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135-414: Heritage tourism makes up an important part of the city's economy, and it has numerous colonial-era structures as well as significant archeological sites and elements of the continuing native Zapotec and Mixtec cultures. The city, together with the nearby archeological site of Monte Albán , was designated in 1987 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . It is the site of the month-long cultural festival called

270-520: A language family called Oto-manguean , an ancient family of Mesoamerican languages . It is estimated that today's Oto-manguean languages branched off from a common root at around 1500 BC. The Manguean languages probably split off first, followed by the Oto-pamean branch while the divergence of Mixtecan and Zapotecan languages happened later still. The Zapotecan group includes the Zapotec languages and

405-485: A tone language , which means that the meaning of a word is often determined by voice pitch (tonemes), essential for understanding the meaning of different words. The Zapotec languages features up to 4 distinct tonemes: high, low, rising and falling. Between Monte Alban phases 1 and 2 there was a considerable expansion of the population of the Valley of Oaxaca. As the population grew, so did the degree of social differentiation,

540-940: A Spanish city where the Aztec military post was at the base of the Cerro de Fortín. The first mass in Oaxaca was given by Chaplain Juan Díaz on the bank of the Atoyac River under a large huaje tree, where the Church of San Juan de Dios would be constructed later. This same chaplain added saints' names to the surrounding villages, in addition to keeping their Nahuatl names: Santa María Oaxaca, San Martín Mexicapan, San Juan Chapultepec, Santo Tomas Xochimilco, San Matías Jalatlaco, Santiago Tepeaca, etc. This group of Spaniards chose their first mayor, Gutierres de Badajoc, and their first town council, and began construction of

675-463: A centralization of smaller dispersed populations congregated in a central city to meet an external threat. The Zapotec state formed at Monte Albán began to expand during the late Monte Alban 1 phase (400–100 BC) and throughout the Monte Alban ;2 phase (100 BC – AD 200). During Monte Alban 1c (roughly 200 BC) to Monte Alban 2 (200 BC – AD 100), Zapotec rulers seized control of

810-541: A cruel, violent and irrational tyrant. His legacy has partly been colored by the fact that history was written largely by his political opponents such as Hernán Cortés, Juan de Zumárraga and Vasco de Quiroga . Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán was born ca. 1485 in Guadalajara, Spain , to an old noble family. His father was Hernán Beltrán de Guzmán, a wealthy merchant and a High Constable in the Spanish Inquisition ; his mother

945-481: A dam and a canal on the south-eastern flank of the mountain. As this would not have been enough to support all the population of Monte Albán, it is assumed that there were many other irrigation systems. Likewise, crops grown in the valley were not enough to sustain the rapid population growth in the Monte Albán I phase. Therefore, crops were grown on the foothills where the soil is a less fertile and artificial irrigation

1080-455: A face-saving offer. Larger polities unwilling to lose their autonomy may have to be subdued militarily. During the expansion of Monte Alban 2 state, we think we see both colonization and conquest". The 1450s saw the Aztec forces invaded the Valley of Oaxaca in a bid to extend hegomony over the area. The area would be conquered by the Aztecs in 1458. In 1486, the Aztec would establish a fort on

1215-582: A few days after the others. The first bishop of Mexico , Juan de Zumárraga , had arrived in the capital only a few days before the oidores. The instructions given to the Audiencia included a recommendation for good treatment of the indigenous people and a directive that the investigation into the conduct of Cortés and his associates Pedro de Alvarado , Alonso de Estrada , Rodrigo de Albornoz , Gonzalo de Salazar and Pedro Almíndez Chirino be concluded within 90 days. Most of these associates had participated in

1350-529: A kind of imperial peace on the area. At the same time, Spanish Catholic missionaries began evangelizing the indigenous peoples, urging them to conversion. The first Spanish expedition to Oaxaca arrived late in 1521, headed by Captain Francisco de Orozco who was accompanied by 400 Aztec warriors. Hernán Cortés sent Francisco de Orozco to Oaxaca because Moctezuma II had said that the Aztecs' gold came from there. The Spanish expedition under Orozco set about building

1485-409: A large collection of graphic designs both present and past. The Casa de Juárez, is a museum devoted to the life of Benito Juárez. It belonged to someone named Antonio Salanueva, but Juárez lived here from 1818 to 1828 after arriving from his hometown of Guelatao. It contains documents related to his presidency as well as furnishings designed to recreate the environment of that period. Its architecture

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1620-467: A military force of 300 to 400 discontented conquistadors and between 5,000 and 8,000 indigenous Nahua allies, Guzmán set out on December 21, 1529, to the west of Mexico City to conquer lands and peoples who until then had resisted the conquest. Among the officers on this expedition was Pedro Almíndez Chirino . The campaign started with the torture and execution of the Purépecha cazonci Tangáxuan II ,

1755-463: A native son who had begun his legal and political career here and who served as president of Mexico from 1858 until his death in 1872. The 2006 Oaxaca protests developed from state actions in 2005. Oaxaca's new state governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz banned political demonstrations in the capital's main square and historic center, or zócalo . He acted to make the Zócalo a modernized tourist attraction, turning

1890-449: A number of those from Mitla and Monte Albán. Northwest of the Zócalo is the Alameda de León , a garden area that is essentially an annex of the main square. In 1576, viceroy Martín Enríquez de Almanza set aside two city blocks on which to build the city government offices, but they were never built here. One of the blocks was sold and the other became a market. Antonio de León , governor of

2025-453: A number of valuable items such as paintings, sculptures and religious vestments and a pipe organ dated 1686. The Church and ex-monastery of Del Carmen Alto belonged to the Carmelites, who established themselves here in 1696. The complex began as a hermitage built over the teocalli of Huaxyacac. The project was financed by Manuel Fernandez Fiallo. In the late 17th century, much of this space

2160-414: A pearl, and small animal bones, likely from birds, dated to 700 AD. Each of these materials symbolized different religious concepts. As it was not easily attainable, jade was valued, and worked jade even more so because the elite were the primary artists. Obsidian blades are associated with sacrifice , as they were commonly used in bloodletting rituals. Shells and pearl represent the underworld, being from

2295-512: A place for artists and artisans to display their wares. The Guelaguetza, also known as the Fiestas de los Lunes del Cerro (Festivals of Mondays at the Hill) is the major cultural event in the city with origins in pre-Hispanic times. The "Hill" is the Cerro del Fortín, which was the scene of the annual rites to the goddess Centeótl , or goddess of the corn. The hill had a teocalli , or sacred plaza, built by

2430-604: A powerful indigenous ally of the Spanish Crown. Guzmán proceeded to launch a fierce campaign into the Chichimec lands in the province that was to become known as Nueva Galicia , reaching as far as Culiacán . Part of the purpose of the expedition was to find the fabled Cibola , the Seven Cities of Gold . This expedition has been described as a "genocidal enterprise". Typically, the conquistadors attacked an Indian village, stole

2565-529: A predecessor of those developed by the Maya , Mixtec and Aztec civilizations. There is debate as to whether Olmec symbols, dated to 650 BC, are actually a form of writing preceding the oldest Zapotec writing dated to about 500 BC. In the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan , there were Zapotec and Mixtec artisans who fashioned jewelry for the Aztec rulers ( tlatoanis ), including Moctezuma II . However, relations with central Mexico go back much further, as suggested by

2700-552: A public park in 1881. It features a bronze chalice cast in that year. In 1981, the Garden was remodeled, adding a new layer of stone to the floor. The Cerro de Fortín next to it bears in stone letters Benito Juárez's slogan, "El respeto al derecho ajeno es la paz" (Respect for others' rights is peace). The Antonia Labastida Garden is named after a woman who fought with Porfirio Díaz during the French Intervention. This park has become

2835-561: A royal decree dated January 25, 1531, she supplied the name Reino de Nueva Galicia (Kingdom of New Galicia). This territory extended from the Rio Lerma to Sonora, with its capital at Compostela . New Galicia was a separate entity, not under the authority of the Audiencia of Mexico City (but still part of New Spain). One nineteenth-century chronicler of the Conquest referred to Beltrán de Guzmán as "the detestable governor of Pánuco and perhaps

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2970-517: A series of earthquakes and never rebuilt. Inside the chapel is a statue of the Virgin of Guadalupe with a prayer written in Spanish, English, Náhuatl as well as 12 other languages native to the state of Oaxaca, including 4 dialects of Zapotec . The Centro Cultural de Santo Domingo occupies the former monastery buildings attached to Santo Domingo church, and were restored in 1996 and considered to be one of

3105-463: A small town near Nochistlán to which the name " Guadalajara " was given. Two years later Guzmán visited the city, and at the request of its inhabitants, who were fearful of Indian attacks and lacked sufficient water, he ordered it moved to Tonalá . This occurred on May 24, 1533. Later, after Guzmán had returned to Spain, it was moved again, to a site near Tlacotan (northeast of modern Zapopan ). This occurred probably between October 1541 and February of

3240-540: A treatise decrying Guzmán's 1529 campaign as unjust. Guzmán, who had by then made many enemies, fell out of favor with the authorities and the Second Audiencia. In 1533 he was removed from the Governorship of Pánuco and in 1534 of that of Nueva Galicia. In 1537 he was charged with treason, jailed and later expelled from New Spain. In 1529, Guzmán put Juan Ortiz de Matienzo in charge of the Audiencia. Then, gathering

3375-563: A woman Sabina de Guzmán, who had taken care of him in his illness. He also bequeathed belongings to the Franciscan Order , in spite of the conflicts he had had with its members in New Spain. He probably died in Valladolid in 1558 on October 16 or shortly thereafter. In posteriority and partly in his own time Nuño de Guzmán achieved a reputation as the worst villain of the conquistadors, in

3510-484: Is Spanish Baroque and has three levels. In the first, there are two "tritóstila" columns that support the balcony which has wrought iron railings. On the second level two Solomonic columns flanking a window. The jambs of the window are decorated with circles and the lintel with inverted curves. At the top of the window is seal of the Jesuits. The third level contains a central niche with a sculpture of an archangel as well as

3645-400: Is also referred to by archeologists as “The Conquest Slab”. Marcus and Flannery write about the subsequent dramatic expansion of the Monte Albán state, noting when there is "a great disparity in populations between the core of a state and its periphery, it may only be necessary for the former to send colonists to the latter. Small polities, seeing that resistance would be futile, may accept

3780-585: Is an indigenous pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca in Mesoamerica . Archaeological evidence shows that their culture originated at least 2,500 years ago. The Zapotec archaeological site at the ancient city of Monte Albán has monumental buildings, ball courts , tombs and grave goods, including finely worked gold jewelry. Monte Albán was one of the first major cities in Mesoamerica. It

3915-469: Is concentrated in the summer months with June being the wettest with an average precipitation of 171 mm (6.7 in). The city is the primary attraction of the state, which also relies economically on tourism . From 1984 to 2009, tourism grew to become the dominant factor in Oaxaca's economy. The attractions are the verdant landscapes of the Oaxaca Valley, and the architectural and cultural charms of

4050-451: Is known for its architecture, its carved stones and its ceramic urns. In 1987, it was declared a World Heritage Site, along with the city of Oaxaca itself. The Benito Juárez Market is located one block south of the Zócalo on Flores Magón and Las Casas but it takes up the entire block to 20 de Noviembre and Aldama streets. It offers flowers, fruit, ices, fruit drinks, handcrafts, leather goods, hats and knives, among other things. The block to

4185-535: Is located four blocks west of the cathedral on Avenida Independencia. It was built between 1682 and 1697 by Father Fernando Méndez on a site where supposedly an image of the Virgin Mary appeared inside a box. It is of Baroque style finished in 1690. Its front is made of a reddish stone sculpted to look like a folding screen . In the back of the church is the Museo de la Basilica de Nuestra Señora de La Soledad that exhibits

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4320-469: Is located north of the Alameda de León on Avenida Independencia in a former 18th century mansion. It is dedicated to local artists such as Rodolfo Morales whose work is on permanent display. The museum has also featured exhibitions by Felipe Morales , Rodolfo Nieto , Alejandro Santiago and Francisco Toledo . The Casa de Culturas Oaxaqueñas used to the Church and ex monastery Los Siete Príncipes dating from

4455-579: Is located on the main square. This site used to be the Portal de la Alhóndiga (warehouse) and in front of the palace is the Benito Juárez Market. The original palace was inaugurated in 1728, on the wedding day of the prince and princess of Spain and Portugal. The architectural style was Gothic . The building currently on this site was begun in 1832, inaugurated in 1870 but was not completed until 1887. The inside contains murals reflecting Oaxaca's history from

4590-512: Is often spiced with cinnamon and almonds. The city contains a number of parks, gardens and plazas, many of which were former monastery lands, for example, the Jardín Etnobotánico de Oaxaca , surrounding the former monastery of Santo Domingo. Even better known is the Plaza de la Danza y Jardín Sócrates complex on Morelos Street at the foot of the Cerro del Fortín. It is part of the area bounded by

4725-528: Is similar to pottery from San José Mogote, which suggests that the newer city was populated by people who had left San José Mogote. Although there is no direct evidence in the early phases of Monte Albán's history, walls and fortifications around the site during the archaeological phase Monte Alban 2 (ca. 100 BC–200 AD) suggest that the city was constructed in response to a military threat. American archaeologists Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery liken this process to what happened in ancient Greece - synoikism :

4860-545: Is somewhat cruder than that of the later Classic Maya and this has led epigraphers to believe that the script was also less phonetic than the largely syllabic Mayan script . The earliest known artifact with Zapotec writing is a Danzante ("dancer") stone, officially known as Monument 3, found in San José Mogote , Oaxaca . It has a relief of what appears to be a dead and bloodied captive with two glyphic signs between his legs, possibly his name. First dated to 500–600 BC, this

4995-479: Is surrounded by various arcades. On the south side of the plaza are the Portales de Ex-Palacio de Gobierno , which was vacated by the government in 2005 and then reopened as a museum called "Museo del Palacio 'Espacio de Diversidad'" Other arcades include the "Portal de Mercadores" on the eastern side, "Portal de Claverias" on the north side and the " Portal del Señor" on the west side. The State Government Palace

5130-504: Is that the Zapotec settled in the Oaxaca valley after founding the Toltec empire, and were descendants of the people of Chicomoztoc . These legends were not transcribed until after the Spanish conquest. According to historical and contemporary Zapotec legends, their ancestors emerged from the earth, from caves, or turned into people from trees or jaguars. Their governing elite believed that they descended from supernatural beings who lived among

5265-728: Is the one pilgrims used to use to enter the church area of the complex. This museum was placed in the Centro Cultural in 1964, after originally being in the Instituto de Ciencias y Artes, among other places. The museum specializes in Zapotec and Mixtec cultures, covering ten halls and one auditorium. In Sala III is displayed the "Tesoro Mixteco" (Mixtec Treasure) which is a collection of offerings that were discovered by archeologist Alfonso Caso in Tomb 7 of Monte Álban. These offerings include hundreds of pieces of jewelry made of gold and silver. They make up

5400-554: Is typical of homes built in this city in the 18th century and located on Garcia Vigil 609. It also contains ordinary artifacts from that time period, some of which belonged to Juárez. Hemeroteca Publica de Oaxaca "Nestor Sánchez" (Nestor Sanchez Public Newspaper Library of Oaxaca) is located behind the ex-convent of Santo Domingo along with the Jardin Ethobotánico (Ethnobotanic Gardin) at the corner of Reforma and Constitución. These two occupy more than 2 hectares which used to be

5535-487: Is well suited for agriculture and is considered one of the cradles of maize . It is estimated that at the time of the emergence of Zapotec civilization, the valley soil were unaffected by the erosion seen today, as the oak and pine forests covering the surrounding mountains had not yet been decimated by logging. There is a dry season from November until May but along the rivers it is possible to plant and harvest crops twice. The mountains are traversed from north-west to south by

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5670-455: The Real Audiencia de México to take over the government of the colony. This Audiencia consisted of a president and four oidores (judges). Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán was named president. His oidores were Juan Ortiz de Matienzo , Diego Delgadillo , Diego Maldonado and Alonso de Parada; these two last fell sick during the voyage to New Spain and died shortly after arrival. At the time Guzmán

5805-517: The " Guelaguetza " , which features Oaxacan dance from the seven regions, music, and a beauty pageant for indigenous women. The city is also known as la Verde Antequera (the green Antequera) due to its prior Spanish name ( Nueva Antequera ) and the variety of structures built from a native green stone. The name Oaxaca is derived from the Nahuatl name for the place, Huaxyacac , which was Hispanicized to Guajaca, later spelled Oaxaca. In 1872, "de Juárez"

5940-494: The Caribbean colonies . In the resulting power struggles where he also made himself an enemy of important churchmen, Guzmán came out the loser. In 1537, he was arrested for treason, abuse of power and mistreatment of the indigenous inhabitants of his territories, and he was sent to Spain in shackles. He was eventually released, dying in poverty in 1558. His subsequent reputation, in scholarship and popular discourse, has been that of

6075-590: The Gulf of Mexico coast. The purpose of the museum is to show the aesthetic as well as the cultural value of these works. The Religious Museum of the Ex monastery of La Soledad is located next to the Basilica of la Soledad. It contains objects such as paintings, sculptures and vestments. It is located in the southwest portion of the old monastery. The Instituto de Artes Gráficos de Oaxaca (Graphic Arts Institute of Oaxaca) contains

6210-420: The cathedral of Oaxaca in 1522. Their name for the settlement was Guajaca, a Hispanization of the Nahuatl name used by the Aztec (it was later spelled as Oaxaca). The relatively independent village did not suit Hernán Cortes, who wanted to control power over the entire region. Cortés sent Pedro de Alvarado , who proceeded to drive out most of the village's population. The original Spanish settlers appealed to

6345-692: The maize and other food, razed and burned the dwellings, and tortured the native leaders to gather information on what riches could be stolen there, or from nearby populations. For the most part, these riches did not exist. As an example, the Spanish were received peaceably in Tzintzuntzan by Tangáxuan II , the cazonci of the Tarascan state , which largely coincides with the modern state of Michoacán . Tangáxuan gave Guzmán presents of gold and silver and supplied him with soldiers and provisions. Nevertheless, Guzmán had him arrested and tortured, to get him to reveal

6480-528: The 15th to the 20th century from the Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez in Oaxaca. The Museum of Contemporary Art ( Museo de Arte Contemporaneo de Oaxaca , MACO) is housed in the so-called Casa de Cortés. It is one of the oldest buildings in the city and one of the most representative of non-religious buildings. It dates from after the death of Hernán Cortés and could never have served as his house. Although it has been modified somewhat over

6615-532: The 18th century. The only part still used for religious purposes is the small chapel. The complex was restored in the 1960s and in 1970, the Casa opened. It houses the Instituto Oaxaqueño de la Culturas, which is a state government entity to promote culture and the arts. The Rufino Tamayo Museum (Museo Arte Prehispánico de Rufino Tamayo) or Museo Rufino Tamayo , has an important collection of pre-Hispanic art that

6750-518: The APPO were arrested. These grassroots groups continued to clash with local and state government, but finally all the barricades were removed and they turned over control of the city. Oaxaca has a tropical savanna climate ( Köppen climate classification Aw ), closely bordering on a humid subtropical climate ( Cwa ), due to its high altitude. During the dry season, temperatures during the day remain warm with an average high of 27.1 °C (80.8 °F) in

6885-532: The Atoyac River which provides water for a small strip of land bordering the river, when it periodically floods. To provide water for crops elsewhere in the valley away from the river, the Zapotecs used canal irrigation. By using water from small streams, the Zapotecs were able to bring water to Monte Albán, situated 400 meters above the valley floor. Archaeologists found remains of a small irrigation system consisting of

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7020-635: The Audiencia and instead appointed governor of Nueva Galicia . As governor of Nueva Galicia he continued his politics of violent submission of the Indians of the Gran Chichimeca and came into conflict with church authorities such as Juan de Zumárraga , the Bishop appointed as Protector of the Indians, and Bishop of Michoacán Vasco de Quiroga . He also founded several cities that still exist such as Zacatecas , Querétaro and Guadalajara . In 1531 Zumárraga published

7155-412: The Aztecs. The ritual would end with the sacrifice of a young maiden chosen to represent the goddess. This rite was prohibited by the Spanish after the Conquest, who also destroyed the teocalli. In its place, they constructed the Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmen , now known as Carmen Alto. The recently baptized Mixtecs and Zapotecs then replaced ceremonies to Centeótl with those to this manifestation of

7290-482: The Basilica de la Soledad and the Church of San José. The Plaza de la Danza was constructed in 1959 by Eduardo Vasconcelos to hold the annual Bani-Stui-Gulal (representation of antiquity) dance, held one day before the festival of the Guelaguetza. The Plaza also hosts other cultural events including art shows, concerts and political rallies. The Socrates Garden is the old atrium of the Basilica de la Soledad, converted into

7425-680: The Bishop of Cuenca (Spain) . In 1525 the Spanish crown appointed him governor of the autonomous territory of Pánuco on the Gulf Coast in what is now northeast Mexico, arriving to take up the appointment in May 1527. He traveled with Luís Ponce de Leon and arrived in Hispaniola in 1526, but here he fell sick and did not arrive in Mexico until May 1527, immediately assuming his post. Cortés had already extended his reach into Pánuco, so that Guzmán's appointment

7560-452: The Mixtec in conflict immediately after the Conquest. The Zapotec and Mixtec peoples had settlements in the valley of Oaxaca for thousands of years, especially in connection with the important ancient centers of Monte Albán and Mitla . The modern city of Oaxaca developed relatively near them. The Aztecs entered the valley in 1440 and named it "Huaxyacac", a Nahuatl phrase meaning "among

7695-503: The Spaniards so they would avoid the same fate. The Zapotec sent a delegation to seek an alliance with the Spainards. On November 25, 1521, Francisco de Orozco arrived in Valley of Oaxaca, with both the Zapotecs and Mixtecs in the area soon submitting to the rule of Hernan Cortes . According to historian William B. Taylor, "Peaceful conquest spared the Valley of Oaxaca the loss of life and

7830-475: The Spanish crown to recognize the village they founded, which it did in 1526, dividing the land among the Spaniards of Orozco's expedition. But three months later, Cortés forced out the population of the village once again and replaced the town council with his own appointees. The original founders appealed again to Spanish royal authority, this time to the viceroy in Mexico City, Nuño de Guzmán . He also sided with

7965-542: The Teotihuacan Feathered Serpent , Butterfly God, and rain god; and the Nahuatl god of spring Xipe Totec. It is believed that the Zapotec used human sacrifice in some of their rituals. There are several legends of the origin of the Zapotec. One of them is that they were the original people of the valley of Oaxaca and were born from rocks, or descended from big cats such as pumas, jaguars and ocelots. Another

8100-457: The Virgin Mary, at the same place, the Cerro del Fortín. This revised festival grew over time to be the largest and most anticipated for the town. In 1932, the city of Oaxaca realized its 400th anniversary and decided to combine these festivities with those of the Cerro del Fortín, adding traditional dances, music, regional cuisine and Margarita Santaella as the first Miss Oaxaca, in addition to

8235-509: The Virgin's dresses, offering and small painting done in her honor. The statue of the Virgin of Solitude, crowned with a 2 kg solid gold crown studded with diamonds – was recently the subject of a theft. Over the years, the cloister has been converted into a correctional facility, a teacher's college and district attorney's office. Now it serves as the Municipal Palace. The building conserves

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8370-493: The Zapotec empire peaked during the Monte Alban ;2 phase. The Zapotec conquered or colonized settlements far beyond The Valley of Oaxaca. Most notably, their influence is visible in the sudden change in style of ceramics made in regions outside the valley. These regions' unique styles were suddenly replaced with Zapotec-style pottery, indicating their integration into the Zapotec empire. Archaeologist Alfonso Caso , one of

8505-683: The anthropomorphic columns stand out. Other cultural places of interest include the Alvarez Bravo Photography Center, the Oaxaca Stamp Museum, the Railway Museum of Southern Mexico (in the old train station) and the Planetarium located on the Cerro del Fortín. Monte Albán is a pre-Hispanic city that was an ancient capital of the Zapotecs. It reached its peak between 500 BCE and 800 CE with about 35,000 inhabitants. Monte Albán

8640-452: The archaeological remains of a Zapotec neighborhood within Teotihuacan and a Teotihuacan style "guest house" in Monte Albán. Other important pre-Columbian Zapotec sites include Lambityeco , Dainzú , Mitla , Yagul , San José Mogote , El Palmillo and Zaachila . The Zapotecs were a sedentary culture living in villages and towns, in houses constructed with stone and mortar. They recorded

8775-504: The area, and to control the territory that surrounded the village. The village had to survive while surrounded by other villages that answered to Cortés. These villages not only did not take orders from Antequera, they were hostile to it, mostly likely encouraged by Cortés. To counter this, the village petitioned the Crown to be elevated to the status of a city, which would give it certain rights, privileges and exceptions. It would also ensure that

8910-482: The best restoration works in Latin America. Some important artifacts from Monte Albán are displayed here. In the center of the Centro Cultural, there is a courtyard with a fountain and a very large staircase. The passages along the courtyard have vaulted ceilings, cupolas and intricate corridors. Much of the Centro Cultural is occupied by the Museo de las Culturas de Oaxaca (Museum of Oaxacan Cultures), whose entrance

9045-401: The centralization of political power, and ceremonial activity. During Monte Alban 1-2 the valley appears to have been fragmented into several independent states, as manifested in regional centers of power. By Monte Alban phase 3, the fragmentation between the city and the valleys resulted in a swell in the population and urban development of Monte Albán itself. The Central Valleys of Oaxaca ,

9180-483: The church. After La Reforma around 1860, the church was converted into a stable, which caused serious deterioration of the building. It was returned to devotional use at the end of the 19th century. The living and working areas were converted into barracks and officers' quarters. In 1994, work began to convert this area as the Centro Cultural Santo Domingo. The Basílica de Nuestra Señora de la Soledad

9315-558: The city itself. A massive 77% of the municipality of Oaxaca has employment that is related in some way to tourism. The 2006 Oaxaca protests had a severe negative impact on tourism revenue. The next largest economic sectors are mining and manufacturing, which employ 20% of the work force. The city centre was included in a World Heritage Site designated by UNESCO , in recognition of its treasure of historic buildings and monuments. Tourist activity peaks in three seasons: Holy Week , summer (especially during Guelaguetza) and New Year . Many of

9450-536: The city of San Miguel de Culiacán on September 29, 1531. He returned to Tepic , where he set up his headquarters, sending out new expeditions from there. One of these founded the cities of Santiago de Galicia de Compostela and Purificación . Another traveled as far as the current Mexican state of Sonora . His violent expeditions into Chichimec lands were a main cause of the Mixtón rebellion . In 1531 (probably January), one of Guzmán's captains, Cristóbal de Oñate , founded

9585-591: The city, and replaced the city's police force with the Honorable Cuerpo de Topiles, a civilian law force based on indigenous traditions of communal policing. In October 2006 president Vicente Fox sent in more than 10,000 paramilitaries to take back control of the city. Armed confrontations resulted in many deaths, including that of Indymedia journalists Bradley Roland Will , Roberto López Hernández, and Jorge Alberto Beltrán. In late December, teachers' union leaders announced an end to their strike. Several leaders of

9720-681: The closely related Chatino . Zapotec languages are spoken in parts of the Northern Sierra, the Central Valleys as well as in parts of the Southern Sierra, in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and along parts of the Pacific Coast. Due to decades of out-migration, Zapotec is also spoken in parts of Mexico City and Los Angeles, CA. There are 7 distinct Zapotec languages and over 100 dialects. Zapotec is

9855-612: The clouds, and that upon death they would return to the clouds. The name by which Zapotecs are known today results from this belief. The Zapotecs of the Central Valleys call themselves "Be'ena' Za'a" - The Cloud People. The Zapotec used dedication rituals to sanctify their living spaces and structures. Excavation of Mound III at the Cuilapan Temple Pyramid in Oaxaca revealed a dedication cache containing many jade beads, two jade earspools, three obsidian blades, shells, stones,

9990-816: The coats of arms of the Laso de la Vega and the Pinelo families. This group is flanked by Solomonic columns. The house was acquired by the state of Oaxaca and initially housed the Museo Historico Urbano de Oaxaca in 1986. The museum was created with help from the state government, the José F. Gómez Foundation, painter Francisco Toledo and the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes . Its permanent collection contains works by Rufino Tamayo , Toledo, Nieto, Aquinos and others. The Museo de los Pintores Oaxaqueños (Museum of Oaxacan Painters)

10125-539: The composer of the state anthem "Dios Nunca Muere" (God Never Dies). The theatre has three parts: the vestibule, the main hall and the stage. The main entrance is on the corner. On the Armenta and López Street sides, the lower level is occupied by shops and by the Miguel Cabrera Salon, which hosts art exhibits. The vestibule is Louis XV style with a white marble staircase and the main hall is in "Imperial" style, in which

10260-579: The conquest but saw their paths to position and wealth blocked by the Cortés faction. Guzmán's rule as a governor of Pánuco was stern against Spanish rivals and brutal against the Indians. He cracked down harshly on Cortés's supporters in Pánuco, accusing some of them of disloyalty to the Crown by backing Cortés's claim to the title of viceroy. Some were stripped of their property; others were tried and executed. He also incorporated territory from adjacent provinces into

10395-532: The conquest of Central Mexico by Hernán Cortés , New Spain had been governed by a military government , generally with the objectives of maximizing personal economic gains by the Spanish conquistadors. Hoping to establish a more orderly government, to reduce the authority of Cortés, and secure the authority of the Spanish crown in the New World, on December 13, 1527 the metropolitan government of Charles V in Burgos named

10530-502: The coolest month, December, and an average high of 33.3 °C (91.9 °F) in April, just before the beginning of the wet season. Although daytime temperatures are warm, nighttime temperatures are cool with an average low of 9 °C (48 °F) in January. Due to its altitude of 1,555 m (5,102 ft), the climate of Oaxaca is cooler than lowland areas at the same latitude. Precipitation

10665-425: The cradle of Zapotec civilization, are three broad valleys—Etla in the west, Ocotlán in the south and Mitla in the east—that join at an altitude of about 4500 feet above sea level in the center of what today is the state of Oaxaca . They are located about 200 km south of Mexico City. Mountains surround the valley with The Sierra Norte in the north and the mountains of Tlacolula in the southeast. The environment

10800-468: The end of the 18th century, and has a large gilded main altarpiece. While the church overall is Baroque, the portal contains other decorative elements as well. Benito Juárez married Margarita Maza here in 1841. Ex monastery of San Catalina was built in the second half of the 16th century by Dominican friar Hernando de Carvarcos, who also was responsible for the Santo Domingo de Guzmán monastery. In 1862,

10935-413: The first to conduct excavations in Monte Albán in the 1930s, argued that a building on the main plaza of Monte Albán is further evidence for the dramatic expansion of the Zapotec state: What today is called building J is shaped like an arrowhead, unlike other monumental buildings. It displays more than 40 carved stones with hieroglyphic writing . Archaeologists interpreted the glyphs to represent

11070-589: The first two were destroyed by large earthquakes in the 16th and 18th centuries. Construction of this third church began in 1702 and it was consecrated in 1733. Its facade is made of the green cantera stone commonly found in Oaxaca's buildings, and the interior is in Neoclassical style. The altar features a bronze statue of Our Lady of the Assumption (Nuestra Señora de al Asunción) sculpted by Tadoini and cast in Italy during

11205-410: The following year. Later the settlers began to complain to Antonio de Mendoza , then the viceroy of New Spain, about both the repeated relocations and Guzmán's cruelty. Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán gave the name "Conquista del Espíritu Santo de la Mayor España" to the territories he explored and conquered. However, the queen of Spain, Joanna of Castile , mother of Charles V, did not approve of the name. By

11340-589: The gardens of the convent of Santa Domingo. Teatro Macedonio Alcalá is a working theatre and also houses a collection of romantic art. Built between 1903 and 1909, it was originally named the Luis Mier y Terán Theater. The design is typical of the Porfirio Díaz period ending the 19th century and beginning the 20th. It was later renamed the Jesús Carranza Theater. The current name dates back to 1932, honoring

11475-409: The god of light; and Pitao Cozobi, the god of maize. Zapotec deities were predominantly associated with fertility or agriculture. Both male and female deities are represented, differentiated by costume. Males are depicted wearing breechclouts with or without capes, while females are depicted wearing skirts. There is some evidence of worship of deities not directly associated with Zapotec culture, such as

11610-533: The government in the proceeding few years while Cortés was in Honduras, with a lot of in-fighting among themselves and injustices to the population, both Spanish and Indigenous. Cortés himself was now in Spain, where he was defending his conduct and appealing his loss of authority to Charles. Cortés had some success with his appeal, being named Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca and receiving some other honors. Nevertheless, Guzmán

11745-565: The governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez and having been a sworn enemy of Cortés even before setting foot in New Spain. As governor Guzmán instituted a system of Indian slave trade in Pánuco. During a raid along Río de Las Palmas in 1528 he allowed every horseman to take 20 Indian slaves and each footman 15. In 1529 he gave out individual slaving permissions amounting to more than 1000 slaves. Initially Guzmán did not allow Spaniards to sell slaves for export except in exchange for livestock, but later he gave more than 1500 slave licenses (each permitting

11880-492: The grave social and psychological dislocations experienced by the Aztecs in the Valley of Mexico." However, de Orozco did meet with some resistance in Antequera , which would be subdued by the end of 1521. Despite submitting to Spanish rule, the Zapotecs would also suffer oppression from the Spanish as well, with many Zapotec cities being destroyed and the population being subjected to forced labor and cultural assimilation. Despite

12015-463: The hill of Huaxyácac (now called El Fortín), which would use to enforce the collection of tribute payments in Oaxaca. The last battle between the Aztecs and the Zapotecs occurred between 1497–1502, under the Aztec ruler Ahuizotl . At the time of Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , when news arrived that the Aztecs were defeated by the Spaniards, King Cosijoeza ordered his people not to confront

12150-453: The huaje" ( Leucaena leucocephala ) trees. They created a strategic military position at what is now called the Cerro (large hill) del Fortín to oversee the Zapotec capital of Zaachila and secure the trade route between the Valley of Mexico , Tehuantepec , and what is now Central America . When the Spanish arrived in 1521, the Zapotec and the Mixtec were involved in one of their many wars. The Spanish conquest ended this fighting, imposing

12285-449: The impact which came from the Spanish colonization, the Zapotec people were to maintain their cultural heritage and traditions. The name Zapotec is an exonym ; they were referred to by Nahuatl speakers as tzapotēcah (singular tzapotēcatl ), which means "inhabitants of the place of sapote ". The Zapotec referred to themselves by some variant of the term Be'ena'a , which means "The Cloud People". The Zapotec languages belong to

12420-409: The interdiction was a case of violation of sanctuary. The Audiencia had violently taken from the convent of San Francisco a servant of Cortés accused of grave crimes, and two religious, Cristóbal de Angulo and García de Llerena. Undeterred, Guzmán continued the violent suppression on the peoples of the present-day states of Jalisco , Zacatecas , Nayarit and Sinaloa . In the latter state, he founded

12555-423: The latter as governor of Pánuco. The later events made the two enemies. The Audiencia also banned direct communication with the court in Spain. This was so effective that Bishop Zumárraga felt the necessity of hiding a letter sealed in wax in a cask, to be smuggled to the Spanish authorities by a confederate sailor. In 1530, upon Hernán Cortés' return to New Spain, Guzmán was removed from the office of President of

12690-569: The legality of the taking of any slaves before branding. In 1529 the Crown began an investigation into the slaving enterprises of Guzmán. In spite of his lack of success as governor, in 1529 he was appointed President of the First Audiencia, which the Council of the Indies and the Crown instated to check the ventures of industrious private individuals, such as Cortés, in New Spain. In the years following

12825-416: The location of hidden stores of gold. Presumably there was no more gold, because Tangáxuan did not reveal it under torture. Guzmán had him dragged by a horse and then burned alive on February 14, 1530. Meanwhile, in Mexico City, the actions of the Audiencia attracted the attention of Juan de Zumárraga, bishop of Mexico, who put it under an ecclesiastical interdiction on March 7, 1530. The immediate cause of

12960-574: The monastery became a jail and at the end of the 19th century, the southern part became the Municipal Palace. Since 1976, it has been a hotel, called Hotel Camino Real. Church of the Company of Jesus (Iglesia de la Compañia de Jesús), located to the southwest of the Zócalo, was built by the Jesuits in 1579 and consecrated to Francis Xavier and the Immaculate Conception . The towers were destroyed by

13095-595: The most depraved man ever to set foot in New Spain." Reports of Guzmán's treatment of the Indigenous had reached Mexico City and Spain, and, at Bishop Zumárraga's request the Crown sent Diego Pérez de la Torre to investigate. Guzmán was arrested in 1536. He was held a prisoner for more than a year and then sent to Spain in fetters. He was released from the Castle of Torrejón prison in 1538. In 1539 he returned to his position as royal contino bodyguard - court records show him on

13230-486: The ocean, and the small bird bones represent the sky and its relation to the balanced cosmos . These artifacts are significant due to their placement in a structure used for ritual and associated with power. This cache is a form of dedication ritual, dedicating the Cuilapan Temple Pyramid to these ideas of power, sacrifice, and the relationship between underworld and cosmos. Nu%C3%B1o de Guzm%C3%A1n Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán ( c.  1490  – 1558)

13365-645: The original building to house the Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez . The Museo de Arte Contemporáneo (Museum of Contemporary Art) or MACO is located here as is the Plazuela (small plaza) Labastida and the Parroquia de la Preciosa Sangre de Cristo (Parish of the Precious Blood of Christ). Oaxaca Cathedral , also referred to as Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption , is the third to be built as

13500-465: The original founders; they reestablished the town in 1529, naming it Antequera, in honor of Nuño de Guzmán's hometown. Francisco de Herrera convened the new, Crown -approved town council. Juan Peláez de Berrio platted the new settlement. In the meantime, Cortés gained from the crown the title of the Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, which contains the disputed village. This enabled him to demand high taxes in

13635-513: The painter himself collected. He donated the collection, as well as the house that is now the museum to his home state (Oaxaca) in 1974. This house, which was known as the Casa de Villanaza, was built in the 18th century. It first housed the State Museum Archives, before becoming what it is today. The museum exhibits over 1150 pieces from different Mesoamerican periods, including Mayan steles , ceramic dogs from Colima and stone faces from

13770-612: The payroll every year from 1539 to 1561 (in 1561 as "deceased"). In 1552 he wrote up a memorial containing his own version of the events leading to his fall. In his account he justified his execution of the Purépecha Cazonci as being necessary in order to bring a Christian rule of law to the area, and he assured that: "in truth no execution more just has been carried out in all of New Spain, and if I were deserving of any punishment it would be for having doubted some days about whether to carry it out." In 1558 he wrote his last will which

13905-519: The pre-Hispanic era, the colonial era and post-Independence. Most of these were painted by Arturo García Bustos in the 1980s. The Federal Palace is located across from the cathedral and used to be the site of the old Archbishiop's Palace until 1902. Its architecture is "neo-Mixtec" reflecting the nationalism of the early 20th century and the reverence in which the Mixtec-Zapotec culture has been held in more recent times. The architectural elements copy

14040-399: The presidency of Porfirio Díaz . The church and former monastery of Santo Domingo de Guzmán is located 4 blocks north of the cathedral. It was constructed between 1555 and 1666. It is divided into two parts: the church and the former living/working areas of the monks. The front of the church is Renaissance-style, in the central relief, Saint Dominic and Hippolytus of Rome are holding up

14175-426: The principal events in their history by means of hieroglyphics , and in warfare they made use of a cotton armour. The well-known ruins of Mitla have been attributed to them. The various regions often employed different hunting methods most notable is the "deer catapult" described by Vésquez Dévlla as a young tree bent over with the help of the hunting party, held down by vines. The deer will wander into and trigger

14310-523: The province of Pánuco. These actions brought New Spain on the verge of a civil war between Guzmán and supporters of Cortés' led by Governor of New Spain Alonso de Estrada , when Estrada sent an expedition to reclaim the lands expropriated by Guzmán. During the court case against Cortés in 1529, Guzmán accused Cortés himself of being a traitor and a rebel. Bishop Juan de Zumárraga , who had traveled with Guzmán to Hispaniola, in turn accused Guzmán of being allied with

14445-435: The provinces controlled by the Zapotec. Each glyph group also depicts a head, with an elaborate head dress, carved into the slabs. These are assumed to represent the rulers of the provinces. Heads turned upside down are believed to represent the rulers killed and whose provinces were taken by force, while the upright ones may represent those who did not resist annexation and had their lives spared. For this reason, building J

14580-520: The provinces outside the valley of Oaxaca, because none of the surrounding provinces could compete with them politically and militarily. By 200 AD, the Zapotec had extended their influence, from Quiotepec in the North to Ocelotepec and Chiltepec in the South. Monte Albán had become the largest city in what are today the southern Mexican highlands, and retained this status until approximately 700 AD. The expansion of

14715-521: The religious rites. The word "guelaguetza" is from Zapotec and means offering, sympathy, caring and cooperation. This first Guelaguetza was such a hit that organizers decided to repeat it every year at the Cerro del Fortin, on all the Mondays of July starting in 1953, becoming an amalgam of Oaxacan festivals from many parts of the state. Zapotec civilization The Zapotec civilization ( Be'ena'a   ( Zapotec ) "The People"; c. 700 BC–1521 AD)

14850-499: The richest collection of gold and silver smithing of ancient Mexico. Another important exhibit is the objects from Tomb 5 of Lambitieco , which dates back to 700 C. E and from Monte Albán. The museum has rooms dedicated to everyday items from the colonial period as well. The center also contains the Biblioteca Fray Francisco de Burgoa (Fray Francisco de Burgoa Library) which holds over 25,000 degrees that were conferred from

14985-570: The ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party . Many radical groups merged with the teachers' union to form the Popular Assembly of the People of Oaxaca (APPO). This assembly defended the rights of several neighborhoods and organizations against government repression, in particular the "caravanas de la muerte" – death squads of government agents patrolling the city in police trucks. The assembly also closed government buildings, barricaded access roads to

15120-469: The settlement would remain under the direct control of the king, rather than of Cortés. This petition was granted in 1532 by Charles V of Spain . After the Independence of Mexico in 1821, the city became the seat of a municipality. The name of both the city and the municipality became Oaxaca, changed from Antequera. In 1872, "de Juárez" was added to the city and municipality names to honor Benito Juárez ,

15255-605: The south houses the Mercado (Market) 20 de Noviembre which is the official name, but this market is commonly known as the "Mercado de la Comida (food)" because of the food stands that dominate the place. It is recommended by México Desconocido magazine for Oaxacan regional dishes such as moles , tasajo , tlayudas , pan de yema (a type of egg bread), chapulines (fried grasshoppers in chili ), Oaxaca cheese (known locally as " quesillo "), queso fresco (lit. "fresh cheese"), as well as very large cups of hot chocolate made locally that

15390-459: The square attracted more teachers than usual. The government announced increases in wages and employment benefits for teachers a short time later. An internal conflict in the local teachers' union led to accusations that the bargaining had not really been in the teachers' best interest. On the night of June 14, the state police attacked and tear-gassed the teachers still sleeping in the Zócalo, generating more public outrage against Governor Ruiz and

15525-409: The state legislature building into a museum. In summer 2005, Oaxaca's urban middle classes joined in protests against these decisions. In May 2006, the national teachers' union staged their annual occupation of the Zócalo, a union negotiation tactic and local tradition performed every summer since 1989. After a year of protests and growing resistance to the new governor, in 2006 the summer occupation of

15660-461: The state of Oaxaca, lived in front of this market and decided to turn it into a park in the 1840s, making it a small replica of the Alameda Central in Mexico City . In 1885, a statue of León was added. The Macedonio Alcalá Tourist Corridor is a street paved with green cantera . It was closed to traffic in 1985 and is now only open to pedestrian traffic. Along the street are notable places such as

15795-664: The taking of between 15 and 50 slaves) in an eight-month period. The slaving operation in Pánuco expanded when Guzmán became President of the Royal Audiencia of Mexico and he had Indian slaves smuggled into Pánuco and shipped on to the Caribbean. Indian slaves were branded on the face. Taking Indian slaves was not explicitly outlawed in the period before 1528. Beginning in 1528, Indian slaving operations came under increased royal control but were not prohibited. The regulations of September 19, 1528, required slave owners to present proof of

15930-519: The three societies competed against each other. At the end of the Rosario phase (700–500 BC), the valley's largest settlement San José Mogote , and a nearby settlement in the Etla Valley, lost most of their population. During the same period, a new large settlement developed in the "no-man's-land" on top of a mountain overlooking the three valleys; it was later called Monte Albán . Early Monte Albán pottery

16065-415: The tourists who come during Holy Week and for New Year come from other parts of Mexico and include native Oaxacans returning to visit from their places of work. Most international visitors come during the summer. The Plaza de la Constitución, or Zócalo, was planned out in 1529 by Juan Peláez de Berrio. During the entire colonial period this plaza was never paved, nor had sidewalks, only a marble fountain that

16200-406: The trap. at which point the deer would be ensnared and flung into the canopy killed by impacting with trees or in the case of a canyon the deer will be flung into the canyon side. At Monte Albán archaeologists have found extended text in a glyphic script. Some signs can be recognized as calendar information but the script as such remains undeciphered. Read in columns from top to bottom, its execution

16335-484: The words of his biographer Donald Chipman he has been depicted as the "personification of the Black Legend ". His contemporary Bernal Díaz del Castillo described him in the following terms: "... In all the provinces of New Spain there was not another man more foul and evil than [Guzmán] of Pánuco". His biographer Santana describes his personality as characterized by "cruelty of the highest order, ambition without limit,

16470-423: The years, it still conserves its basic layout with rooms surrounding three courtyards. The architectural style is basically Andalucian modified by Oaxaca traditions. The facade has two levels, and the doors and windows have lintels , and are protected by wrought iron railings. To the far left of the facade, there are two arched entrances that permitted entrance of carriages to the third courtyard. The main portal

16605-619: Was Doña Magdalena de Guzmán. The Guzmán family supported Prince Charles in the Revolt of the Comuneros and achieved gratitude of the later Emperor. Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán received some experience in law, but never finished a degree. For a period he and his younger brother served as one of 100 royal bodyguards of Carlos V , and he accompanied the Emperor on a trip to Flanders in 1522, and undertook sensitive diplomatic missions, including one dealing with

16740-539: Was a Spanish conquistador and colonial administrator in New Spain . He was the governor of the province of Pánuco from 1525 to 1533 and of Nueva Galicia from 1529 to 1534, and president of the first Royal Audiencia of Mexico – the high court that governed New Spain – from 1528 to 1530. He founded several cities in Northwestern Mexico , including Guadalajara . Originally a bodyguard of Charles I of Spain , he

16875-735: Was a direct challenge. His appointment was opposed by the Pro- Cortés faction of the struggle for power in early colonial Mexico, who viewed him as an outsider with no military experience. But he had the support of the Council of Indies and the Spanish Crown who saw him as a counterbalance to the figure of Cortés whose aspirations to power worried the King of Spain. Guzmán's appointment gave heart to Spanish conquerors who had not received what they considered sufficient rewards from Cortés's distribution of encomiendas and to Spanish settlers who had not participated in

17010-402: Was added in honor of Benito Juárez , a native of this state who became president, serving from 1852 to 1872, and leading the country through challenges, including an invasion by France . The Zapotec name of the city, Ndua , is still used in the Zapotec language ( Tlacolula Zapotec ). The coat of arms for the municipality bears the image of Donají , a Zapotec woman hostage killed and beheaded by

17145-412: Was initially considered the earliest writing in Mesoamerica. However, doubts have been expressed as to this dating as the monument may have been reused. The Zapotec script appears to have gone out of use in the late Classic period. Like most Mesoamerican religious systems, the Zapotec religion was polytheistic. Some known deities were Cocijo , the rain god (similar to the Aztec god Tlaloc ); Coquihani,

17280-431: Was needed. Innovation of farming enabled the Zapotec to pay tribute to the Spanish conquerors and create enough surplus to feed themselves despite natural disasters and disease. The Zapotecs developed a calendar and a logosyllabic system of writing that used a separate glyph to represent each of the syllables of the language. This writing system is thought to be one of the first writing systems of Mesoamerica and

17415-408: Was now in charge in New Spain. Among his official acts was placing plaques bearing the royal coat of arms on the principal buildings of the capital, to stress that sovereignty resided in the king, not in Cortés. He had Pedro de Alvarado arrested for questioning the loyalty of Gonzalo de Salazar. There was already some animosity between Cortés and Guzmán, because the former had been reluctant to recognize

17550-405: Was occupied by a jail and barracks. Church and former monastery of St John of God (Templo y Exconvento de San Juan de Dios), Oaxaca's oldest church still standing, completed in 1703. This is where the first mass in Oaxaca was held in 1521. Church of San Felipe Neri The Church of San Felipe Neri is considered a classic example of Baroque with estipite (inverted truncated pyramid) columns from

17685-500: Was placed here in 1739. This was removed in 1857 to put in the bandstand and trees were planted. In 1881, the vegetation here was rearranged and in 1885, a statue of Benito Juárez was added. It was remodeled again in 1901 and a new Art Nouveau bandstand installed. Fountains of green stone with capricious figures were installed in 1967. The bandstand in the center hosts the State Musical Band, La Marimba and other groups. The plaza

17820-501: Was sent to Mexico to counterbalance the influence of the leader of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , Hernán Cortés , since the King worried he was becoming too powerful. As Governor of Pánuco, Guzmán cracked down hard on the supporters of Cortés, stripping him and his supporters of property and rights. He conducted numerous expeditions of conquest into the northwestern areas of Mexico, enslaving thousands of Indians and shipping them to

17955-463: Was serving as governor of Pánuco, so Charles ordered the judges to assemble in Veracruz and from there make a joint entrance into the capital. The four from Spain, however, did not wait for the arrival of Guzmán, and proceeded directly to the capital. They arrived on December 8, 1528, taking over the government on the following day. They were given a splendid reception by the city government. Guzmán arrived

18090-653: Was the center of a Zapotec state that dominated much of the territory which today is known as the Mexican state of Oaxaca . Zapotec civilization originated in the Y-shaped Central Valleys of Oaxaca in the late 6th century BC. The three valleys were divided among three differently-sized societies, separated by 80 square kilometres (31 sq mi) "no-man's-land" in the middle. The city of Oaxaca much later developed in that area. Archaeological evidence, such as burned temples and sacrificed war captives, suggests that

18225-427: Was uncovered in 1973, it shows him as a poverty stricken noble struggling to save his heirs from his debts, having had even to pawn his heirlooms to pay for medicine. In it, he requested some of the property that was confiscated from him to be returned to his heirs, and wages still due to him for his years as Governor and President be paid and turned over to his heirs. With affection he bequeathed most of his belongings to

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