96-426: [REDACTED] Polish Underground State Operation Ostra Brama ( Polish : Operacja „Ostra Brama” , lit. ' Operation Gate of Dawn ' ) was the Polish Home Army 's attempted takeover of Vilnius ( Polish : Wilno ) in wake of the German Wehrmacht 's evacuation, ahead of the approaching Soviet Red Army 's Vilnius offensive . A part of a Polish national uprising, Operation Tempest ,
192-643: A 12-point declaration demanding that the Soviet army leave Poland and the repression of the non-communist political parties cease. The Government Delegate's Office at Home, restructured after the arrests of its leadership and headed by the last Delegate, Stefan Korboński , disbanded on 1 July, after the creation in Moscow of the Provisional Government of National Unity (Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej, TRJN) on 28 June 1945. The disbanding of those structures marked
288-562: A fortress. Most importantly, the Germans had expected the Polish attack for days, denying the Home Army the element of surprise . The Polish units that did not participate in the attack on the city fought instead at Maišiagala , Kraučiūnai [ lt ] , and Eišiškės . In Kraučiūnai, the "Węgielny" group battled with the retreating German Vilnius garrison and the relief force. Some units like
384-748: A free or fair election in Poland, and so they set about preventing one, despite the nominal pledges given by Stalin at the Yalta Conference . In June 1946 the 3xTAK referendum was held on a number of issues. The PSL decided to oppose the proposal calling for the abolition of the Senate as a test of strength against the Communists: two-thirds of voters supported Mikołajczyk, but the Communist-controlled Interior Ministry issued faked results showing
480-561: A legal continuation of the pre-war Republic of Poland (and its institutions) that waged an armed struggle against the country's occupying powers: Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union . The Underground State encompassed not only military resistance, one of the largest in the world, but also civilian structures, such as justice, education, culture and social services. Although the Underground State enjoyed broad support throughout much of
576-453: A result, Stalin agreed that there would be a coalition government in the Soviet seized territories of Poland. A Socialist, Edward Osóbka-Morawski , became Prime Minister of the new Provisional Government of National Unity ( Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej – TRJN), and the Communist leader Władysław Gomułka became one of two Deputy Prime Ministers. Mikołajczyk resigned as Prime Minister of
672-606: A small group reached the German lines. On July 13, the German garrison's remnants surrendered. When the battle was over, the Soviet Command demanded that Polish soldiers immediate abandon Vilnius. The Polish commander, Colonel Krzyżanowski ordered Polish units to set off for the Rūdninkai forest , while he went to the headquarters of General Ivan Chernyakhovsky , commander of the 3rd Belorussian Front. The Soviets promised Krzyżanowski that
768-538: Is and will be no place in Poland for any kind of totalitarian government in any shape or form." However Mikołajczyk faced daunting challenges. It was obvious by this time that the Soviet armed forces, not those of the western Allies, would seize Poland from German occupation, and the Poles feared that Stalin intended both imposing Communism on Poland and annexing Poland's eastern territories , which were populated by Ethnic Poles , Ukrainians and Belarusians . During 1944
864-514: The Council of Ministers at Home (Krajowa Rada Ministrów, KRM) was created. The Underground State however declined sharply in the aftermath of the nationwide uprising, Operation Tempest , initiated in the spring of 1944. In addition to the costly and eventually unsuccessful Warsaw Uprising part of the Operation Tempest, the hostile attitude of the Soviet Union and its puppet Polish government,
960-560: The Council of National Unity (Rada Jedności Narodowej, RJN), created on 9 January 1944. The council, headed by Kazimierz Pużak , was seen as the Underground State's parliament. Meanwhile, the military arm of the Underground State expanded dramatically, and the ZWZ was transformed into Armia Krajowa (AK, or the Home Army) in 1942. ZWZ-AK commanders included Stefan Rowecki, Tadeusz Komorowski and Leopold Okulicki . In August 1943 and March 1944,
1056-521: The Curzon Line , surrendering Wilno and Lwów to Russia and compensating Poland in the West. Berezowski responded with an emphatic re-statement of Poland's determination to keep Wilno and Lwów, and if necessary to fight for them. Churchill answered 'in a grave,...even...gloomy, manner: "Obviously, a decision to resist, regardless of the consequences, is the privilege of every nation, and it cannot be denied even to
SECTION 10
#17328561358241152-715: The Jews were. The most important groups that refused to join the structures of the Polish Underground State included the communists ( Polish Workers Party (PPR) and its military arm, the People's Guard , later transformed into the People's Army ), and the far-right extremists from the National Radical Camp ABC ( Group Szaniec and its military arm, the Military Organization Lizard Union ). Both
1248-595: The PSL , which soon became by far the largest party in Poland. Some have argued he was further aided by the radical land reform pushed through in accordance with the PPR's project, because it 'created a new class of small farmers who became a firm political base for the PSL'. Of course, Poland had been a largely rural society in any case and Mikołajczyk's programme was not a conservative smallholder programme. The Communists knew they would never win
1344-730: The Polish Committee of National Liberation (PKWN), a Soviet puppet government. The government in exile, located first in France and later in the United Kingdom, with the President , Prime Minister and the Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army was the top military and civilian authority, recognized by the authorities of the Underground State as their commanders. The government in exile
1440-412: The Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego, PKWN) towards the non-communist resistance loyal to the Polish government in exile proved to be disastrous. The Underground State assumed that the Polish resistance would aid the advancing Soviet forces, and AK commanders and representatives of the administrative authority would assume the role of legitimate hosts. Instead,
1536-688: The Polish Secret State ) was a single political and military entity formed by the union of resistance organizations in occupied Poland that were loyal to the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile in London. The first elements of the Underground State were established in the final days of the German and Soviet invasion of Poland , in late September 1939. The Underground State was perceived by supporters as
1632-616: The Soviet one ) appeared inevitable. SZP founder General Michał Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski received orders from Polish Commander-in-Chief Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły to organize and carry out the struggle in occupied Poland. Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski decided that the organization he was creating needed to move beyond a strictly military format; and in line with the traditions of the underground 19th-century Polish National Government and World War I -era Polish Military Organization , it would need to encompass various aspects of civilian life. Hence,
1728-726: The Tehran Conference , but none of the Polish soldiers that were going to fight in the Battle of Vilnius knew about it. However, the Polish government-in-exile knew fully about the Western Allies' support for the Soviet position. For example, on April 25, 1944, during a meeting of British Prime Minister Churchill with Zygmunt Berezowski [ pl ] , a leading member of the Polish National Party , and General Stanisław Tatar ,
1824-588: The Zygmunt Szendzielarz 's 5th Brigade moved to the Białystok region. The Polish attack on the morning of July 7 stalled almost immediately under heavy fire from German positions. At mid-day, the first armoured units of the 3rd Belorussian Front appeared on the battlefield. From then on, until the battle concluded on July 13, Polish troops fought on the Soviet side. The Wehrmacht forces under Generalleutnant Reiner Stahel attempted to break out, although only
1920-801: The cursed soldiers , fighting the Soviet-backed communist forces until eradicated. The Underground State represented most, though not all, political factions of the Second Polish Republic . The Political Consultative Committee (PKP) represented four major Polish parties: the Socialist Party (PPS-WRN), the People's Party (SL), the SN , and the Labor Party (SP). The SP joined the PKP in June 1940, four months after
2016-606: The defence of Warsaw . After the fall of Warsaw he escaped to Hungary , where he was interned. He soon escaped and made his way to Paris via Yugoslavia and Italy . By the end of November, Mikołajczyk had reached France where he was immediately asked to join the Polish government in exile as deputy Chairman of the Polish National Council . In 1941 he was appointed Minister of the Interior and became Prime Minister Władysław Sikorski 's Deputy Prime Minister. In April 1943
SECTION 20
#17328561358242112-524: The fall of France , in London). Sikorski's government opted for a much more democratic procedure then the less democratic prewar Sanacja regime. The National Council (Rada Narodowa) was formed by the government in exile in December 1939, including representatives from different Polish political factions. Meanwhile, in occupied Poland, a major step toward the development of the organization's civilian structure
2208-415: The fall of communism , Poland regained full independence and Polish scholars could begin unrestricted research into all aspects of Polish history. Scholars who chose to investigate the Underground State were also confronted with the issue of its uniqueness (no country or nation has ever created a similar institution), and hence, the problem of defining it. Polish historian Stanisław Salmonowicz , discussing
2304-420: The historiography of the Polish Underground State, defined it as a "collection of state-legal, organizational and citizenship structures, which were to ensure the constitutional continuation of Polish statehood on its own territory". Salmonowicz concluded that "This constitutional continuity, real performance of the state's functions on its past territory and the loyalty of a great majority of Polish society were
2400-468: The 'correct' results, the Polish security apparatus recruited 47% of the members of electoral committees as agents. The elections produced a parliament with 394 seats for the Communist-controlled " Democratic Bloc " and 28 for the PSL, a result which everyone knew could only be obtained through massive electoral fraud. Indeed, the opposition claimed that it would have won as much as 80 percent of
2496-575: The 19th century was part of the German Empire and known as the Province of Posen . He was born in Westphalia in western Germany, where his parents had gone to look for work in the wealthy mining regions, as many Poles—known as Ruhr Poles —did in the 19th century. He returned to Poznań as a boy of ten. As a teenager, he worked in a sugar beet refinery and was active in Polish patriotic organisations. He
2592-508: The Allied leaders, particularly Winston Churchill , tried to bring about resumption talks between Mikołajczyk and Stalin, but these efforts broke down over several issues. One was the Katyń massacre . Another was Poland's postwar borders. Stalin insisted that the eastern territories should remain in Soviet hands. Mikołajczyk also opposed Stalin's plan to set up a Communist government in postwar Poland. As
2688-578: The Delegate could be seen as equivalent to that of a Deputy Prime Minister (particularly since the legislation of 1944). Unlike the GRP and PKP, which operated alongside the military structures but had no influence over them, the Delegation had budgetary control over the military. The Delegation was to oversee the military and recreate the civilian administration. As early as 1940, the Underground State's civilian arm
2784-607: The Department for Elimination of the Consequences of War, the Department for Public Works and Reconstruction, and the Department for Information and the Press; the other departments mirrored pre-war Polish ministries (e.g., Department of Post Offices and Telegraphs, or Department of the Treasury). The Delegate's Office was divided into departments, 14 of which existed toward the end of the war;
2880-407: The Department of National Defence. On the geographical division level, the Delegation had local offices, dividing Polish territories into 16 voivodeships , each under an underground voivode , further divided into powiats headed by starostas , and with separate municipal bodies. In early 1944, the Delegation employed some 15,000 people in its administration; those were primarily older people, as
2976-579: The French government, Wieniawa-Długoszowski was replaced by Władysław Raczkiewicz on 29 September. General Władysław Sikorski , a long-term opponent of the Sanacja regime who resided in France and had the support of the French government, would become the Polish Commander-in-Chief (on 28 September) and Poland's Prime Minister (on 30 September). This government was quickly recognized by France and
Operation Ostra Brama - Misplaced Pages Continue
3072-499: The German and Soviet occupation of Poland was illegal. Hence, all institutions created by the occupying powers were considered illegal, and parallel Polish underground institutions were set up in accordance with Polish law . The scale of the Underground State was also inadvertently aided by the actions of the occupiers, whose attempts to destroy the Polish state, nation, and its culture, including most importantly genocidal policies that targeted Polish citizens, fuelled popular support for
3168-544: The German defeat in World War II. By the final years of the war, the civilian structure of the Underground State included an underground parliament, administration, judiciary ( courts and police ), secondary and higher-level education , and supported various cultural activities such as the publishing of newspapers and books, underground theatres, lectures, exhibitions, concerts and safeguarded various works of art. It also dealt with providing social services , including to
3264-473: The Germans had announced that they had discovered the graves of almost 22,000 Polish officers who had been murdered by the Soviets at Katyń Wood . The Soviet government said that the Germans had fabricated the discovery. The Allied governments, for diplomatic reasons, formally accepted this, but Mikołajczyk's government refused to do so, and Stalin then severed relations with the government in exile. When Sikorski
3360-634: The PKP was created; and the PPS-WRN withdrew from the PKP between October 1941 and March 1943. Those parties, known as the Big Four , were also represented in the Home Political Representation (KRP). Compared to PKP and KRP, the Council of National Unity was much more representative, and included representatives of several smaller political groupings. Several other groups lacked significant representation in PKP and KRP, but nonetheless had supported
3456-622: The PKWN was proclaimed in 1944. PKWN was recognized by the Soviet Government as the only legitimate authority in Poland, while Mikołajczyk's Government in London, was termed by the Soviets an "illegal and self-styled authority." Mikołajczyk would serve in the Prime Minister's role until 24 November 1944, when, realizing the increasing powerlessness of the government in exile, he resigned and was succeeded by Tomasz Arciszewski , "whose obscurity", in
3552-452: The Polish Underground State announced its long-term plan, which was partly designed to undercut the attractiveness of some of the communists' proposals. The communists, in their increasingly radical What We Fight For declarations (from March and November 1943), were proposing the creation of a heavily socialist or even communist state , denouncing capitalism, which they equated to slavery. They demanded nationalization of most if not all of
3648-454: The Polish Underground State mirrors that of the Polish non-communist resistance in general. The Underground State traces its origins to the Service for Poland's Victory (Służba Zwycięstwu Polski, SZP) organization, which was founded on 27 September 1939, one day before the surrender of the Polish capital of Warsaw , at a time when the Polish defeat in the German invasion of Poland (accompanied by
3744-535: The Polish government in exile. A rift developed between Poland and the Soviet Union, an increasingly important ally for the West, particularly after the revelation of the Katyn massacre in 1943 (on 13 April), followed by the breaking-off of diplomatic relations with Poland by the Soviets (on 21 April). The subsequent death (on 4 July) of the charismatic General Sikorski, succeeded by less influential Stanisław Mikołajczyk as
3840-454: The Polish resistance movement and its development. During the Cold War era, research on the Underground State was curtailed by Polish communist officials, who instead emphasized the role that communist partisans played in the anti-Nazi resistance. Hence, until recently, the bulk of research done on this topic was carried out by Polish scholars living in exile. In many respects, the history of
3936-520: The Polish would be supplied with equipment without any political conditions. On July 16, Krzyżanowski was once again invited to Chernyakhovsky's headquarters to sign an agreement. However, this time, the Soviets arrested Krzyżanowski and his chief of staff, Major Teodor Cetys, as well as other Polish representatives at the same time in Bogusze. The wave of arrests also included the delegates of Polish government-in-exile in London. The replacement commanders of
Operation Ostra Brama - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-491: The Prime Minister, and General Sosnkowski as the Commander-in-Chief, contributed to the decline. No representative of the Polish government was invited to the Tehran Conference (28 November – 1 December 1943) or the Yalta Conference (4–11 February 1945), the two crucial events in which the Western Allies and the Soviet Union discussed the shape of the post-war world and decided on the fate of Poland, assigning it to
4128-771: The SZP, in contact with (and subordinate to) the Polish Government in Exile , envisioned itself not only as an armed resistance organization, but also as a vehicle through which the Polish state continued to administer its occupied territories. Following the Polish Constitution , President Ignacy Mościcki , interned in Romania after the Polish government evacuated itself from Poland on 17 September, resigned and appointed General Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski as his successor; unpopular with
4224-676: The Sanacja regime, and supported the formation of the Main Political Council (Główna Rada Polityczna, GRP). Sikorski named General Kazimierz Sosnkowski the head of the ZWZ and Colonel Stefan Rowecki was appointed the commander of the ZWZ German occupation zone. Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski became the commander of the ZWZ Soviet zone but was arrested in March 1940 by the Soviets when attempting to cross
4320-420: The Soviet sphere of influence . In Tehran, neither Churchill nor Roosevelt objected to Stalin 's suggestion that the Polish government in exile in London was not representing Polish interests; as historian Anita Prażmowska noted, "this spelled the end of that government's tenuous influence and raison d'être." After the Tehran Conference, Stalin decided to create his own puppet government for Poland, and
4416-599: The Soviet Union, until their general release in 1947. None of what happened in Vilnius was disclosed to the general public in the West. Great Britain and the United States, which were the Soviet Union's wartime allies, were disinterested in revealing any news contradicting the impression that the Soviet Union was liberating Europe from Nazi evil. Indeed, British media censored stories about Soviet actions by decree of Minister of Information Brendan Bracken . Polish Underground State The Polish Underground State ( Polish : Polskie Państwo Podziemne , also known as
4512-410: The Soviet military. Polish intelligence operatives supplied valuable intelligence information to the Allies; 43 percent of all reports received by British secret services from continental Europe in 1939–45 came from Polish sources. At its height, AK numbered over 400,000 and was recognized as one of the three largest, or even the largest, resistance movement of the war. Axis fatalities due to
4608-592: The Soviet-backed and increasingly communist TRJN body. Seeing this as a " Western betrayal ", the government in exile protested that decision and continued to operate till the fall of communism in 1989, when it recognized the post-communist Polish government. Following the rigged Polish legislative election of 1947, the few independent politicians like Mikołajczyk who attempted to form an opposition were threatened with arrests, retired or emigrated. The Underground State's military arm, Armia Krajowa, officially disbanded on 19 January 1945 to avoid armed conflict with
4704-418: The Soviets and civil war. Over the next few years the communists solidified their hold on Poland, falsifying elections, persecuting the opposition and eliminating it as a political power. Remnants of the armed resistance ( NIE , Armed Forces Delegation for Poland , Freedom and Independence ) that refused to lay down their weapons and surrender to the communist regime continued to hold out for several years as
4800-541: The Soviets commonly surrounded, disarmed and arrested the Underground's military authority members and its civilian representatives, instituting their own administrative structures instead. In early July 1944, even as the AK resistance continued its struggle against the Germans, the Underground State was forced to order the AK and its administrative structure to remain in hiding from the Soviets, due to continued arrests and reprisals experienced by those who revealed themselves. Events taking place in 1943 significantly weakened
4896-415: The Underground State. For example, the nationalists from the National Radical Camp Falanga formed the Confederation of the Nation , which included most members of the pre-war far-right, partially merging with the ZWZ around 1941 and finally joining the AK around fall 1943. Non-Polish ethnic minorities , primarily the Ukrainians and the Belarusians , were not represented in the Underground State; however
SECTION 50
#17328561358244992-523: The United Kingdom. Raczkiewicz, described as "weak and indecisive", held relatively little influence compared to charismatic Sikorski. Due to political differences among factions in the Polish exile government, and in particular, SZP ties to the Sanacja regime which dominated the Polish government since the mid-1920s, the SZP was reorganized into the Union of Armed Struggle (Związek Walki Zbrojnej, ZWZ) on 13 November 1939. Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski supported that move, aiming to include parties marginalized by
5088-435: The Vilnius and Nowogródek districts, Lieutenant Colonels Zygmunt Blumski [ pl ] , and Janusz Prawdzic-Szlaski [ pl ] , respectively, moved their units into the Rūdninkai forest under constant fire from Soviet aircraft. Those Polish soldiers that successfully reached the forests were ordered to make their way to Grodno , Białystok , or disperse into the local terrain. The Soviets eagerly hunted for
5184-406: The action happened on 7–13 July 1944. The operation's main goal was propagandistic – to claim Vilnius for Poland by retaking it before Soviet arrival. Despite the operation's failure, the Polish government-in-exile continued its political line that led to the catastrophic Warsaw Uprising on 1 August 1944. On June 12, General Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski , Commander-in-Chief of the Home Army , ordered
5280-448: The actions of the Polish underground, of which AK formed the bulk, are estimated at up to 150,000. For decades, research on the Polish Underground State was restricted, largely because the communist People's Republic of Poland did not wish to fully acknowledge the role of the non-communist resistance. During the first postwar Stalinist years, efforts to explore this topic were regarded as dangerous, bordering on illegal. Research into
5376-412: The basis of the post-war government in Poland . During the Soviet-backed communist takeover of Poland at the end of the war, many Underground State members were prosecuted as alleged traitors and died in captivity. Abandoned by the Western Allies , finding it impossible to negotiate with the Soviets, and wishing to avoid a civil war, the key institutions of the Underground State dissolved themselves in
5472-494: The city faster than expected, Krzyżanowski launched the operation one day sooner. On paper, he commanded between 10,000 and 15,000 partisan troops that were relatively well-armed; many had prior combat experience. The timely mobilisation for the battle for Vilnius proved a challenge, however. Some of Krzyżanowski's forces were diverted elsewhere or located tens of kilometers outside the city. Marching Polish columns encountered German forces evacuating Vilnius, leading to skirmishes along
5568-568: The day of 27 September (anniversary of the founding of the Service for Poland's Victory organization) to be the Day of the Polish Underground State . Stanis%C5%82aw Miko%C5%82ajczyk Defunct Stanisław Mikołajczyk (18 July 1901 – 13 December 1966; [staˈɲiswav mikɔˈwajt͡ʂɨk] ) was a Polish politician . He was a prime minister of the Polish government-in-exile during World War II , and later Deputy Prime Minister in post-war Poland until 1947. Mikołajczyk's family came from Poznań in western Poland , which in
5664-422: The deputy chief of staff of the Home Army. "He [Berezowski] said that the Poles trusted Great Britain and her Prime Minister and counted on his staunch and firm support in ensuring Poland's real independence and the integrity of her frontiers. Churchill said that while he was willing to assist Poland in regaining her independence he could not vouch for the integrity of her frontiers; he reaffirmed his support for
5760-516: The destitute Jewish population (through the council to Aid Jews, or Żegota ). Through the Directorate of Civil Resistance (1941–1943) the civil arm was also involved in lesser acts of resistance, such as minor sabotage , although in 1943 this department was merged with the Directorate of Covert Resistance , forming the Directorate of Underground Resistance , subordinate to AK. The departments can be seen as loosely corresponding to ministries . Three departments were dedicated to war-related issues:
5856-405: The economic sector, planned economy would be endorsed, by embracing the socialist and Christian Democrat principles, such as income redistribution , aiming at a reduction of economic inequality . The plan promised land reform , nationalization of the industrial base, demands for territorial compensation from Germany, and re-establishment of the country's pre-1939 eastern border. According to
SECTION 60
#17328561358245952-476: The economy, introduction of central planning , The Underground State's declaration What the Polish Nation is Fighting For declared the reconstruction of Poland as a democratic parliamentary state as its goal, guaranteeing full equality to the minorities, as well as full freedom of speech , freedom of religion , and freedom of political activity. The plan also called for the creation of a Central European federal union, without domination by any single state. In
6048-438: The end of the Underground State. The TRJN was composed primarily of communist representatives from the PKWN, with a token representation of the opposition as a gesture towards the Western Allies. With the establishment of the TRJN, the government in exile stopped being recognized by the Western Allies (France withdrew its recognition on 29 June, followed by United Kingdom and the United States on 5 July), who decided to support
6144-445: The events occurring in the Soviet-annexed territories in the 1939–1941 period was particularly difficult. The limited research devoted to the Underground State that did take place was done mainly by Polish émigré historians living in the West. The communist state downplayed the importance of the non-communist resistance movements, while the communist movement ( Armia Ludowa ) was emphasized as being of primary importance; in fact,
6240-443: The extreme left (the communists) and the extreme right (the nationalists) did not recognize the Underground State and in some cases actively persecuted people connected with it. Only the PPR, however, opposed to Polish independence and supporting full inclusion of Poland in the Soviet Union, was seen as completely outside the framework of the State; the other groups were seen as a justifiable opposition. In 1944 PPR would become part of
6336-402: The first half of 1945. Ultimately, hundreds of thousands of people were directly involved with various agencies of the Underground State ( the estimates for membership in Armia Krajowa alone are often given at approaching half a million people), and they were quietly supported by millions of Polish citizens. The rationale behind the creation of the secret civilian authority drew on the fact that
6432-401: The forests near Vilnius. The Soviets gradually encircled and captured them. A few decided to join General Zygmunt Berling 's First Polish Army , while most were forced into the Soviet Red Army. Those refusing to swear allegiance to the Soviet Union were deported to Kaluga , in western Russia. There, they became part of the infamous Gulag , the prisoner slave labor system then widespread in
6528-463: The full list included: the Presidential Department, the Department of Internal Affairs, Justice Department, Employment and Social Welfare Department, Agriculture Department, Treasury Department, Trade and Industry Department, Postal and Telegraph Services Department, the Department for Elimination of the Consequences of War, Transport Department, Information and the Press, Department of Public Works and Reconstruction, Department of Education and Culture and
6624-459: The government in exile to return to Poland and become the other Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Agriculture. Many of the Polish exiles opposed this action, believing that this government was a façade for the establishment of Communist rule in Poland. The government in exile maintained its existence, although it no longer had diplomatic recognition as the legal government of Poland. Following his return, Mikołajczyk immediately set about reviving
6720-526: The government in exile, through radio communications and "hundreds, if not thousands" of couriers, such as Jan Karski . One of the most significant developments of 1940 was the creation of the office of Government Delegation for Poland (Delegatura Rządu na Kraj), with Cyryl Ratajski (nominated on 3 December) as the first Delegate ; this event marked the official beginning of the Underground State (Ratajski would be followed by Jan Piekałkiewicz , Jan Stanisław Jankowski and Stefan Korboński ). The post of
6816-443: The impending arrival of major Soviet forces. Instead, the Germans held strong positions in the fortified city . On June 26, major Teodor Cetys [ pl ] and lieutenant colonel Zygmunt Blumski [ pl ] proposed a plan to Krzyżanowski. 'Ostra Brama order number 1' comprised an overall outline for an assault on Vilnius, where the Home Army forces of the combined districts Vilnius and Nowogródek would strike from
6912-546: The last AK Commander-in-Chief, General Leopold Okulicki , who decided to reveal themselves and upon the Soviet invitation begun open negotiations with the communist authorities, were arrested and sentenced by the Soviets in Moscow in the infamous Trial of the Sixteen (arrests were carried out in March 1945, and the trial itself took place in June that year). On 27 June 1945 the Council of National Unity held its last session, issuing
7008-546: The most significant elements of its existence." The Underground State also became officially recognized by the Polish government, local authorities and the community, with most major cities in Poland erecting various memorials to the Underground State-affiliated resistance. In Poznań , there is a dedicated Polish Underground State Monument erected in 2007. On 11 September 1998 the Sejm (parliament) of Poland declared
7104-478: The new German-Soviet border. In June Sikorski appointed Rowecki as the commander of both zones. Given that the ZWZ focused on military aspects of the struggle, its civilian dimension was less clearly defined and developed more slowly—a situation exacerbated by the complex political discussions that were then unfolding between politicians in occupied Poland and the government in exile (first located in Paris, and after
7200-460: The opposite result. Between then and the January 1947 general elections , the PSL was subjected to ruthless persecution, and hundreds of its candidates were prevented from campaigning. From 1946 to 1948, military courts sentenced 32,477 people, most of them members of democratic parties for 'crimes against the state'. Only then the elections were held. In order to be sure that the elections would produce
7296-464: The opposite was true. The absence of research by Polish scholars, along with obstacles presented to foreign scholars seeking access to source material in communist Poland, contributed to a situation in which there was virtually no discussion by Western scholars of one of Europe's largest resistance movements—the non-communist Polish resistance movement. The bulk of Western research centred on the much smaller French Resistance ( la Résistance ). With
7392-523: The outside under the lead of Lieutenant Colonel "Poleszczuk". Units inside the city were under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Lubosław Krzeszowski [ pl ] "Ludwik". According to the plan, the main attack was prepared from the east and southeast for July 8. When the Red Army crossed the front, equivalent to where it was in 1916 (between Soly and Smarhon ), the uprising would begin. Poland had already lost its eastern territories to Stalin at
7488-493: The plan, the country's Eastern borders, as delineated by the 1921 Treaty of Riga, would be kept while in the north and west compensation would be sought from German territories. Thus, the main differences between the Underground State and the communists, in terms of politics, were not rooted in radical economic and social reforms, which both sides advocated, but rather in their divergent positions on such issues as national sovereignty, borders, and Polish-Soviet relations. The program
7584-539: The preparation of a plan to seize Vilnius from German hands. The Home Army's Vilnius and Nowogródek districts planned to conquer the city before the Soviets did. Lieutenant Colonel Aleksander Krzyżanowski , who commanded the Home Army's Vilnius District, regrouped all the region's partisan units for the assault, both from inside and outside of the city. Operation Ostra Brama was meant to be carried out during an expected state of confusion among German units in Vilnius, faced with
7680-508: The reasons why he could not join any 'detailed discussion' on Poland, and suggested to Mikolajczyk that 'he might be able to be of further assistance later on'. Moral support and no more, but Mikołajczyk wrongly concluded from Roosevelt's words that the Curzon line as the basis of the Polish-Soviet border was Churchill's proposal that Roosevelt does not support it. Because the Soviets approached
7776-472: The soldiers of what officially was their ally, capturing over 5,700 Polish soldiers. On July 17, the Home Army units concentrated near Vilnius were disarmed, the soldiers were imprisoned in the camp in Medininkai . On July 27–28, they were deported to Kaluga. The officers were sent to Ryazan . Stripped of their officers and confused, by July 18, roughly 6,000 soldiers and over 5,000 volunteers had withdrawn to
7872-568: The state's military arm was responsible for maintaining communication with the London-based government in exile, and for protecting the civilian arm of the state. The Armia Krajowa's primary resistance operations were the sabotage of German activities, including transports headed for the Eastern Front in the Soviet Union. The sabotage of German rail and road transports to the Eastern Front
7968-504: The vote had the election been conducted in a fair manner. Mikołajczyk, who would have likely become Prime Minister had the election been honest, immediately resigned from the government in protest. Facing arrest, he left the country in October. Winston Churchill, upon seeing him in London , remarked: "I am surprised you made it out alive". In London, the Polish government in exile regarded him as
8064-517: The war, it was not supported or recognized by the communists and some of the right-wing extremists . The influence of the communists eventually declined amid military reversals (most notably, the failure of the Warsaw Uprising ) and the growing hostility of the USSR. The Soviet Union had created an alternative, puppet government in 1944 (the Polish Committee of National Liberation ) and ensured it formed
8160-404: The way. Altogether, only 4,000 to 5,000 tired soldiers were assembled outside the city by midnight of July 6 / 7. The units involved in this attack included four brigades and five battalions as well as the city's Home Army units. Meanwhile, the German positions inside Vilnius had been fortified and augmented by security and police troops as the city, an important transportation hub, was designated
8256-472: The weakest..."".' Similar statements were received by the head of the Polish government-in-exile Stanisław Mikołajczyk during his visit to the United States in June 1944 and meeting with President Roosevelt . "He [Roosevelt] assured Mikołajczyk that he could rely on 'the moral support' of Washington in his efforts to reach an understanding with Moscow.(6) He explained that he had, at Teheran, given Stalin
8352-511: The words of historian Mieczysław B. Biskupski , "signaled the arrival of the government in exile at total inconsequentiality." The communists refused to deal with the Underground State just like they refused to deal with the government in exile; its leaders and soldiers in "liberated" Polish territories were persecuted. A number of prominent leaders of the Underground State, including the Government Delegate, Jan Stanisław Jankowski and
8448-534: The younger ones were recruited for the military side of the operations. The military arm of the Polish Underground State consisted primarily of various branches of the Armia Krajowa (AK) and, until 1942, the Union of Armed Struggle . This arm of the state was designed to prepare the Polish society for a future fight for the country's liberation. Apart from armed resistance, sabotage, intelligence, training, and propaganda,
8544-517: Was 18 when Poland recovered its independence, and in 1920 he joined the Polish Army and took part in the Polish–Soviet War . He was discharged after being wounded near Warsaw and returned to inherit his father's farm near Poznań . In the 1920s Mikołajczyk became active in the Polish People's Party "Piast" (PSL), and after holding a number of offices in the government of Poznań province, he
8640-410: Was actively supporting underground education ; it then set out to develop social security , information (propaganda) and justice networks. By 1942, most of the differences between politicians in occupied Poland and those in exile had been positively settled. By 1943, the PKP had evolved into the Home Political Representation (Krajowa Reprezentacja Polityczna, KRP), which served as the basis of
8736-557: Was criticized by the nationalist factions, for being too socialist, and not "Christian" enough. The Underground State achieved its zenith of influence in early 1944. In April, the Polish government in exile recognized the administrative structure of the Delegate's Office as the Temporary Governmental Administration. This was when the Delegate officially became recognized as the Deputy Prime Minister, and
8832-528: Was elected to the Sejm (the Polish Parliament) in 1929. In 1935 he became Vice-Chairman of the executive committee of the PSL, and in 1937 he became party President. He was an active opponent of the authoritarian regime established in Poland after the death of Józef Piłsudski in 1935. When Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September of 1939, Mikołajczyk was a private in the Polish army, and served in
8928-596: Was killed in a plane crash in July 1943, Mikołajczyk was appointed as his successor. "We do not wish to see only a formal democracy in Poland," he said in his broadcast to Poland on taking office, "but a social democracy which will put into practice not only political, religious and personal freedom but also social and economic freedom , the Four Freedoms of which Franklin Delano Roosevelt spoke so finely. In any case, there
9024-576: Was represented in the occupied Poland by the Government Delegation for Poland, headed by the Government Delegate for Poland . The main role of the civilian branch of the Underground State was to preserve the continuity of the Polish state as a whole, including its institutions. These institutions included the police, the courts , and schools . This branch of the state was intended to prepare cadres and institutions to resume power after
9120-468: Was so extensive it is estimated that one-eighth of all German transports to the Eastern Front were destroyed or significantly delayed due to AK's activities. The AK also fought several full-scale battles against the Germans, particularly in 1943 and 1944 during Operation Tempest . They tied down significant German forces, worth at least several divisions (upper estimates suggest about 930,000 troops), diverting much-needed supplies, while trying to support
9216-724: Was taken in late February 1940, when the ZWZ established its local version of the National Council, the Political Consultative Committee (Polityczny Komitet Porozumiewawczy, PKP). PKP was formed in 1940 pursuant to an agreement between several major political parties: the Socialist Party , People's Party , National Party and Labor Party . In 1943 it was renamed to Home Political Representation ( Krajowa Reprezentacja Polityczna ) and in 1944 to Council of National Unity ( Rada Jedności Narodowej ). The structures in occupied Poland maintained close communication with
#823176