. According to a report by Michael Duffy and Karen Tumulty in Time , Wolf was paid a salary of $ 15,000 (by November 1999, $ 5,000) per month "in exchange for advice on everything from how to win the women's vote to shirt-and-tie combinations." Wolf's direct involvement in
21222-532: The public, the discussion can put people on guard instead as long as it is sufficiently persuasive. Other approaches to reduce the appeal of conspiracy theories in general among the public may be based in the emotional and social nature of conspiratorial beliefs. For example, interventions that promote analytical thinking in the general public are likely to be effective. Another approach is to intervene in ways that decrease negative emotions , and specifically to improve feelings of personal hope and empowerment. It
21384-488: The raunchy confessions that surface daily on radio and television talk shows? What about all the memoirists—from Anais Nin to Kathryn Harrison?" Two days earlier in the Times , Weaver Courtney praised the book: "Anyone—particularly anyone who, like Ms. Wolf, was born in the 1960s—will have a very hard time putting down Promiscuities . Told through a series of confessions, her book is a searing and thoroughly fascinating exploration of
21546-674: The results. One conspiracy theory that propagated through former US President Barack Obama's time in office claimed that he was born in Kenya, instead of Hawaii where he was actually born . Former governor of Arkansas and political opponent of Obama Mike Huckabee made headlines in 2011 when he, among other members of Republican leadership, continued to question Obama's citizenship status. A conspiracy theory can be local or international, focused on single events or covering multiple incidents and entire countries, regions and periods of history. According to Russell Muirhead and Nancy Rosenblum , historically, traditional conspiracism has entailed
21708-571: The role of chance and unintended consequences. Nearly all observations are explained as having been deliberately planned by the alleged conspirators. In conspiracy theories, the conspirators are usually claimed to be acting with extreme malice. As described by Robert Brotherton: The malevolent intent assumed by most conspiracy theories goes far beyond everyday plots borne out of self-interest, corruption, cruelty, and criminality. The postulated conspirators are not merely people with selfish agendas or differing values. Rather, conspiracy theories postulate
21870-461: The screenplay for, the documentary film FahrenHYPE 9/11 . The film was a response to Michael Moore 's 2004 film, Fahrenheit 9/11 . Morris is married to author Eileen McGann (author) . He failed to pay a variety of state and federal taxes beginning in 1996. In 2010, he declared that he had reached an agreement with the State of Connecticut, and that he is committed to paying his taxes: "Following
22032-691: The spread of conspiracy theories on social media. Dick Morris Richard Samuel Morris (born November 28, 1948) is an American author, commentator , and former political consultant . A friend and advisor to Bill Clinton during his time as Governor of Arkansas and since his 1978 run, Morris became a political adviser to the White House after Clinton was elected president in 1992. Morris encouraged Clinton to pursue Third Way policies of triangulation that combined traditional Republican and Democratic proposals, rhetoric, and issues so as to achieve maximum political gain and popularity. He worked as
22194-436: The standard reference." By contrast, the term "Watergate conspiracy theory" is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy. There are also attempts to analyze the theory of conspiracy theories (conspiracy theory theory) to ensure that the term "conspiracy theory" is used to refer to narratives that have been debunked by experts, rather than as
22356-563: The statistics from patients with eating disorders at one clinic. Caspar Schoemaker of the Netherlands Trimbos Institute published a paper in the academic journal Eating Disorders demonstrating that of the 23 statistics cited by Wolf in Beauty Myth , 18 were incorrect, with Wolf citing numbers that average out to 8 times the number in the source she was citing. Second-wave feminist Germaine Greer wrote that The Beauty Myth
22518-535: The successful Yushchenko presidential campaign in Ukraine . Morris reports that he insisted on the use of exit polls as a means of potentially exposing ballot tampering. He argues this played a significant role in forcing the government of then President Leonid Kuchma to acquiesce to a new poll when the official results of the first varied materially from the exit surveys. Faced with a similar (though smaller) divergence between exit polling and election returns, he took
22680-412: The system, such as whistleblowers and journalists , and most of the effort spent by conspiracy theorists is inherently misdirected. The most dangerous conspiracy theories are likely to be those that incite violence, scapegoat disadvantaged groups, or spread misinformation about important societal issues. Strategies to address conspiracy theories have been divided into two categories based on whether
22842-856: The target audience is the conspiracy theorists or the general public. These strategies have been described as reducing either the supply or the demand for conspiracy theories. Both approaches can be used at the same time, although there may be issues of limited resources, or if arguments are used which may appeal to one audience at the expense of the other. People who feel empowered are more resistant to conspiracy theories. Methods to promote empowerment include encouraging people to use analytical thinking , priming people to think of situations where they are in control, and ensuring that decisions by society and government are seen to follow procedural fairness (the use of fair decision-making procedures). Methods of refutation which have shown effectiveness in various circumstances include: providing facts that demonstrate
23004-465: The television network, Newsmax . Emails from both Morris and Newsmax were paid for by Super PAC for America. Some media outlets speculate that Morris took advantage of Super PAC For America donations by paying Newsmax for fundraising which in turn paid Morris large sums of money to 'rent' his email list. Morris was a regular guest on multiple Newsmax shows, such as American Agenda , Greg Kelly Reports and Spicer & Co. . In 2021, Morris launched
23166-462: The term conspiracy theory simply "suggests a plausible postulate of a conspiracy" and "did not, at this stage, carry any connotations, either negative or positive", though sometimes a postulate so-labeled was criticized. The author and activist George Monbiot argued that the terms "conspiracy theory" and "conspiracy theorist" are misleading, as conspiracies truly exist and theories are "rational explanations subject to disproof". Instead, he proposed
23328-476: The term entered everyday language in the United States after 1964, the year in which the Warren Commission published its findings on the assassination of John F. Kennedy , with The New York Times running five stories that year using the term. Whether the CIA was responsible for popularising the term "conspiracy theory" was analyzed by Michael Butter, a Professor of American Literary and Cultural History at
23490-585: The terms "conspiracy fiction" and "conspiracy fantasist". The term "conspiracy theory" is itself the subject of a conspiracy theory, which posits that the term was popularized by the CIA in order to discredit conspiratorial believers, particularly critics of the Warren Commission , by making them a target of ridicule. In his 2013 book Conspiracy Theory in America , the political scientist Lance deHaven-Smith wrote that
23652-525: The time Misconceptions: Truth, Lies, and the Unexpected on the Journey to Motherhood was published. "Birth today is like agribusiness. It's like a chicken plant: they go in, they go out", she told Katharine Viner. "Pregnancy, birth and motherhood" has "made me a more radical feminist than I have ever been." The book draws heavily on Wolf's experience of her first pregnancy. She describes the "vacuous impassivity" of
23814-511: Was "the most important feminist publication since The Female Eunuch " (Greer's own work), and Gloria Steinem wrote, " The Beauty Myth is a smart, angry, insightful book, and a clarion call to freedom. Every woman should read it." British novelist Fay Weldon called the book "essential reading for the New Woman". Betty Friedan wrote in Allure magazine that " The Beauty Myth and the controversy it
23976-640: Was Clinton's way of injecting race into the political campaign. As of August 2009, Morris lends his name and assistance to the League of American Voters, an advocacy group for seniors to defeat the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act . He has been described as "America's most ruthless political consultant" in the BBC documentary Century of the Self , which chronicled how he brought lifestyle marketing to politics for
24138-403: Was a physical and moral impossibility that she could be carrying on a gigantic conspiracy against us. But our masses, having only a rough general knowledge of foreign affairs, and not unnaturally somewhat exaggerating the space which we occupy in the world's eye, do not appreciate the complications which rendered such a conspiracy impossible. They only look at the sudden right-about-face movement of
24300-599: Was a speaker at a special meeting of the Republican Caucus of the Georgia House of Representatives to discuss claims that Obama was using 'mind-control' techniques to create a Communist dictatorship controlled by the United Nations under the guise of promoting sustainability and public transportation . Speaking at the event, Morris argued that Obama's aim was to join with the United Nations to "force everyone into
24462-487: Was cut short two months before the election, when it was revealed that he had not only solicited a prostitute but also allowed her to listen in on conversations with the President. As of 2000, Morris wrote a weekly column for the New York Post that is carried nationwide, and contributes columns and blogs to both the print and online versions of The Hill . He is also president of Vote.com. By 2005, Morris had emerged as
24624-426: Was difficult, as she experienced "raw sexism, overt snobbery and casual antisemitism". Her writing became so personal and subjective that her tutor advised against submitting her doctoral thesis. Wolf told interviewer Rachel Cooke , writing for The Observer , in 2019: "My subject didn't exist. I wanted to write feminist theory, and I kept being told by the dons there was no such thing." Her writing at this time formed
24786-468: Was examined. Oxford doctoral graduates can request an embargo of up to three years, with the potential for renewal. The thesis finally became available in April 2021, with nine pages of corrections attached dealing with the misreading of historic criminal records. Wolf had submitted the thesis to the archive in December 2020, more than five years after her DPhil was awarded, and had requested a one-year extension to
24948-706: Was favorably reviewed in The New York Times by Stephen Holden and by Variety magazine. Nigel Andrews in the Financial Times saw aspects of it positively, but "what isn't plausible or reality-related is the conclusion itself. At the door of the Third Reich, Wolf's credibility collapses." Moynihan called it "an even dumber documentary film" than the "dumb book". Interviewed by Alternet in 2010, Wolf compared some of President Barack Obama 's actions to those of Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler as typical of dictatorships. Wolf returned to her The End of America theme in
25110-450: Was featured on two consecutive covers of Time magazine. The September 2, 1996 issue, which was released before the prostitute story broke, featured Morris as "The Man Who Has Clinton's Ear". The following week, the cover featured Morris and his wife, Eileen McGann , and the headline read "The Morris Mess: After the Fall". Montgomery Blair Sibley wrote a book Why Just Her in defence of
25272-644: Was meeting with Donald Trump in New York, "encouraging him to take on the party he once led". Morris worked with the United Kingdom Independence Party in their campaign before the 2004 European Parliament election . The party, which advocated withdrawal from the European Union , won 12 of the United Kingdom's 78 seats. In 2004 and 2005, he and his wife had acted as campaign consultants to
25434-1123: Was much criticized, especially by feminist authors. Katie Roiphe called it "ludicrous" in Slate : "I doubt the most brilliant novelist in the world could have created a more skewering satire of Naomi Wolf's career than her latest book." In The Nation , Katha Pollitt called it a "silly book" containing "much dubious neuroscience and much foolishness." It becomes "loopier as it goes on. We learn that women think and feel through their vagina, which can 'grieve' and feel insulted." Toni Bentley wrote in The New York Times Book Review that Wolf used "shoddy research methodology", while with "her graceless writing, Wolf opens herself to ridicule on virtually every page." Janice Turner in The Times wrote that since Mary Wollstonecraft , female "writers have argued that women should not be defined by biology", yet "Wolf, our self-styled leader, has declared that female consciousness, creativity and destiny all come back" to
25596-443: Was named on the O, The Oprah Magazine ' s "The 32 Best Books by Women of Summer 2019" list. The next day, the U.S. publisher recalled all copies from U.S. bookstores. In a 2019 BBC radio interview, broadcaster and author Matthew Sweet identified an error in a central tenet of the book: a misunderstanding of the legal term " death recorded ", which Wolf had taken to mean that the convict had been executed but in fact means that
25758-466: Was not embarrassed and felt grateful to Sweet for the correction. On October 18, 2019, it became known that Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 's release of the book in the U.S. was being canceled, with copies already printed and distributed being pulled and pulped. Wolf expressed hope that the book would still be published in the U.S. In November 2020, Virago published a UK paperback edition of the book that removed
25920-569: Was off by 119 electoral votes. He explained the logic behind his prediction in a video posted at his website. He made this prediction in the face of an overwhelming consensus among expert pollsters leading up to election night that Obama would win at least the Electoral College and likely the popular vote. Morris wrote on his website, "On Sunday, we changed our clocks. On Tuesday, we'll change our president." With regard to his prognostications, Morris announced on Fox and Friends two days before
26082-491: Was subject to significant corrections of its scholarship, prompting several articles in the UK higher education press. Wolf was involved in President Bill Clinton 's 1996 reelection bid, brainstorming with Clinton's team about ways to reach female voters. Hired by Dick Morris , she wanted Morris to promote Clinton as "The Good Father" and a protector of "the American house". She met with him every few weeks for nearly
26244-529: Was suspended for posting anti-vaccine misinformation . Naomi Rebekah Wolf was born in 1962 in San Francisco , California, to a Jewish family. Her mother is Deborah Goleman Wolf, an anthropologist and the author of The Lesbian Community . Her father was Leonard Wolf , a Romanian -born scholar of gothic horror novels, faculty member at San Francisco State University, and Yiddish translator. Leonard Wolf died from Parkinson's disease on March 20, 2019. Wolf has
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