69-554: The Nishinomiya Battery ( 西宮砲台 , Nishinomiya hōdai ) was a Bakumatsu period coastal artillery battery erected by the Tokugawa shogunate on the coast of Osaka Bay of what is now the Nishihato-cho neighborhood of the city of Nishinomiya , Hyōgo Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan. Its ruins were designated a National Historic Site in 1922. In the late Edo period ,
138-569: A Russian sailor was cut to pieces in the streets of Yokohama. In early 1860, two Dutch captains were slaughtered, also in Yokohama. Chinese and native servants of foreigners were also killed. Several missions were sent abroad by the Bakufu, in order to revise the commercial treaties. However, these efforts remained largely unsuccessful. A Japanese Embassy to the United States was sent in 1860, on board
207-659: A bad thing for Japan. In fact, one could even say it was appealing. However, among the senior officials of the Shogunate, there was a trauma from the Nagasaki Harbour Incident . They probably adopted a hardline stance as a result of assuming that Americans were no different from the British." The years 1854–1855 saw a dramatic series of earthquakes, known as the Ansei great earthquakes , with 120 major and minor tremors recorded over
276-641: A base for supply or at least a place where shipwrecks could receive assistance. The incident in Nagasaki Harbour where the Royal Navy frigate HMS Phaeton demanded supplies from the harbour chief in 1808 shocked the Tokugawa government, who ordered the ports to be even more tightly guarded. In 1825, the Edict to expel foreigners at all cost ( 異国船無二念打払令 , Ikokusen Muninen Uchiharairei , "Don't think twice" policy)
345-412: A ceasefire due to the death of the previous shōgun , but the prestige of the shogunate was nevertheless seriously affected. This reversal encouraged the Bakufu to take drastic steps towards modernization. During the last years of the bakufu , or bakumatsu , the bakufu took strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it
414-525: A less than two-year period including the 8.4 magnitude 1854 Tōkai earthquake on 23 December 1854, the 8.4 magnitude 1854 Nankai earthquake occurring the following day, and the 6.9 magnitude 1855 Edo earthquake , which struck what is today modern Tokyo, on 11 November 1855. Shimoda on the Izu Peninsula was struck by the Tōkai earthquake and a subsequent tsunami, and because the port had just been designated as
483-509: A target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as Admiral Enomoto Takeaki . The French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build naval arsenals, such as Yokosuka and Nagasaki . By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868, the Japanese navy of
552-494: The bakufu ' ) were the final years of the Edo period when the Tokugawa shogunate ended . Between 1853 and 1867, under foreign diplomatic and military pressure, Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy known as sakoku and changed from a feudal Tokugawa shogunate to the modern empire of the Meiji government . The major ideological-political divide during this period
621-477: The tozama daimyō (or outside lords), and second, growing anti-Western sentiment following the arrival of Matthew C. Perry . The first related to those lords whose predecessors had fought against Tokugawa forces at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, after which they had been permanently excluded from all powerful positions within the shogunate. The second was to be expressed in the phrase sonnō jōi , or "revere
690-736: The Kanrin Maru and the USS Powhattan . A First Japanese Embassy to Europe was sent in 1862. A Second Japanese Embassy to Europe would be sent in December 1863, with the mission to obtain European support to reinstate Japan's former closure to foreign trade, and especially stop foreign access to the harbor of Yokohama . The Embassy ended in total failure as European powers did not see any advantages in yielding to its demands. Belligerent opposition to Western influence further erupted into open conflict when
759-636: The Ansei Reform (1854–1856), Abe then tried to strengthen the regime by ordering Dutch warships and armaments from the Netherlands and building new port defenses. In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the shogunate acquired its first steam warship, the Kankō Maru , which was used for training, and opened the Nagasaki Naval Training Center with Dutch instructors, while a Western-style military school
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#1733105706119828-511: The Eejanaika . From 1859, the ports of Nagasaki , Hakodate and Yokohama became open to foreign traders as a consequence of the Treaties. Foreigners arrived in Yokohama and Kanagawa in great numbers, giving rise to trouble with the samurai. Violence increased against the foreigners and those who dealt with them. Murders of foreigners and collaborating Japanese soon followed. On 26 August 1859,
897-500: The Emperor Kōmei , breaking with centuries of imperial tradition, began to take an active role in matters of state and issued, on March 11 and April 11, 1863, his " Order to expel barbarians " ( 攘夷実行の勅命 , jōi jikkō no chokumei ) . The Mōri clan of Chōshū , under Lord Mōri Takachika , followed on the order, and began to take actions to expel all foreigners from the date fixed as a deadline (May 10, Lunar calendar). Openly defying
966-560: The Namamugi incident and the murder of the English trader Richardson. The Royal Navy bombarded Kagoshima and sunk several ships. Satsuma however later negotiated and paid 25,000 pounds, but did not remit Richardson's killers, and in exchange obtained an agreement by Great Britain to supply steam warships to Satsuma. The conflict actually became the starting point of a close relationship between Satsuma and Great Britain, which became major allies in
1035-669: The Shimazu , the Mori , the Date , the Hachisuka , and the Uesugi , were based in western and northern Honshu and Kyushu in contrast to the Tokugawa based in the eastern city of Edo . Most, but not all, of these families had been living in roughly the same regions for centuries before the Tokugawa shogunate. Tozama daimyō heavily profited from trade in the 17th century, particularly in western Japan where most of
1104-564: The Tokugawa shogunate was increasing alarmed by incursions by foreign ships into Japanese territorial waters, fearing that these kurofune warships of the United States or other Western powers would attempt to end Japan's self-imposed national isolation policy by force, or would attempt an invasion of Japan by landing hostile military forces. Numerous feudal domains were ordered to establish fortifications along their coastlines with shore artillery located at strategic locations. The most critical locations were perceived to be at Edo Bay , where
1173-497: The Treaty of Amity and Commerce was signed in 1858 and put into application from mid-1859. During the negotiations, Harris had convinced the Japanese negotiators to sign the treaty on the basis it was the best possible terms a Western power would offer. The most important points of the Treaty were: Japan was also forced to apply any further conditions granted to other foreign nations in
1242-517: The Treaty of Peace and Amity (or Treaty of Kanagawa) maintained the prohibition on trade but opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American whaling ships seeking provisions, guaranteed good treatment to shipwrecked American sailors, and allowed a United States consul to take up residence in Shimoda , a seaport on the Izu Peninsula , southwest of Edo. In February 1855, the Russians followed suit with
1311-407: The Treaty of Shimoda . The resulting damage to the shogunate was significant. Debate over government policy was unusual and had engendered public criticism of the shogunate. In the hope of enlisting the support of new allies, Abe, to the consternation of the fudai daimyō , had consulted with the shinpan and tozama daimyō , further undermining the already weakened bakufu . In
1380-689: The Wyoming suffered extensive damage with fourteen crew dead or wounded. On the heels of McDougal's engagement, two weeks later a French landing force of two warships, the Tancrède and the Dupleix , and 250 men under Captain Benjamin Jaurès swept into Shimonoseki and destroyed a small town, together with at least one artillery emplacement. In August 1863, the Bombardment of Kagoshima took place, in retaliation for
1449-550: The barbarians with their own methods". After 1839, however, traditionalists tended to prevail. Students of Western sciences were accused of treason ( Bansha no goku ), put under house arrest ( Takashima Shūhan ), forced to commit ritual suicide ( Watanabe Kazan , Takano Chōei ), or even assassinated as in the case of Sakuma Shōzan . When Commodore Matthew C. Perry 's four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay (Tokyo Bay) in July 1853,
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#17331057061191518-620: The shōgun already possessed eight western-style steam warships around the flagship Kaiyō Maru , which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin War , under the command of Admiral Enomoto . A French Military Mission to Japan was established to help modernize the armies of the Bakufu . Japan sent a delegation to and participated in the 1867 World Fair in Paris. Tozama daimy%C5%8D Tozama daimyō ( 外様大名 , "outside daimyō " )
1587-504: The 12 year old Tokugawa Iemochi as shōgun whom it was perceived Tairō Ii Naosuke would have influence over, ultimately placing Nariaki and Yoshinobu under house arrest, and executing Yoshida Shōin (1830–1859, a leading sonnō-jōi intellectual who had opposed the American treaty and plotted a revolution against the bakufu) known as the Ansei Purge . Tairō Ii Naosuke , who had signed
1656-536: The Emperor, expel the barbarians". The turning point of the Bakumatsu was during the Boshin War and the Battle of Toba–Fushimi when pro-shogunate forces were defeated. Frictions with foreign shipping led Japan to take defensive actions from the beginning of the 19th century. Western ships were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling activities and the trade with China . They were hoping for Japan to become
1725-732: The Harris Treaty and tried to eliminate opposition to Westernization with the Ansei Purge , was himself murdered in March 1860 in the Sakuradamon incident . A servant of the French Minister was attacked at the end of 1860. On 14 January 1861, Henry Heusken , Secretary to the American mission, was attacked and murdered. On 5 July 1861, a group of samurai attacked the British Legation, resulting in two deaths. During this period, about one foreigner
1794-579: The Netherlands and the United States, planned an armed reaction against Japanese acts of violence against the citizens with the Bombardment of Shimonoseki. The Allied intervention occurred in September 1864, combining the naval forces of the four nations, against the powerful daimyō Mōri Takachika of the Chōshū Domain based in Shimonoseki , Japan. This conflict proved inopportune for America, which in 1864,
1863-675: The Satsuma Domain. The Shōhei Maru was built from 1853 to 1854 at Sakurajima in what is now Kagoshima Prefecture in accordance with a Dutch blueprint. Furthermore, fortifications were established at Odaiba in Tokyo Bay in order to protect Edo from an American incursion. Industrial developments also commenced soon afterwards in order to build modern cannons. A reverbatory furnace was established by Egawa Hidetatsu in Nirayama to cast cannons. The American fleet returned in 1854. The chairman of
1932-566: The Shogun was one of paying tribute, military levy and guard duty obligations. The decline of the Tokugawa shogunate during the Bakumatsu period from 1853 led to lessening discrimination against tozama daimyō . In November 1864, Matsumae Takahiro , the tozama daimyō of the Matsumae clan , was appointed as rōjū , one of the highest-ranking government posts in the Tokugawa government. Tozama formed
2001-652: The Tokugawa government. A national debate was already taking place about how to better avoid foreign incursions. Some such as Egawa claimed that it was necessary to use the foreigners' techniques to repel them. Others, such as Torii Yōzō [ jp ] argued that only traditional Japanese methods should be employed and reinforced. Egawa argued that just as Confucianism and Buddhism had been introduced from abroad, it made sense to introduce useful Western techniques. A theoretical synthesis of "Western knowledge" and "Eastern morality" would later be accomplished by Sakuma Shōzan and Yokoi Shōnan , in view of "controlling
2070-507: The United Kingdom ( Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce ) on August 26, and France ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan ) on October 9). Trading houses were quickly set up in the open ports. The opening of Japan to uncontrolled foreign trade brought massive economic instability. While some prospered, many others went bankrupt. Unemployment rose, as well as inflation . Coincidentally, major famines also increased
2139-652: The administration's ranks. Many of the largest and wealthiest han —the personal feudal domains of the daimyō —were ruled by tozama , including the Maeda clan of the Kaga Domain with a value of 1,000,000 koku under the Kokudaka system. However, this was a deliberate Tokugawa plan to keep the tozama in check, as fudai daimyō were stationed in smaller domains in strategic locations, including along major roads and near important cities. Many notable tozama families, including
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2208-535: The concept of tozama daimyō emerged in Japan along with the daimyō after the rise of the Kamakura shogunate (鎌倉幕府) in the 12th century. Tozama applied to a daimyō who was considered an "outsider" by successive Shōguns , Emperors , and shikkens (執権) that ruled over Japan at any given time. Typically, a tozama had a loose or indirect relationship with the current ruler, and this definition remained intact during
2277-511: The country's important ports were located. The shogunate responded in Sakoku policies of isolationism , preventing the ports of western Honshu and Kyūshū from trading with foreigners and sending Japanese vessels abroad. The Tozama daimyō had higher levels of independent power and local autonomy, and conducted their judicial, administrative and military affairs in the name of the local daimyos like sovereigns. The Tozama domains' relationship to
2346-443: The crises by debasing the gold content of its coins by two thirds, so as to match foreign gold-silver exchange ratios. Foreigners also brought cholera to Japan, leading to hundreds of thousands of deaths. Hotta lost the support of key Daimyōs, and when Tokugawa Nariaki opposed the new treaty, Hotta sought imperial sanction. The court officials, perceiving the weakness of the bakufu , rejected Hotta's request which resulted in
2415-519: The effect that the ports are to be closed and the foreigners driven out, because the people of the country do not desire intercourse with foreign countries. Edward Neale , the head of the British Legation, responded on very strong terms, equating the move with a declaration of war: It is, in fact, a declaration of war by Japan itself against the whole of the Treaty Powers, and the consequences of which, if not at once arrested, it will have to expiate by
2484-598: The ensuing Boshin War . From the start, the Satsuma Province had generally been in favour of the opening and modernization of Japan. Although the Namamugi Incident was seen as unfortunate, it was taken not to be characteristic of Satsuma's policy, and was instead branded as an example of anti-foreign sonnō jōi sentiment, as a justification to a strong Western show of force. Naval forces from Great Britain , France ,
2553-485: The future to the United States, under the "most favoured nation" provision. Several foreign nations soon followed suit and obtained treaties with Japan (the Ansei Five-Power Treaties , with the United States ( Harris Treaty ) on July 29, 1858, the Netherlands ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Netherlands and Japan ) on August 18, Russia ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Russia and Japan ) August 19,
2622-406: The great tozama amicably, but his grandson Tokugawa Iemitsu was less tolerant of them during his rule between 1623 and 1626. Tozama and their descendants were distrusted and the Tokugawa shogunate discriminated against them in favor of the fudai daimyō . Tozama were largely excluded from the shogunate government, the Bakufu , and their numbers were limited compared to the fudai who filled
2691-477: The harbor. The ships of Perry were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns , capable of destroying buildings by delivering explosive shells at high velocity. In response to the Perry Expedition and increasing incursions of foreign warships into Japanese territorial waters, several modern sailing frigates, including Shōhei Maru and Asahi Maru , were constructed on orders of the Tokugawa shogunate by
2760-506: The harbour of Hyōgo in November 1865. Other displays of force were made by foreign forces, until the Emperor finally agreed to change his total opposition to the Treaties, by formally allowing the shōgun to handle negotiations with foreign powers. An agreements providing for the tariff revision was signed in June 1866. These conflicts led to the realization that head-on conflict with Western nations
2829-538: The head of the dissident faction was Tokugawa Nariaki , who had long embraced a militant loyalty to the emperor along with anti-foreign sentiments, and who had been put in charge of national defense in 1854. The Mito school —based on neo-Confucian and Shinto principles—had as its goal the restoration of the imperial institution, and the turning back of the West. Japanese historian Motohiko Izawa stated in his book, "The United States simply aimed to conduct business, which wasn't
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2898-404: The intervention at Shimonoseki, foreign nations agreed to reduce the amount in exchange for a ratification of the Harris Treaty by the Emperor, a lowering of customs tariffs to a uniform 5%, and the opening of the harbours of Hyōgo (modern Kōbe ) and Osaka to foreign trade. In order to press their demands more forcefully, a squadron of four British, one Dutch and three French warships were sent to
2967-597: The intrusion of an American warship in 1837 in Kagoshima Bay , and from Saga Domain and Chōshū Domain , all southern domains mostly exposed to Western intrusions. These domains also studied the manufacture of Western weapons. By 1852 Satsuma and Saga had reverberatory furnaces to produce the iron necessary for firearms. Following the Morrison incident involving the Morrison under Charles W. King in 1837, Egawa Hidetatsu
3036-534: The morning of July 16, 1863, under sanction by Minister Pruyn, in an apparent swift response to the attack on the Pembroke , the U.S. frigate USS Wyoming under Captain McDougal sailed into the strait and single-handedly engaged the U.S.-built but poorly manned fleet. For almost two hours before withdrawing, McDougal sank one Japanese vessel and severely damaged the other two, along with some forty Japanese casualties, while
3105-644: The nucleus of the growing anti-Tokugawa movement, with the Satsuma and Chōshū (Shimazu and Mori clans respectively) primarily responsible for the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in the Meiji Restoration . Rallying other tozama and even fudai to their cause in support of the Imperial Court , they fought against the shogunate, Aizu Domain , and the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei during the Boshin War of 1868 to 1869. Many people from Satsuma and Chōshū dominated politics of
3174-424: The price of food drastically. Incidents occurred between brash foreigners and the Japanese. Japan's monetary system, based on Tokugawa coinage , also broke down. Traditionally, Japan's exchange rate between gold and silver was 1:5, whereas international rates were of the order of 1:15. This led to massive purchases of gold by foreigners, and ultimately forced the Japanese authorities to devalue their currency. There
3243-407: The prospective location for a US consulate, some construed the natural disasters as demonstration of the displeasure of the gods. As the earthquakes were blamed by many Japanese on a giant catfish ( Namazu ) thrashing about, Ukiyo-e prints depicting namazu became very popular during this time. Following the nomination of Townsend Harris as the U.S. Consul in 1856 and two years of negotiation,
3312-464: The resignation of himself, and thus suddenly embroiled Kyoto and the emperor in Japan's internal politics for the first time in many centuries. When the shōgun died without an heir , Nariaki appealed to the court for support of his own son, Tokugawa Yoshinobu (or Keiki), for shōgun , a reformist candidate favored by the shinpan and tozama daimyōs . The fudai won the power struggle, however, installing
3381-623: The revolt, which ended with the surrender of the rebels on 14 January 1865. In the Kinmon Incident on 20 August 1864, troops from Chōshū Domain attempted to take control of Kyoto and the Imperial Palace in order to pursue the objective of Sonnō Jōi . This also led to a punitive expedition by the Tokugawa government, the First Chōshū expedition . As the Bakufu proved incapable to pay the $ 3,000,000 indemnity demanded by foreign nations for
3450-586: The senior councillors, Abe Masahiro , was responsible for dealing with the Americans. Having no precedent to manage this threat to national security , Abe tried to balance the desires of the senior councillors, who wanted to compromise with the foreigners, of the emperor, who wanted to keep the foreigners out, and of the feudal daimyō rulers, who wanted to go to war. Lacking consensus, Abe compromised by accepting Perry's demands for opening Japan to foreign trade while also making military preparations. In March 1854,
3519-500: The severest and most merited chastisement American influence, which had been of high importance in the beginning, waned after 1861 due to the advent of the American Civil War (1861–1865) that monopolized all available U.S. resources. This influence would be replaced by that of the British, the Dutch and the French. The two ringleaders of the opposition to the bakufu were from the Satsuma (present day Kagoshima prefecture) and Chōshū (present-day Yamaguchi prefecture) provinces, two of
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#17331057061193588-447: The shogunal capital was situated, and Osaka Bay , which controlled the seaward approaches to the imperial capital of Kyoto . Matters were rendered critical when a Russian warship appeared in Osaka Bay in 1854. Construction of this battery began in 1863 and was completed in 1866.The design of the fortification was by Katsu Kaishū , who supervised the construction with the assistance of the nearby Kobe Naval Training Center . The design
3657-424: The shogunate was thrown into turmoil. Commodore Perry was fully prepared for hostilities if his negotiations with the Japanese failed, and threatened to open fire if the Japanese refused to negotiate. He gave them two white flags, telling them to hoist the flags when they wished a bombardment from his fleet to cease and to surrender. To demonstrate his weapons, Perry ordered his ships to attack several buildings around
3726-402: The shogunate, Mōri ordered his forces to fire without warning on all foreign ships traversing Shimonoseki Strait . Under pressure from the Emperor, the Shogun was also forced to issue a declaration promulgating the end of relations with foreigners. The order was forwarded to foreign legations by Ogasawara Zusho no Kami on June 24, 1863: The orders of the Tycoon , received from Kyoto , are to
3795-508: The strongest tozama anti-shogunate domains in Edo-period Japan. Satsuma military leaders Saigō Takamori and Okubo Toshimichi were brought together with Katsura Kogoro of Chōshū, notably through the efforts of Sakamoto Ryōma . As the former happened to be directly involved in the murder of Richardson, and the latter in the attacks on foreign shipping in Shimonoseki, and as the bakufu declared itself unable to placate them, Allied forces decided to mount direct military expeditions. In
3864-469: The subsequent Ashikaga shogunate (足利幕府, 1336–1573, also known as the Muromachi (室町幕府)), and the Sengoku period (戦国時代, 1467–1615, "Age of Warring States"). The establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1600 redefined tozama daimyō as the daimyō who submitted as vassals to the Tokugawa only after the decisive Battle of Sekigahara , including those who fought for the Tokugawa at the battle but were not official vassals. Tokugawa Ieyasu had treated
3933-477: Was a class of powerful magnates or daimyō (大名) considered to be outsiders by the ruler of Japan during the Edo period (江戸時代). Tozama daimyō were classified in the Tokugawa shogunate (江戸幕府) as daimyō who became hereditary vassals of the Tokugawa after the Battle of Sekigahara (関ヶ原の戦い). Tozama daimyō were discriminated against by the Tokugawa and opposed to the fudai daimyō , who were allies or vassals of Tokugawa before Sekigahara. Originally,
4002-400: Was a cylindrical bastion with a height of 12 meters, inner diameter of 17 meters, and a wall thickness of 1.53 meters at the bottom, tapering to 1.21 meters at the top. The exterior walls are plastered, and the interior is arranged into three stories. The ground floor was tamped earth, with a central pit for gun barrel cooling with a well, and a slab-floored gunpowder magazine . The second floor
4071-448: Was a massive outflow of gold from Japan, as foreigners rushed to exchange their silver for "token" silver Japanese coinage and again exchange these against gold, giving a 200% profit to the transaction. In 1860, about 4 million ryōs thus left Japan, that is about 70 tons of gold. This effectively destroyed Japan's gold standard system, and forced it to return to weight-based system with International rates. The Bakufu instead responded to
4140-443: Was already torn by its own civil war . Following these successes against the imperial movement in Japan, the shogunate was able to reassert a certain level of primacy at the end of 1864. The traditional policy of sankin-kōtai was reinstated, and remnants of the rebellions of 1863–64 as well as the Shishi movement were brutally suppressed throughout the land. The military interventions by foreign powers also proved that Japan
4209-410: Was between the pro-imperial nationalists called ishin shishi and the shogunate forces, which included the elite shinsengumi swordsmen. Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of bakumatsu to seize personal power. Furthermore, there were two other main driving forces for dissent: first, growing resentment on the part of
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#17331057061194278-454: Was established at Edo. In 1857, it acquired its first screw-driven steam warship, the Kanrin Maru . Scientific knowledge grew swiftly from the existing foundation of Western learning ( rangaku ("Dutch learning") ). Opposition to Abe increased within fudai circles, which opposed opening shogunate councils to the tozama daimyō , and he was replaced in 1855 as chairman of the senior councilors by Hotta Masayoshi (1810–1864). At
4347-532: Was issued by the shogunate, prohibiting any contacts with foreigners; it remained in place until 1842. Meanwhile, Japan endeavoured to learn about foreign sciences through rangaku ("Western studies"). To reinforce Japan's capability to carry on the orders to repel Westerners, some such as the Nagasaki -based Takashima Shūhan managed to obtain weapons through the Dutch at Dejima , such as field guns, mortars and firearms . Domains sent students to learn from Takashima in Nagasaki, from Satsuma Domain after
4416-420: Was killed every month. The Richardson Affair occurred in September 1862, forcing foreign nations to take decisive action in order to protect foreigners and guarantee the implementation of Treaty provisions. In May 1863, the US legation in Edo was torched. During the 1860s, peasant uprisings and urban disturbances multiplied. A "World renewal" movement appeared, as well as religious festivals and protests such as
4485-442: Was never used again. The structure was partially destroyed by a fire in 1884, and the property was sold by the Imperial Japanese Army in the early 1900s to the Hanshin Electric Railway . The bastion is located in Omaehama Park, roughly halfway between Nishinomiya Port in the east and the Shukugawa River in the west, 2.3 kilometers south of Hankyu Shukugawa Station . Bakumatsu period Bakumatsu ( 幕末 , ' End of
4554-429: Was no military match against the Allies. The sonnō jōi movement thus lost its initial impetus. The structural weaknesses of the Bakufu however remained an issue, and the focus of opposition would then shift to creating a strong government under a single authority. On 2 May 1864, the Mito rebellion erupted against the power of the shogunate in the name of the sonnō jōi . The Shogunate managed to send an army to quell
4623-506: Was not a solution for Japan. As the Bakufu continued its modernization efforts, Western daimyōs (especially from Satsuma and Chōshū) also continued to modernize intensively in order to build a stronger Japan and to establish a more legitimate government under Imperial power. The shogunate led a second punitive expedition against Chōshū from June 1866, but the shogunate was defeated by the more modern and better organized troops of Chōshū. The new shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu managed to negotiate
4692-418: Was put in charge of establishing the defense of Tokyo Bay against Western intrusions in 1839. After the humiliating defeat suffered by Qing China in the First and Second Opium Wars , many Japanese officials realized that their traditional methods would be no match for western powers. To deal with Western powers on equal terms, Western guns were studied and demonstrations made in 1841 by Takashima Shūhan to
4761-444: Was wooden, and had 11 cannons, with one additional port left open on the north side to permit the receiving of instructions from outside. Granite for the walls of the structure were quarried on islands offshore Okayama Prefecture . After completion, the bastion was tested once with cannons firing blank charges. However, it was immediately discovered that the inside of the structure filled with smoke, rendering it useless in combat, and it
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