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113-555: Starting with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854, within a few years foreign powers forced the shogun dynasty to abandon its isolationist policy sakoku . The rebellion reflected the widespread discontent felt among both pro-imperial/anti-shogunate and anti-foreigner groups, who rebelled under the sonnō jōi ("revere the emperor, expel the barbarians") slogan. Emperor Kōmei had issued an " Order to expel barbarians ". Thus, in March 1863,

226-507: A Clay partisan; he had voted for Clay on each ballot. He eloquently described the grief of the Clay supporters, frustrated again in their battle to make Clay president. Collier warned of a fatal breach in the party and said that only one thing could prevent it: the nomination of Fillmore for vice president, whom he depicted incorrectly as a strong Clay supporter. Fillmore actually agreed with many of Clay's positions but did not back him for president and

339-451: A Louisiana slaveholder at a time of sectional tension over whether slavery should be allowed in the territories that had been ceded by Mexico. Taylor's uncertain political views gave others pause: his career in the Army had prevented him from ever casting a ballot for president though he stated that he was a Whig supporter. Some feared that they might elect another Tyler, or another Harrison. With

452-600: A cabinet position that controlled many patronage appointments. The new department heads were mostly supporters of the Compromise, like Fillmore. The brief pause from politics out of national grief at Taylor's death did not abate the crisis. Texas had attempted to assert its authority in New Mexico, and the state's governor, Peter H. Bell , had sent belligerent letters to President Taylor. Fillmore received another letter after he had become president. He reinforced federal troops in

565-502: A candidate showed his devotion to Whig doctrine, allaying fears he might be another Tyler were something to happen to Taylor. Delegates remembered him for his role in the Tariff of 1842, and he had been mentioned as a vice-presidential possibility, along with Lawrence and Ohio's Thomas Ewing . His rivalry with Seward, who was subsequently elected to the U.S. Senate, and who was already known for anti-slavery views, made Fillmore more acceptable in

678-445: A good face on his defeat, Fillmore met and publicly appeared with Frelinghuysen and quietly spurned Weed's offer to get him nominated as governor at the state convention. Fillmore's position in opposing slavery only at the state level made him acceptable as a statewide Whig candidate, and Weed saw to it the pressure on Fillmore increased. Fillmore had stated that a convention had the right to draft anyone for political service, and Weed got

791-563: A gun at his colleague as Benton advanced on him. July 4, 1850, was a very hot day in Washington, and President Taylor, who attended the Fourth of July ceremonies to lay the cornerstone of the Washington Monument , refreshed himself, likely with cold milk and cherries. What he consumed likely gave him gastroenteritis and he died on July 9. Taylor, nicknamed "Old Rough and Ready", had gained

904-631: A law clerk in East Aurora. Hall later became Fillmore's partner in Buffalo. Buffalo was legally a village when Fillmore arrived; although the bill to incorporate it as a city passed the legislature after he had left the Assembly, Fillmore helped draft the city charter. Fillmore helped found the Buffalo High School Association, joined the lyceum , attended the local Unitarian church, and became

1017-581: A leading citizen of Buffalo. He was also active in the New York Militia and attained the rank of major as inspector of the 47th Brigade. In 1832 Fillmore ran successfully for the U.S. House of Representatives . The Anti-Masonic presidential candidate, William Wirt , a former attorney general, won only Vermont, and President Jackson easily gained re-election. At the time, Congress convened its annual session in December and so Fillmore had to wait more than

1130-573: A minute that I think they desire my nomination for governor." New York sent a delegation to the convention in Baltimore pledged to support Clay but with no instructions as to how to vote for vice president. Weed told out-of-state delegates that the New York party preferred to have Fillmore as its gubernatorial candidate, and after Clay was nominated for president, the second place on the ticket fell to former New Jersey senator Theodore Frelinghuysen . Putting

1243-519: A powerful figure, an able statesman at the height of his popularity." Weed deemed Fillmore "able in debate, wise in council, and inflexible in his political sentiments". Out of office, Fillmore continued his law practice and made long-neglected repairs to his Buffalo home. He remained a major political figure and led the committee that welcomed John Quincy Adams to Buffalo. The former president expressed his regret at Fillmore's absence from Congress. Some urged Fillmore to run for vice president with Clay,

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1356-467: A practice as the town's only resident lawyer. Later in life, Fillmore said he had initially lacked the self-confidence to practice in the larger city of Buffalo. His biographer, Paul Finkelman , suggested that after being under others' thumbs all his life, Fillmore enjoyed the independence of his East Aurora practice. Millard and Abigail wed on February 5, 1826. They had two children, Millard Powers Fillmore and Mary Abigail Fillmore . Other members of

1469-504: A reputation for toughness through his military campaigning in the heat, and his sudden death came as a shock to the nation. Fillmore had been called from his chair presiding over the Senate on July 8 and had sat with members of the cabinet in a vigil outside Taylor's bedroom at the White House. He received formal notification of the president's death on the evening of July 9 in his residence at

1582-446: A second bill, now omitting distribution. When it reached Tyler's desk, he signed it but, in the process, offended his erstwhile Democratic allies. Thus Fillmore not only achieved his legislative goal but also managed to isolate Tyler politically. Fillmore received praise for the tariff, but in July 1842 he announced he would not seek re-election. The Whigs nominated him anyway, but he refused

1695-604: A second term, and with gains in Congress during the 1846 election cycle, the Whigs were hopeful of taking the White House in 1848. The party's perennial candidates, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, both wanted the nomination and amassed support from congressional colleagues. Many rank-and-file Whigs backed the Mexican War hero, General Zachary Taylor , for president. Although Taylor was extremely popular, many Northerners had qualms about electing

1808-503: A slaveholder who he felt could not carry New York State. Fillmore did not attend the convention but was gratified when it nominated General William Henry Harrison for president, with former Virginia Senator John Tyler his running mate. Fillmore organized Western New York for the Harrison campaign , and the national ticket was elected, and Fillmore easily gained a fourth term in the House. At

1921-408: A small sum by advising a farmer in a minor lawsuit. Refusing to pledge not to do so again, Fillmore gave up his clerkship. Nathaniel again moved the family, and Millard accompanied it west to East Aurora , near Buffalo , where Nathaniel purchased a farm that became prosperous. In 1821 Fillmore turned 21, reaching adulthood . He taught school in East Aurora and accepted a few cases in justice of

2034-590: A three-way fight since the Free Soil Party , which opposed the spread of slavery, chose ex-President Van Buren. There was a crisis among the Whigs when Taylor also accepted the presidential nomination of a group of dissident South Carolina Democrats. Fearing that Taylor would be a party apostate like Tyler, Weed in late August scheduled a rally in Albany aimed at electing an uncommitted slate of presidential electors. Fillmore interceded with Weed and assured him that Taylor

2147-447: A year after his election to take his seat. Fillmore, Weed, and others realized that opposition to Masonry was too narrow a foundation to build a national party. They formed the broad-based Whig Party from National Republicans , Anti-Masons, and disaffected Democrats. The Whigs were initially united by their opposition to Jackson but became a major party by expanding their platform to include support for economic growth through rechartering

2260-697: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Convention of Kanagawa The Convention of Kanagawa , also known as the Kanagawa Treaty ( 神奈川条約 , Kanagawa Jōyaku ) or the Japan–US Treaty of Peace and Amity ( 日米和親条約 , Nichibei Washin Jōyaku ), was a treaty signed between the United States and the Tokugawa Shogunate on March 31, 1854. Signed under threat of force , it effectively meant

2373-581: The shishi rebels sought to take control of the Emperor to restore the Imperial household to its position of political supremacy. During what was a bloody crushing of the rebellion, the leading Chōshū clan was held responsible for its instigation. To counter the rebels' kidnapping attempt, armies of the Aizu and Satsuma domains (the latter led by Saigo Takamori ) led the defense of the Imperial palace. However, during

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2486-631: The American Civil War , Fillmore denounced secession and agreed that the Union must be maintained by force if necessary, but was critical of Abraham Lincoln 's war policies. After peace was restored, he supported President Andrew Johnson 's Reconstruction policies. Fillmore remained involved in civic interests after his presidency, including as chancellor of the University of Buffalo , which he had helped found in 1846. Historians usually rank Fillmore among

2599-723: The Hudson River and constructing a bridge across the Potomac River . Anti-Masonry was still strong in Western New York though it was petering out nationally. When the Anti-Masons did not nominate him for a second term in 1834, Fillmore declined the Whig nomination, seeing that the two parties would split the anti-Jackson vote and elect the Democrat. Despite Fillmore's departure from office, he

2712-552: The Second Bank of the United States and federally-funded internal improvements , including roads, bridges, and canals. Weed had joined the Whigs before Fillmore and became a power within the party. Weed's anti-slavery views were stronger than those of Fillmore, who disliked slavery but considered the federal government powerless over it. They were closer to those of another prominent New York Whig, William H. Seward of Auburn , who

2825-634: The Whig nomination for president in 1852 . As the Whig Party broke up after Fillmore's presidency, he and many in its conservative wing joined the Know Nothings and formed the American Party. Despite his party's emphasis on anti-immigration and anti-Catholic policies, during the 1856 presidential election he said little about immigration, focusing on the preservation of the Union, and won only Maryland . During

2938-705: The Willard Hotel . After acknowledging the letter and spending a sleepless night, Fillmore went to the House of Representatives, where, at a joint session of Congress , he took the oath as president from William Cranch , the chief judge of the federal court for the District of Columbia , and the man who swore in President Tyler. The cabinet officers, as was customary when a new president took over, submitted their resignations but expected Fillmore to refuse and allow them to continue in office. Fillmore had been marginalized by

3051-671: The attorney general and some other positions that were formerly chosen by the state legislature. Fillmore's work in finance as the Ways and Means chairman made him an obvious candidate for comptroller, and he was successful in getting the Whig nomination for the 1847 election. With a united party, Fillmore won by 38,000 votes, the largest margin that a Whig candidate for statewide office would ever achieve in New York. Before moving to Albany to take office on January 1, 1848, he had left his law firm and rented out his house. Fillmore received positive reviews for his service as comptroller. In that office he

3164-516: The daimyō for their opinions. This was the first time that the Tokugawa shogunate had allowed its decision-making to be a matter of public debate and had the unforeseen consequence of portraying the shogunate as weak and indecisive. The results of the poll also failed to provide Abe with an answer; of the 61 known responses, 19 were in favour of accepting the American demands and 19 were equally opposed. Of

3277-604: The " unequal treaty system" which characterized Asian and western relations during this period. The Kanagawa treaty was also followed by similar agreements with the United Kingdom ( Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty , October 1854), Russia ( Treaty of Shimoda , February 7, 1855), and France ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan , October 9, 1858). Internally, the treaty had far-reaching consequences. Decisions to suspend previous restrictions on military activities led to re-armament by many domains and further weakened

3390-591: The 17th century, the Tokugawa Shogunate pursued a policy of isolating the country from outside influences. Foreign trade was maintained only with the Dutch and the Chinese and was conducted exclusively at Nagasaki under a strict government monopoly. This "Pax Tokugawa" period is largely associated with domestic peace, social stability, commercial development, and expanded literacy. This policy had two main objectives: By

3503-625: The Buffalo bar proposed Fillmore for the position of vice-chancellor of the eighth judicial district in 1839, Seward refused, nominated Frederick Whittlesey , and indicated that if the New York Senate rejected Whittlesey he still would not appoint Fillmore. Fillmore was active in the discussions of presidential candidates which preceded the Whig National Convention for the 1840 race. He initially supported General Winfield Scott but really wanted to defeat Kentucky Senator Henry Clay ,

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3616-557: The Emperor's Special Consultant for National Affairs, were banished from Court as a result of their involvement in this incident. Sanjō Sanetomi , due to his association with many of the shishi that were captured, executed or identified during the rebellion, was forced to flee. The shogunate followed the incident with a retaliatory armed expedition, the First Chōshū expedition , in September 1864. This Japanese history–related article

3729-623: The Fillmore family were active in politics and government in addition to Nathaniel's service as a justice of the peace. Millard became interested in politics, and the rise of the Anti-Masonic Party in the late 1820s provided his entry. Many Anti-Masons were opposed to the presidential candidacy of General Andrew Jackson , who was a Mason . Fillmore was a delegate to the New York convention that endorsed President John Quincy Adams for re-election and also served at two Anti-Masonic conventions in

3842-475: The Fillmores' landlord and the wealthiest person in the area, to allow Millard to be his law clerk for a trial period. Wood agreed to employ young Fillmore and to supervise him as he read law . Fillmore earned money teaching school for three months and bought out his mill apprenticeship. He left Wood after eighteen months; the judge had paid him almost nothing, and both quarreled after Fillmore had, unaided, earned

3955-572: The Fugitive Slave Bill for two days until he received a favorable opinion as to its constitutionality from the new Attorney General, John J. Crittenden . Although some Northerners were unhappy at the Fugitive Slave Act, relief was widespread in the hope of settling the slavery question. The Fugitive Slave Act remained contentious after its enactment. Southerners complained bitterly about any leniency in its application, but its enforcement

4068-780: The Japanese perspective, increasing contacts with foreign warships and the increasing disparity between western military technology and the Japanese feudal armies fostered growing concern. The Japanese had been keeping abreast of world events via information gathered from Dutch traders in Dejima and had been forewarned by the Dutch of Perry's voyage. There was a considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty in light of events occurring in China with

4181-562: The New Yorker Fillmore as vice president, under the political customs of the time, no one from that state could be named to the Cabinet. Fillmore was accused of complicity in Collier's actions, but that was never substantiated. Nevertheless, there were sound reasons for Fillmore's selection, as he was a proven vote-getter from electorally-crucial New York, and his track record in Congress and as

4294-567: The North had been a longtime Southern grievance. Clay's bill provided for the settlement of the Texas–New Mexico boundary dispute, and the status of slavery in the territories would be decided by those living there ( popular sovereignty ). Taylor was unenthusiastic about the bill, which languished in Congress. After weeks of debate, however, Fillmore informed him in May 1850 that if senators divided equally on

4407-489: The Opium Wars. Perry arrived with four warships at Uraga , at the mouth of Edo Bay on July 8, 1853. He blatantly refused Japanese demands that he proceed to Nagasaki, which was the designated port for foreign contact. After threatening to continue directly on to Edo , the nation's capital, and to burn it to the ground if necessary, he was allowed to land at nearby Kurihama on July 14 and to deliver his letter. Such refusal

4520-563: The Senate towards the administration-backed package of bills. Each bill passed the Senate with the support of the section that wanted it, with a few members who were determined to see all the bills passed. The battle then moved to the House, which had a Northern majority because of the population. Most contentious was the Fugitive Slave Bill , whose provisions were anathema to abolitionists. Fillmore applied pressure to get Northern Whigs, including New Yorkers, to abstain, rather than to oppose

4633-501: The Senate, Fillmore presided over its angry debates, as the 31st Congress decided whether to allow slavery in the Mexican Cession . Unlike Taylor, Fillmore supported Henry Clay's omnibus bill , the basis of the 1850 Compromise. Upon becoming president in July 1850, he dismissed Taylor's cabinet and pushed Congress to pass the compromise. The Fugitive Slave Act , expediting the return of escaped slaves to those who claimed ownership,

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4746-486: The South. It was customary in the mid-19th century for a candidate for high office not to appear to seek it. Thus, Fillmore remained at the comptroller's office in Albany and made no speeches. The 1848 campaign was conducted in the newspapers and with addresses made by surrogates at rallies. The Democrats nominated Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan for president, with General William O. Butler as his running mate, but it became

4859-472: The University of Buffalo (now the University at Buffalo ), became its first chancellor , and served until his death in 1874. He had opposed the annexation of Texas , spoke against the subsequent Mexican–American War , and saw the war as a contrivance to extend slavery's realm. Fillmore was angered when President Polk vetoed a river and harbors bill that would have benefited Buffalo, and he wrote, "May God save

4972-410: The Whigs would likely collapse if Lawrence was nominated and northern anti-slavery delegates left the party, Foot agreed to shift his support to Fillmore. Other delegates soon followed suit, and Fillmore won the nomination on the second ballot. Weed wanted the vice-presidential nomination for Seward, who attracted few delegate votes, and Collier acted to frustrate them in more ways than one, since with

5085-519: The area and warned Bell to keep the peace. By July 31 Clay's bill was effectively dead, as all significant provisions other than the organization of Utah Territory had been removed by amendment. As one wag put it, the "Mormons" were the only remaining passengers on the omnibus. Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas then stepped to the fore, with Clay's agreement, proposing to break the omnibus bill into individual bills that could be passed piecemeal. Fillmore endorsed that strategy, which eventually divided

5198-470: The attempt, the rebels set Kyoto on fire, starting with the residence of the Takatsukasa family , and that of a Chōshū official. It is unknown if the rebels set fire to Kyoto as soon as they began to lose, or if their doing so was part of their original strategy, and done as a diversionary tactic. Among the shishi who died in the incident was Kusaka Genzui . Various courtiers, including Nakayama Tadayasu ,

5311-405: The bargain that had been made in the Compromise to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act. He did so even though some prosecutions or attempts to return slaves ended badly for the government, with acquittals and the slave taken from federal custody and freed by a Boston mob. Such cases were widely publicized North and South, inflamed passions in both places, and undermined the good feeling that had followed

5424-435: The bill, he would cast his tie-breaking vote in favor. Fillmore did his best to keep the peace among the senators and reminded them of the vice president's power to rule them out of order, but he was blamed for failing to maintain the peace when a physical confrontation between Mississippi's Henry S. Foote and Missouri's Thomas Hart Benton broke out on April 17. Before other senators intervened to separate them, Foote pointed

5537-425: The bill. Through the legislative process, changes were made, including the setting of a boundary between New Mexico Territory and Texas, the state being given a payment to settle any claims. California was admitted as a free state, the District of Columbia's slave trade was ended, and the final status of slavery in New Mexico and Utah would be settled later. Fillmore signed the bills as they reached his desk and held

5650-459: The boundaries of the Japanese. He ordered the squadron to survey Edo bay, which led to a stand-off between Japanese officers with swords and Americans with guns. By firing the guns into the water, Perry demonstrated their military might, which greatly affected Japanese perceptions of Perry and the United States. Namely, a perception of fear and disrespect. Despite years of debate on the isolation policy, Perry's letter created great controversy within

5763-736: The cabinet members, and he accepted the resignations though he asked them to stay on for a month, which most refused to do. Fillmore is the only president who succeeded by death or resignation not to retain, at least initially, his predecessor's cabinet. He was already in discussions with Whig leaders and, on July 20, began to send new nominations to the Senate, with the Fillmore Cabinet to be led by Webster as Secretary of State. Webster had outraged his Massachusetts constituents by supporting Clay's bill and, with his Senate term to expire in 1851, had no political future in his home state. Fillmore appointed his old law partner, Nathan Hall, as Postmaster General,

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5876-497: The chamber in 1841, but was made chairman of the Ways and Means Committee . Defeated in bids for the Whig nomination for vice president and for New York governor in 1844, Fillmore was elected Comptroller of New York in 1847, the first to hold that post by direct election. As vice president, Fillmore was largely ignored by Taylor; even in dispensing patronage in New York, Taylor consulted Weed and Seward. But in his capacity as president of

5989-503: The compromise into five bills. Fillmore sent a special message to Congress on August 6, 1850; disclosed the letter from Governor Bell and his reply; warned that armed Texans would be viewed as intruders; and urged Congress to defuse sectional tensions by passing the Compromise. Without the presence of the Great Triumvirate of John C. Calhoun , Webster, and Clay, who had long dominated the Senate, Douglas and others were able to lead

6102-413: The consensus Whig choice for president in 1844. Horace Greeley wrote privately that "my own first choice has long been Millard Fillmore," and others thought Fillmore should try to win back the governor's mansion for the Whigs. Seeking to return to Washington, Fillmore wanted the vice presidency. Fillmore hoped to gain the endorsement of the New York delegation to the national convention, but Weed wanted

6215-480: The convention to choose Fillmore, who had broad support, despite his reluctance. The Democrats nominated Senator Silas Wright as their gubernatorial candidate and former Tennessee Governor James K. Polk for president. Although Fillmore worked to gain support among German-Americans , a major constituency, he was hurt among immigrants by the fact that in New York City, Whigs had supported a nativist candidate in

6328-430: The convention, were passed over for candidates backed by Weed, who was triumphant even in Buffalo. That greatly increased Weed's influence in New York politics and diminished Fillmore's. According to Rayback, "by mid-1849, Fillmore's situation had become desperate." Despite his lack of influence, office-seekers pestered him, as did those with a house to lease or sell since there was no official vice-presidential residence at

6441-417: The country for it is evident the people will not." At the time, New York governors served a two-year term, and Fillmore could have had the Whig nomination in 1846 had he wanted it. He actually came within one vote of it while he maneuvered to get the nomination for his supporter, John Young , who was elected. A new constitution for New York State provided the office of comptroller to be made elective, as were

6554-535: The country, Fillmore felt it would lock the nation's limited supply of gold money away from commerce. Van Buren's sub-treasury and other economic proposals passed, but as hard times continued, the Whigs saw an increased vote in the 1837 elections and captured the New York Assembly, which set up a fight for the 1838 gubernatorial nomination. Fillmore supported the leading Whig vice-presidential candidate from 1836, Francis Granger , but Weed preferred Seward. Fillmore

6667-685: The crisis over the South Carolinians was resolved. Fillmore assured his running mate that the electoral prospects for the ticket looked good, especially in the Northeast. In the end the Taylor-Fillmore ticket won narrowly, with New York's electoral votes again key. The Whig ticket won the popular vote by 1,361,393 (47.3%) to 1,223,460 (42.5%) and triumphed 163 to 127 in the Electoral College . Minor party candidates took no electoral votes, but

6780-741: The discord was manifested in the election for Speaker, which took weeks and dozens of ballots to resolve, as the House divided along sectional lines. Fillmore countered the Weed machine by building a network of like-minded Whigs in New York State. With backing from wealthy New Yorkers, their positions were publicized by the establishment of a rival newspaper to Weed's Albany Evening Journal . All pretense at friendship between Fillmore and Weed vanished in November 1849 when they happened to meet in New York City and exchanged accusations. Fillmore presided over some of

6893-506: The early 19th century, this policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge. In 1844, King William II of the Netherlands sent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside. In 1846, an official American expedition led by Commodore James Biddle arrived in Japan asking for ports to be opened for trade but was sent away. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry

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7006-494: The economic Panic of 1837 , which was caused partly by the lack of confidence in private banknote issues after Jackson had instructed the government to accept only gold or silver , called a special session of Congress. Government money had been held in so-called " pet banks " since Jackson had withdrawn it from the Second Bank. Van Buren proposed to place funds in sub-treasuries, government depositories that would not lend money. Believing that government funds should be lent to develop

7119-400: The end of Japan's 220-year-old policy of national seclusion ( sakoku ) by opening the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American vessels. It also ensured the safety of American castaways and established the position of an American consul in Japan. The treaty precipitated the signing of similar treaties establishing diplomatic relations with other Western powers. Since the beginning of

7232-479: The family endured severe poverty. Nathaniel became sufficiently regarded that he was chosen to serve in local offices, including justice of the peace. Hoping that his oldest son would learn a trade, he convinced Millard, who was 14, not to enlist for the War of 1812 and apprenticed him to clothmaker Benjamin Hungerford in Sparta . Fillmore was relegated to menial labor, and unhappy at not learning any skills, he left Hungerford's employ. His father placed him in

7345-406: The general victory of the Jacksonian Democrats (soon the Democratic Party ), who elected Jackson President and won a majority in Albany. Thus Fillmore was in the minority in the Assembly. He proved effective anyway by promoting legislation to provide court witnesses the option of taking a non-religious oath, and in 1830, abolishing imprisonment for debt . By then much of Fillmore's legal practice

7458-472: The good of the Whig Party. However, Weed had sterner opponents, including Governor Young, who disliked Seward and did not want to see him gain high office. Despite Weed's efforts, Taylor was nominated on the fourth ballot, to the anger of Clay's supporters and of Conscience Whigs from the Northeast. When order had been restored, John A. Collier , a New Yorker who opposed Weed, addressed the convention. Delegates hung on his every word as he described himself as

7571-541: The highest levels of the Tokugawa shogunate. The shōgun himself, Tokugawa Ieyoshi , died days after Perry's departure and was succeeded by his sickly young son, Tokugawa Iesada , leaving effective administration in the hands of the Council of Elders ( rōjū ) led by Abe Masahiro . Abe felt that it was impossible for Japan to resist the American demands by military force and yet was reluctant to take any action on his own authority for such an unprecedented situation. Attempting to legitimize any decision taken, Abe polled all of

7684-462: The incoming administration and the Weed machine was soon formed behind Fillmore's back. In exchange for support, Seward and Weed were allowed to designate who was to fill federal jobs in New York, and Fillmore was given far less influence than had been agreed. When Fillmore discovered that after the election, he went to Taylor, which only made the warfare against Fillmore's influence more open. Fillmore's supporters such as Collier, who had nominated him at

7797-404: The mayoral election earlier in 1844, and Fillmore and his party were tarred with that brush. He was not friendly to immigrants and blamed his defeat on "foreign Catholics". Clay was beaten as well. Fillmore's biographer Paul Finkelman suggested that Fillmore's hostility to immigrants and his weak position on slavery had defeated him for governor. In 1846 Fillmore was involved in the founding of

7910-419: The mid-1830s. He was a rival for the state party leadership with Thurlow Weed and his protégé William H. Seward . Throughout his career, Fillmore declared slavery evil but said it was beyond the federal government's power to end it; Seward argued that the federal government had a role to play. Fillmore was an unsuccessful candidate for Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives when the Whigs took control of

8023-410: The most momentous and passionate debates in American history as the Senate debated whether to allow slavery in the territories. The ongoing sectional conflict had already excited much discussion when on January 21, 1850, President Taylor sent a special message to Congress that urged the admission of California immediately and New Mexico later and for the Supreme Court to settle the boundary dispute whereby

8136-405: The new administration. The president-elect mistakenly thought that the vice president was a cabinet member, which was not true in the 19th century. Fillmore, Seward and Weed had met and come to a general agreement on how to divide federal jobs in New York. Once he went to Washington, Seward made friendly contact with Taylor's cabinet nominees, advisers, and the general's brother. An alliance between

8249-554: The new representative under his wing. Fillmore became a firm supporter, and they continued their close relationship until Webster's death late in Fillmore's presidency. Despite Fillmore's support of the Second Bank as a means for national development, he did not speak in the congressional debates in which some advocated renewing its charter although Jackson had vetoed legislation for a charter renewal. Fillmore supported building infrastructure by voting in favor of navigation improvements on

8362-568: The nomination undecided, Weed maneuvered for New York to send an uncommitted delegation to the 1848 Whig National Convention in Philadelphia in the hope of being a kingmaker in a position to place ex-Governor Seward on the ticket or to get him a high federal office. He persuaded Fillmore to support an uncommitted ticket but did not tell the Buffalonian of his hopes for Seward. Weed was an influential editor with whom Fillmore tended to co-operate for

8475-453: The nomination. Tired of Washington life and the conflict that had revolved around Tyler, Fillmore sought to return to his life and law practice in Buffalo. He continued to be active in the lame duck session of Congress that followed the 1842 elections and returned to Buffalo in April 1843. According to his biographer, Scarry, "Fillmore concluded his Congressional career at a point when he had become

8588-513: The oath from Chief Justice Roger B. Taney and, in turn, swore in the senators beginning their terms, including Seward, who had been elected by the New York legislature in February. Fillmore had spent the four months between the election and the swearing-in being feted by the New York Whigs and winding up affairs in the comptroller's office. Taylor had written to him and promised influence in

8701-409: The peace courts, which did not require the practitioner to be a licensed attorney. He moved to Buffalo the following year and continued his study of law, first while he taught school and then in the law office of Asa Rice and Joseph Clary. Meanwhile, he became engaged to Abigail Powers. In 1823 he was admitted to the bar , declined offers from Buffalo law firms, and returned to East Aurora to establish

8814-677: The position of the shogun. Debate over foreign policy and popular outrage over perceived appeasement to the foreign powers was a catalyst for the sonnō jōi movement and a shift in political power from Edo back to the Imperial Court in Kyoto . The opposition of Emperor Kōmei to the treaties further lent support to the tōbaku (overthrow the shogunate) movement, and eventually to the Meiji Restoration , which affected all realms of Japanese life. Following this period came an increase in foreign trade,

8927-496: The presence of American whalers in waters offshore Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by the British and French in Asia were all contributing factors. The Americans were also driven by concepts of manifest destiny and the desire to impose the perceived benefits of western civilization and Christianity on what they perceived as backward Asian nations. From

9040-399: The president, despite being a Southern slaveholder, did not support the introduction of slavery into the new territories, as he believed the institution could not flourish in the arid Southwest. There was anger across party lines in the South, where making the territories free of slavery was considered to exclude Southerners from part of the national heritage. When Congress met in December 1849,

9153-470: The remainder, 14 gave vague responses expressing concern of possible war, 7 suggested making temporary concessions and 2 advised that they would simply go along with whatever was decided. Perry returned again on February 11, 1854, with an even larger force of eight warships and made it clear that he would not be leaving until a treaty was signed. Perry continued his manipulation of the setting, such as keeping himself aloof from lower-ranking officials, implying

9266-454: The revenue was distributed to the states, a decision made in better times that was now depleting the Treasury. Fillmore prepared a bill raising tariff rates that was popular in the country, but the continuation of distribution assured Tyler's veto and much political advantage for the Whigs. A House committee, headed by Massachusetts's John Quincy Adams , condemned Tyler's actions. Fillmore prepared

9379-408: The rise of Japanese military might, and the later rise of Japanese economic and technological advancement. Westernization at the time was a defense mechanism, but Japan has since found a balance between Western modernity and Japanese tradition. Millard Fillmore Millard Fillmore (January 7, 1800 – March 8, 1874) was the 13th president of the United States , serving from 1850 to 1853, and

9492-545: The same trade at a mill in New Hope . Seeking to better himself, Millard bought a share in a circulating library and read all the books that he could. In 1819 he took advantage of idle time at the mill to enroll at a new academy in the town, where he met and fell in love with a classmate, Abigail Powers . Later in 1819 Nathaniel moved the family to Montville, a hamlet of Moravia. Appreciating his son's talents, Nathaniel followed his wife's advice and persuaded Judge Walter Wood,

9605-488: The shogun, or indeed any of his rōjū , and that it had at least temporarily averted the possibility of immediate military confrontation. Externally, the treaty led to the United States-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce , the "Harris Treaty" of 1858, which allowed the establishment of foreign concessions, extraterritoriality for foreigners, and minimal import taxes for foreign goods. The Japanese chafed under

9718-418: The short term, the U.S. was content with the agreement since Perry had achieved his primary objective of breaking Japan's sakoku policy and setting the grounds for protection of American citizens and an eventual commercial agreement. On the other hand, the Japanese were forced into this trade, and many saw it as a sign of weakness. The Tokugawa shogunate could point out that the treaty was not actually signed by

9831-543: The state of Texas claimed much of what is now the state of New Mexico. On January 29, Clay introduced his " Omnibus Bill ", which would give victories to both North and South by admitting California as a free state, organizing territorial governments in New Mexico and Utah , and banning the slave trade in the District of Columbia . The bill would also toughen the Fugitive Slave Act , as resistance to enforcement in parts of

9944-477: The strength of the burgeoning anti-slavery movement was shown by the vote for Van Buren, who won no states but earned 291,501 votes (10.1%) and finished second in New York, Vermont, and Massachusetts. Fillmore was sworn in as vice president on March 5, 1849, in the Senate Chamber . Since March 4 (which was then Inauguration Day ) fell on a Sunday, the swearing-in was postponed to the following day. Fillmore took

10057-516: The summer of 1828. At the conventions, Fillmore first met political boss and future rival Thurlow Weed , then a newspaper editor, where they reportedly impressed one another. Fillmore was the leading citizen in East Aurora, having successfully sought election to the New York State Assembly , and served in Albany for three one-year terms (1829 to 1831). Fillmore's 1828 election contrasted with

10170-453: The time, shōgun Tokugawa Iesada was the de facto ruler of Japan; for the Emperor of Japan to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question. Perry concluded the treaty with representatives of the shogun, led by plenipotentiary Hayashi Akira ( 林韑 ) and the text was endorsed subsequently, albeit reluctantly, by Emperor Kōmei . The treaty was ratified on February 21, 1855. In

10283-494: The time. He enjoyed one aspect of his office because of his lifelong love of learning: he became deeply involved in the administration of the Smithsonian Institution as a member ex officio of its Board of Regents. Through 1849, slavery was an unresolved issue in the territories. Taylor advocated the admission of California and New Mexico, which were both likely to outlaw slavery. Southerners were surprised to learn

10396-489: The title to their Cayuga County land proved defective, and the Fillmore family moved to nearby Sempronius , where they leased land as tenant farmers , and Nathaniel occasionally taught school. The historian Tyler Anbinder described Fillmore's childhood as "one of hard work, frequent privation, and virtually no formal schooling." Over time Nathaniel became more successful in Sempronius, but during Millard's formative years,

10509-559: The urging of Clay, Harrison quickly called a special session of Congress. With the Whigs able to organize the House for the first time, Fillmore sought the Speakership, but it went to a Clay acolyte, John White of Kentucky. Fillmore was made chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee . Harrison was expected to go along with anything Clay and other congressional Whig leaders proposed, but Harrison died on April 4, 1841. Vice President Tyler

10622-512: The use of force, surveying the harbor, and refusing to meet in the designated negotiation sites. Negotiations began on March 8 and proceeded for around one month. Each party shared a performance when Perry arrived. The Americans had a technology demonstration, and the Japanese had a sumo wrestling show. While the new technology awed the Japanese people, Perry was unimpressed by the sumo wrestlers and perceived such performance as foolish and degrading: “This disgusting exhibition did not terminate until

10735-474: The vice presidency for Seward, with Fillmore as governor. Seward, however, withdrew before the 1844 Whig National Convention . When Weed's replacement vice presidential hopeful, Willis Hall , fell ill, Weed sought to defeat Fillmore's candidacy to force him to run for governor. Weed's attempts to boost Fillmore as a gubernatorial candidate caused the latter to write, "I am not willing to be treacherously killed by this pretended kindness   ... do not suppose for

10848-532: The whole twenty-five had, successively, in pairs, displayed their immense powers and savage qualities." The Japanese side gave in to almost all of Perry's demands, with the exception of a commercial agreement modelled after previous American treaties with China, which Perry agreed to defer to a later time. The main controversy centered on the selection of the ports to open, with Perry adamantly rejecting Nagasaki. The treaty, written in English, Dutch, Chinese and Japanese,

10961-569: The worst presidents in American history, largely for his policies regarding slavery, as well as among the least memorable . His association with the Know Nothings and support of Johnson's reconstruction policies has further tarnished his reputation. Millard Fillmore was born on January 7, 1800, in a log cabin , on a farm in what is now Moravia , in the Finger Lakes region of New York . His parents were Phoebe Millard and Nathaniel Fillmore ; he

11074-418: Was a controversial part of the compromise. Fillmore felt duty-bound to enforce it, though it damaged his popularity and also the Whig Party, which was torn between its Northern and Southern factions. In foreign policy, he supported U.S. Navy expeditions to open trade in Japan , opposed French designs on Hawaii , and was embarrassed by Narciso López 's filibuster expeditions to Cuba . Fillmore failed to win

11187-442: Was a member of the state canal board, supported its expansion, and saw that it was managed competently. He secured an enlargement of Buffalo's canal facilities. The comptroller regulated the banks, and Fillmore stabilized the currency by requiring that state-chartered banks keep New York and federal bonds to the value of the banknotes they issued. A similar plan was adopted by Congress in 1864. President Polk had pledged not to seek

11300-665: Was a rival for the state party leadership with Seward, the unsuccessful 1834 Whig gubernatorial candidate. Fillmore spent his time out of office building his law practice and boosting the Whig Party, which gradually absorbed most of the Anti-Masons. By 1836 Fillmore was confident enough of anti-Jackson unity that he accepted the Whig nomination for Congress. Democrats, led by their presidential candidate, Vice President Martin Van Buren , were victorious nationwide and in Van Buren's home state of New York, but Western New York voted Whig and sent Fillmore back to Washington. Van Buren, faced with

11413-526: Was born into poverty in the Finger Lakes area of upstate New York . Though he had little formal schooling, he studied to become a lawyer. He became prominent in the Buffalo area as an attorney and politician, and was elected to the New York Assembly in 1828 and the House of Representatives in 1832. Fillmore initially belonged to the Anti-Masonic Party , but became a member of the Whig Party as it formed in

11526-518: Was elevated to the presidency; the onetime maverick Democrat soon broke with Clay over congressional proposals for a national bank to stabilize the currency, which he vetoed twice and so was expelled from the Whig Party. Fillmore remained on the fringes of that conflict by generally supporting the congressional Whig position, but his chief achievement as Ways and Means chairman was the Tariff of 1842 . The existing tariff did not protect manufacturing, and part of

11639-443: Was embittered when Weed got the nomination for Seward but campaigned loyally, Seward was elected, and Fillmore won another term in the House. The rivalry between Fillmore and Seward was affected by the growing anti-slavery movement. Although Fillmore disliked slavery, he saw no reason for it to be a political issue. Seward, however, made his hostility to slavery clear as governor by refusing to return slaves claimed by Southerners. When

11752-420: Was highly offensive to many Northerners. Abolitionists recited the inequities of the law since anyone aiding an escaped slave was punished severely, and it granted no due process to the escapee, who could not testify before a magistrate. The law also permitted a higher payment to the hearing magistrate for deciding the escapee was a slave. Nevertheless, Fillmore believed himself bound by his oath as president and by

11865-582: Was in Buffalo, and later that year he moved there with his family. He did not seek re-election in 1831. Fillmore was successful as a lawyer. Buffalo was rapidly expanding, recovering from British conflagration during the War of 1812 , and becoming the western terminus of the Erie Canal . Court cases from outside Erie County began falling to Fillmore's lot, and he reached prominence as a lawyer in Buffalo before he moved there. He took his lifelong friend Nathan K. Hall as

11978-578: Was intentional, as Perry wrote in his journal: “To show these princes how little I regarded their order for me to depart, on getting on board I immediately ordered the whole squadron underway, not to leave the bay… but to go higher up… would produce a decided influence upon the pride and conceit of the government, and cause a more favorable consideration of the President’s letter." Perry's power front did not stop with refusing to land in Uraga, but he continued to push

12091-426: Was loyal to the party. Northerners assumed that Fillmore, hailing from a free state, was an opponent of the spread of slavery. Southerners accused him of being an abolitionist, which he hotly denied. Fillmore responded to one Alabamian in a widely published letter that slavery was an evil, but the federal government had no authority over it. Taylor and Fillmore corresponded twice in September, with Taylor happy that

12204-517: Was not in Philadelphia. Delegates did not know what Collier had said was false or at least greatly exaggerated and there was a large reaction in Fillmore's favor. Abbott Lawrence of Massachusetts was a key Taylor supporter and expected to be nominated for vice president. The chairman of the Vermont delegation, former Representative Solomon Foot , initially supported Lawrence, who was perceived as more accepting of slavery than Fillmore. Recognizing that

12317-445: Was seen as a Weed protégé. In Washington Fillmore urged the expansion of Buffalo harbor, a decision under federal jurisdiction, and he privately lobbied Albany for the expansion of the state-owned Erie Canal. Even during the 1832 campaign, Fillmore's affiliation as an Anti-Mason had been uncertain, and he rapidly shed the label once sworn in. Fillmore came to the notice of the influential Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster , who took

12430-514: Was sent with a fleet of warships by U.S. President Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese ports to American trade, through the use of gunboat diplomacy if necessary. President Fillmore's letter shows the U.S. sought trade with Japan to open export markets for American goods like gold from California, enable U.S. ships to refuel in Japanese ports, and secure protections and humane treatment for any American sailors shipwrecked on Japan's shores. The growing commerce between America and China,

12543-405: Was signed on March 31, 1854, at what is now Kaikō Hiroba (Port Opening Square) Yokohama , a site adjacent to the current Yokohama Archives of History . The celebratory events for the signing ceremony included a Kabuki play from the Japanese side and, from the American side, U.S. military band music and blackface minstrelsy . The "Japan-US Treaty of Peace and Amity" has twelve articles: At

12656-520: Was the last president to have been a member of the Whig Party while in office. A former member of the U.S. House of Representatives , Fillmore was elected the 12th vice president in 1848 , and succeeded to the presidency when Zachary Taylor died in July 1850. Fillmore was instrumental in passing the Compromise of 1850 , which led to a brief truce in the battle over the expansion of slavery . Fillmore

12769-531: Was the second of eight children and the oldest son. The Fillmores were of English descent; John Fillmore arrived in Ipswich, Massachusetts , during the colonial era. Nathaniel Fillmore was the son of Nathaniel Fillmore Sr., a native of Franklin, Connecticut , who became one of the earliest settlers of Bennington, Vermont . Nathaniel Fillmore and Phoebe Millard moved from Vermont in 1799 and sought better opportunities than were available on Nathaniel's stony farm, but

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