49-661: 1946 1947–1948 1949 Post- RTC Operation Kraai (Operation Crow) was a Dutch military offensive against the de facto Republic of Indonesia in December 1948, following the failure of negotiations. With the advantage of surprise, the Dutch managed to capture the Indonesian Republic's temporary capital, Yogyakarta , and seized Indonesian leaders such as de facto Republican President Sukarno . This apparent military success was, however, followed by guerrilla warfare, while
98-890: A cabinet meeting, they refused and decided to stay in Yogyakarta and keep communicating with the United Nations and Komisi Tiga Negara (Trilateral Commission) envoys. Sukarno also announced a plan for "emergency government" in Sumatra, in the event something happened to the Indonesian leadership in Yogyakarta. Meanwhile, 2,600 fully armed Dutch troops (infantry and paratroopers) led by Colonel Dirk Reinhard Adelbert van Langen had gathered in Maguwo, ready to capture Yogyakarta. On that same day, most of Yogyakarta fell into Dutch hands, with key targets like
147-487: A draft constitution, an economic agreement and agreements on social and military affairs. The Dutch–Indonesian Union would not have any powers: it would be a consultative body with a permanent secretariat, a court of arbitration to settle any legal disputes, and a minimum of two ministerial conferences every year. It would be headed by the Dutch Queen in an entirely symbolic role. The delegations also reached agreement on
196-675: A press conference in Jakarta explaining their actions three days before the attack was launched, to be held when it commenced. The Dutch also timed their attack to co-ordinate with plans by the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to dispatch a private plane to fly Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta to Bukittinggi in West Sumatra where they would head an emergency government. A Republican delegation led by Sukarno would then be flown to New York City, via New Delhi , to advocate
245-541: A radio broadcast ordering his forces to cross the Van Mook line and capture Yogyakarta to "purge" the republic of "unreliable elements". The main aim of Operation Kraai was to quickly destroy the Tentara Nasional Indonesia (TNI) which Spoor thought would desperately defend their capital. Thus, with Dutch superiority both in the air and on land, the Dutch army would easily execute a final and decisive victory over
294-893: The Federal Consultative Assembly , representing various states the Dutch had created in the Indonesian archipelago. Prior to this conference, three other high-level meetings between the Netherlands and Indonesia took place; the Linggadjati Agreement of 1947, Renville Agreement of 1948, and the Roem–Van Roijen Agreement of 1949. The conference ended with the cession of sovereignty to the United States of Indonesia . On 17 August 1945, Indonesian nationalist leader Sukarno declared Indonesian independence from Japan. The Dutch, who had been expelled in 1942 by
343-525: The Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies , viewed the Indonesian leadership as Japanese collaborators, and wanted to regain control of their colony. The conflict between the Dutch and Indonesian nationalists developed into a full-scale Indonesian National Revolution . By mid-1946, both sides were under international pressure to negotiate. The Dutch favoured a federal Indonesian state, and organised
392-565: The Malino Conference in July ;1946, which led to the establishment of the State of East Indonesia . In November, the Dutch and Indonesian sides reached an agreement at Linggadjati , in which the Netherlands agreed to recognize republican rule over Java , Sumatra and Madura , and that republic would become a constituent state of a federal United States of Indonesia . On 28 January 1949,
441-597: The Marshall Plan aid to the Dutch. This included funds vital for Dutch post-World War II rebuilding that had so far totaled $ US 1 billion. The Netherlands government had spent an amount equivalent to almost half of this funding their campaigns in Indonesia. The perception that American aid was being used to fund "a senile and ineffectual imperialism" encouraged many key voices in the United States – including those amongst
490-556: The Raad van Indie (Indies Council), which were jointly referred to as the high government . Overall colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague , often headed by a former governor-general. From 1815 to 1848 the ministry was under direct authority of the Dutch monarch. In the 20th century the colony gradually developed as a state distinct from
539-655: The Royal Netherlands East Indies Air Force (ML-KNIL). The republic fielded only three captured Japanese Mitsubishi Zeros whereas the ML-KNIL had several American-built P-40 Kittyhawk and P-51 Mustang fighters, B-25 Mitchell bombers, and 23 Douglas DC-3s carrying approximately 900 troops. Dutch paratroopers from Korps Speciale Troepen landed at Maguwo airfield, which was defended by 47 lightly armed Indonesian Air Force cadets who lacked anti-aircraft machine guns. In advance, dummies were landed by
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#1732852595539588-484: The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 67 , calling for an end to the recent Dutch military offensive against republican forces in Indonesia and demanding the restoration of the republican government. It also urged the resumption of negotiations to find a peaceful settlement between the two sides. Following the Roem–Van Roijen Agreement of 6 July, which effectively endorsed
637-463: The Dutch cabinet was worried it would not be able to ratify the Round Table Agreement in parliament if it conceded this point. Finally, in the early hours of 1 November 1949, a compromise was reached: the status of Western New Guinea would be determined through negotiations between the United States of Indonesia and the Netherlands within a year of the transfer of sovereignty. The conference
686-491: The Dutch colonial administration and the status of Western New Guinea . Negotiations over the internal and external debts of the Dutch East Indies colonial administration were protracted, with each side presenting their own calculations and arguing over whether the United States of Indonesia should be responsible for debts incurred by the Dutch after the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies in 1942. In particular
735-505: The Dutch decided on a final military push to crush the Republic. By September 1948, the Dutch military command had succeeded in decoding the republic's encrypted secret code, gaining crucial intelligence on Indonesian military and diplomatic strategies and plans. This allowed General Simon Hendrik Spoor to counteract republic actions on the battlefield and diplomatic stage. The Dutch were so confident of this advantage that they began organising
784-514: The Dutch had cut the communication line. Meanwhile, Spoor instructed to begin a full-scale surprise attack against the Republic. He timed the attack before coinciding with Tentara Nasional Indonesia military exercises on 19 December, giving Dutch movements some temporary camouflage and enabling them to take the enemy by surprise. The attack was also launched without the prior knowledge of the UN Committee of Good Offices. The first offensive began in
833-522: The Dutch metropole with treasury separated in 1903, public loans being contracted by the colony from 1913, and quasi-diplomatic ties were established with Arabia to manage the Haji pilgrimage from the Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies. During the tenure of governors-general who were proponents of
882-495: The Dutch to draw enemy fire which enabled Dutch fighter planes to strafe the defenders. The skirmish lasted for 25 minutes ending with the Dutch taking over Maguwo; killing 128 republicans with no casualties. Having secured the airfield perimeter by 06:45, the Dutch were able to land airborne troops in two successive waves and use Maguwo as an airhead for reinforcements from their main base in Semarang . At 8:30 am, General Spoor gave
931-524: The East Indies. Under the period of British control (1811–1816) , the equivalent position was the lieutenant-governor , of whom the most notable is Thomas Stamford Raffles . Between 1942 and 1945, while Hubertus Johannes van Mook was the nominal governor-general, the area was under Japanese control, and was governed by a two sequence of governors, in Java and Sumatra. After 1948 in negotiations for independence,
980-570: The Indonesian army. However, most of the TNI had left Yogyakarta, defending western Yogyakarta's border from another Dutch military campaign. The commander General Nasution himself was on an inspection tour in East Java. The air attack found the Indonesians unprepared and within hours, the advancing Dutch army had quickly taken the airfield, main road, bridge, and strategic locations. General Sudirman's strategy
1029-605: The Indonesian delegations were indignant at having to cover what it saw as the costs of Dutch military action against it. Finally, thanks to the intervention of the United States member of the UN Commission on Indonesia, the Indonesian side came to realise that agreeing to pay part of the Dutch debt would be the price they would have to pay for the transfer of sovereignty. On 24 October, the Indonesian delegations agreed that Indonesia would take over approximately ƒ 4.5 billion of Dutch East Indies government debt. The issue of
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#17328525955391078-571: The Indonesian government was purchasing its sovereignty. Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies The governor-general of the Dutch East Indies ( Dutch : Gouverneur-generaal van Nederlands Indië ) represented Dutch rule in the Dutch East Indies between 1610 and Dutch recognition of the independence of Indonesia in 1949. The first governors-general were appointed by the Dutch East India Company (VOC). After
1127-554: The Round Table Conference would be held in The Hague . Negotiations, which took place from 23 August to 2 November 1949, were assisted by the United Nations Commission for Indonesia . The Dutch, Republic of Indonesia and Federal Consultative Assembly delegations reached agreement resulting in a number of documents, namely a Charter of Transfer of Sovereignty—to come into immediate effect—a statute of union,
1176-472: The Security Council resolution, Mohammad Roem said that the Republic of Indonesia—whose leaders were still in exile on Bangka Island —would participate in the Round Table Conference to accelerate the transfer of sovereignty. The Indonesian government, in exile for over six months, returned to the temporary capital at Yogyakarta on 6 July 1949. To ensure commonality of negotiating position between
1225-693: The US Republican Party – and from within American churches and NGOs to speak out in support of Indonesian independence. On 24 December, the UN Security Council called for the end of hostilities. In January 1949, it passed a resolution demanding the reinstatement of the republican government. The Dutch had achieved most of their objectives and announced a ceasefire in Java on 31 December and on 5 January in Sumatra. The guerrilla war nonetheless continued. Hostilities eventually ended on 7 May with
1274-547: The VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, the territorial possessions of the VOC were nationalised under the Dutch government as the Dutch East Indies, a colony of the Netherlands . Governors-general were now appointed by either the Dutch monarch or the Dutch government. During the Dutch East Indies era most governors-general were expatriate Dutchmen, while during the earlier VOC era most governors-general became settlers who stayed and died in
1323-415: The agreement on 14 December. Sovereignty was transferred to the United States of Indonesia on 27 December. The unresolved status of Western New Guinea would lead to the 12-year dispute . Political parties in Netherlands considered Indonesia dissolving the United States of Indonesia in 1950 into the original Republic of Indonesia as a pretense to not negotiate further on status of New Guinea which
1372-476: The air force and chief-of-staff headquarters razed by both Indonesian "scorched earth" tactics and Dutch bombing. Indonesian President Sukarno, Vice-president Mohammad Hatta , and ex-prime minister Sutan Sjahrir were seized by the Dutch and subsequently exiled to Bangka . They let themselves be captured hoping it would outrage international support. However, this action was later criticised among Indonesian military circles which regarded it as an act of cowardice by
1421-462: The armistice that had been signed following Operation Product . That armistice, the Renville Agreement , stipulated the withdrawal of Indonesian forces from Dutch-occupied territory in exchange for ending the Dutch naval blockade. However, several factors complicate the situation on both sides: 1) After Dutch's Operation Product /First Offensive, Dutch hold the cities and big roads, complicating
1470-505: The colonial ( KNIL ) army. Until 1903 all government officials and organisations were formal agents of the governor-general and entirely dependent on the central administration of the office of the governor-general for their budgets. A governor-general represented the Dutch Empire and monarch and was the most influential party in the colony. Until 1815 the governor-general had the absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any publication in
1519-458: The colony. The so-called exorbitant powers of the governor-general allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, without involving any court of law. Until 1848 the governor-general was directly appointed by the Dutch monarch, and in later years via the crown on advice of the Dutch metropolitan cabinet. During two periods (1815–1835 and 1854–1925) the governor-general ruled jointly with an advisory board called
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1568-494: The conflict was resolved in 1962, Indonesia restarted payment of around ƒ.620 million. By 1965, 36 installments of unknown amounts had been made. The remainder was paid from 1976 in 30 installments with 1% annual interest rate until the last payment was made in 2002. Some journalists characterize the aftermath of the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference as 'the price of independence,' suggesting that
1617-626: The early hours of 19 December. At 04:30, Dutch aircraft took off from Bandung ; heading for Yogyakarta via the Indian Ocean . Meanwhile, the Dutch High Commissioner Beel announced that the Dutch were no longer bound by the Renville Agreement on radio. The operation began as the Dutch attacked major Indonesian centres in Java and Sumatra . At 05:30, Maguwo airfield and the radio station at military aircraft including Yogyakarta were bombed by
1666-402: The equivalent position was named high commissioner of the crown in the Dutch East Indies . Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colonial possessions of the East Indies resided with the office of the governor-general . During the Dutch East Indies era the governor-general functioned as colonial chief executive, president of colonial government, as well as commander-in-chief of
1715-473: The ethical policy a people's council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East Indies was installed in 1918. The Volksraad , an infant form of democratic council, was limited to an advisory role and only a small portion of the population were able to vote for its members. The council comprised 30 indigenous members, 25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations, and was reconstituted every four years. In 1925
1764-904: The evacuation of military personnel and civilians as they have move through smaller, less-known route; 2) While most Indonesian combatants complied to instruction to move to Indonesian side of Van Mook line , 4,000 irregulars refused the treaty and stayed on the what is now Dutch area; 3) Dutch erected land blockade around Indonesian-held areas in Central Java, Banten, and Sumatra in defiance of Renville Agreement which not only limit movement of people but also food, cloth and medicine; 4) as Dutch unilaterally pushed ahead with their proposal of creating federal states in their conquered territory, they wasted most goodwill they had. Minor hostilities continued behind Dutch's side of Status Quo Line/Van Mook Line and intensified as parts of Siliwangi Division began to infiltrate back after Madiun affair . In November—December 1948
1813-407: The inclusion or not of Western New Guinea almost resulted in the talks becoming deadlocked. The Indonesian delegations took the view that Indonesia should comprise the entire territory of Dutch East Indies. The Dutch refused to compromise, claiming Western New Guinea had no ethnic ties with the rest of the archipelago. Despite Dutch public opinion supporting transfer of Western New Guinea to Indonesia,
1862-552: The political leadership. Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX stayed at his palace in Yogyakarta and did not leave during the entire occupation. The Sultan himself refused to cooperate with the Dutch administration and rejected mediation attempts by the pro-Dutch Sultan of Pontianak Hamid II . By 20 December, all remaining Republican troops in Yogyakarta had been withdrawn. Offensives were also conducted in other areas in Java and most of Sumatra. All parts of Indonesia except Aceh and some cantons in Sumatra fell under Dutch control. Sudirman, who
1911-522: The republic and the federal delegates, from 31 July until 2 August, Inter-Indonesian Conferences were in Yogyakarta between all component authorities of the future United States of Indonesia . The delegates agreed on the basic principles and outline for the Federal Constitution of 1949 . Following preliminary discussions sponsored by the UN Commission for Indonesia in Jakarta, it was decided
1960-652: The republic's cause in the United Nations General Assembly . Throughout the Indonesian National Revolution , newly independent India had been sympathetic to the republic's cause, which they viewed as a struggle against Western imperialism. On 18 December, radio broadcasts in Jakarta reported that the Dutch High Commissioner , Louis Beel , was going to give an important speech the next day. This news did not reach Yogyakarta because
2009-516: The signing of the Roem–Van Roijen Agreement . Dutch%E2%80%93Indonesian Round Table Conference The Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference ( Dutch : Nederlands-Indonesische rondetafelconferentie ; Indonesian : Konferensi Meja Bundar ) was held in The Hague from 23 August to 2 November 1949, between representatives of the Kingdom of the Netherlands , the Republic of Indonesia and
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2058-552: The violation of the Renville Agreement ceasefire diplomatically isolated the Dutch. This led to the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference and recognition of the United States of Indonesia . Referred to by the Dutch as the second politionele actie , it is more commonly known in Indonesian history books and military records as Agresi Militer Belanda II (Second Dutch Military Aggression). The second Politionele actie or military operation
2107-410: The withdrawal of Dutch troops "within the shortest possible time," and for the United States of Indonesia to grant most favoured nation status to the Netherlands. In addition, there would be no discrimination against Dutch nationals or companies and the republic agreed to take over trade agreements negotiated by the Dutch East Indies . However the two major areas of disagreement were over the debts of
2156-444: Was aimed at conquering Jogjakarta, the then Indonesian capital, and the other areas held by the Republic of Indonesia, except for Aceh. The purpose was to dissolve the Republic of Indonesia and install a more malleable political entity that would join the federal statehood proposed by the Netherlands, thus enabling the Netherlands to preserve its control in Indonesia. The Dutch East Indies government, NICA, accused Indonesians of breaching
2205-589: Was declared on 19 December, the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia , based in Bukittinggi , West Sumatra , led by Sjafruddin Prawiranegara . Sudirman radioed his immediate support for this government. This attack was well publicized internationally with many newspapers, including those in the United States , condemning Dutch attacks in their editorials. The United States threatened to suspend
2254-568: Was officially closed in the Dutch parliament building on 2 November. The Dutch parliament debated the agreement, and the upper and lower houses ratified it on 21 December 1949 by the two-thirds majority needed. Despite criticism in particular of the Indonesian assumption of Dutch government debt and the unresolved status of Western New Guinea, the Indonesian legislature, the Central Indonesian National Committee , ratified
2303-408: Was promised to be completed in 1950, voiding the Round Table Agreement, according to the Indonesian side. In response, Indonesia nationalized Dutch companies and assets, and stopped paying the above-mentioned debt. By around 1956, the remaining (not-recognized) debt of Indonesia was around ƒ 600 million. This means that in the period of 1950-1956 ƒ 3.8 billion had already been paid. After
2352-503: Was suffering from tuberculosis , led the guerrillas from his sickbed. General Abdul Haris Nasution , military commander of Java territories, declared the military government in Java and initiated a new guerrilla tactic called Pertahanan Keamanan Rakyat Semesta (Nation in Arms), transforming the Javan countryside into a guerrilla front with civilian support. A previously planned emergency government
2401-417: Was to avoid any major contact with the Dutch main army, thus saving the Indonesians from total defeat. He would prefer to lose territory but gain extra time to consolidate his army. After hearing of the surprise attack, Indonesian military commander General Sudirman broadcast Perintah kilat (quick command) via radios. He also requested Sukarno and other leaders to evacuate and join his guerrilla army. After
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