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173-552: Traditional healers of Southern Africa are practitioners of traditional African medicine in Southern Africa . They fulfil different social and political roles in the community like divination , healing physical, emotional, and spiritual illnesses , directing birth or death rituals , finding lost cattle, protecting warriors, counteracting witchcraft and narrating the history, cosmology, and concepts of their tradition . There are two main types of traditional healers within

346-686: A cemetery with many companions and early caliphs. Many other mausoleums are major architectural, political, and cultural sites, including the National Mausoleum in Pakistan and the Taj Mahal in India. However, the religious movement of Wahhabism disputes the concept of saint veneration. Followers of this movement have destroyed many gravesite shrines, including in Saudi Arabia and in territory controlled by

519-413: A spiritual cockfight . Ancestor veneration is one of the most unifying aspects of Vietnamese culture , as practically all Vietnamese have an ancestor altar in their home or business. In Vietnam, traditionally people did not celebrate birthdays (before Western influence), but the death anniversary of one's loved one was always an important occasion. Besides an essential gathering of family members for

692-402: A 'self'. In the animistic indigenous religions of the precolonial Philippines , ancestor spirits were one of the two major types of spirits ( anito ) with whom shamans communicate. Ancestor spirits were known as umalagad (lit. "guardian" or "caretaker"). They can be the spirits of actual ancestors or generalized guardian spirits of a family. Ancient Filipinos believed that upon death,

865-483: A Nigerian psychiatrist, stated in 1979, "At about three years ago, we made an evaluation, a programme of their work, and compared this with our own, and we discovered that actually they were scoring almost sixty percent success in their treatment of neurosis . And we were scoring forty percent-in fact, less than forty percent." Herbal medicines in Africa are generally not adequately researched and are weakly regulated. There

1038-542: A Xhosa sangoma and former lecturer in religious studies at the University of Cape Town : An igqirha is someone who has been called by their ancestors to heal, whether from the maternal or paternal side, they can't be called by [somebody else's] ancestors. Philip Kubekeli, director of the Traditional Medical Practitioners, Herbalist and Spiritual Healers Association, and Phephsile Maseko, spokesperson of

1211-429: A banquet in memory of the deceased, incense sticks are burned along with hell notes , and great platters of food are made as offerings on the ancestor altar, which usually has pictures or plaques with the names of the deceased. In the case of missing persons, believed to be dead by their family, a Wind tomb is made. These offerings and practices are done frequently during important traditional or religious celebrations,

1384-568: A combination of both forms of practice. There are also traditional bone setters and birth attendants. Herbalists are becoming more and more popular in Africa with an emerging herb trading market in Durban that is said to attract between 700,000 and 900,000 traders per year from South Africa, Zimbabwe , and Mozambique . Smaller trade markets exist in virtually every community. Their knowledge of herbs has been invaluable in African communities and they among

1557-591: A crucial role in the health of millions since as many as 85% of African routinely use these services for primary health care in Sub-Saharan Africa . The relative ratios of traditional practitioners and university trained doctors in relation to the whole population in African countries underscores this importance. Across Sub-Saharan Africa, from Ghana to Eswatini there are, on average almost, 100 traditional practitioner for every university trained doctor. This equates to one traditional healer for every 200 people in

1730-435: A dead person is called a Pitr , which is venerated. When a person dies, the family observes a thirteen-day mourning period, generally called śrāddha . A year thence, they observe the ritual of tarpana , in which the family makes offerings to the deceased. During these rituals, the family prepares the food items that the deceased liked and offers food to the deceased. They offer this food to crows as well on certain days as it

1903-533: A doctoral thesis on witchcraft-related crime in 2009, was invited to become part of an advisory committee to assist in the review. While there are recorded instances of white sangomas before 1994, since 1994 an increasing number of white people have openly trained as sangomas in South Africa. The question of authenticity is still an ongoing discussion. According to Nokuzola Mndende of the Icamagu Institute,

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2076-487: A festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present. Veneration of ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to fady , taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of

2249-579: A form of ancestor worship called kule aradhane. In Indonesia ancestor worship has been a tradition of some of the indigenous people. Podom of the Toba Batak , Waruga of the Minahasans and the coffins of the Karo people (Indonesia) are a few examples of the forms the veneration takes. Before the introduction of Buddhism to Japan, ancestor worship and funerary rites were not common, especially for non-elites. In

2422-633: A grave site is visited, a small pebble is placed on the headstone . While there is no clear answer as to why, this custom of leaving pebbles may date back to biblical days when individuals were buried under piles of stones. Today, they are left as tokens that people have been there to visit and to remember. Americans of various religions and cultures may build a shrine in their home dedicated to loved ones who have died, with pictures of their ancestors, flowers and mementos. Increasingly, many roadside shrines may be seen for deceased relatives who died in car accidents or were killed on that spot, sometimes financed by

2595-509: A group coordination role during human evolution , and thus it was the mechanism that led to religious representation fostering group cohesion . Ancestor veneration is prevalent throughout Africa, and serves as the basis of many religions. It is often augmented by a belief in a supreme being, but prayers and/or sacrifices are usually offered to the ancestors who may ascend to becoming a kind of minor deities themselves. Ancestor veneration remains among many Africans, sometimes practiced alongside

2768-441: A growing number of fraudulent practitioners who are only interested in making money, especially in urban areas. Some healers learn the trade through personal experience while being treated as a patient who decide to become healers upon recovery. Others become traditional practitioners through a "spiritual calling" and, therefore, their diagnoses and treatments are decided through belief in supernatural intervention. Another route

2941-539: A higher risk for HIV exposure for women in rural areas. Sub-Saharan countries have found ways to unite modern medicine with traditional medicine due to the urgency of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. In South Africa, the Kundalia Foundation has provided funding to train traditional healers on HIV/AIDS. The training included prevention, safe sex, and knowledge about the virus. There has been more interest expressed recently in

3114-409: A local traditional plant called unwele or kankerbos ( Sutherlandia frutescens ) claiming it assists in the treatment of HIV/AIDS , cancer and tuberculosis . A review of preclinical data on Sutherlandia frutescens show no toxity and justify controlled clinical studies. However, when used in conjunction with antiretroviral treatments, the herbal treatments hypoxis and sutherlandia "may put

3287-435: A manner to cause affliction. For example, a crab could be invoked as a mediator between the human world and the world of spirits because of its ability to move between the world of the land and the sea. Helping and harming spirits are believed to use the human body as a battleground for their own conflicts. By using ngoma, the sangoma believes they can create harmony between the spirits, which is thought to bring an alleviation of

3460-471: A medicinal plant is Pygeum ( Prunus africana ), which has been used as a treatment for mild benign prostatic hyperplasia in Europe since the 1970s. Although used extensively in Africa, there is insufficient evidence for its effectiveness in treating fever, inflammation, kidney disease, malaria, stomach aches and other conditions. In traditional African practice, the bark is made into tea, whereas elsewhere in

3633-427: A patient will visit the sangoma, and the sangoma must determine what the affliction is or the reason the patient has come to them for help. Before the throwing of the bones, the healer should first ask for the name and surname of the patient; the healer then calls the ancestors by names, starting with their initiators' names, then their own, followed by the patient's ancestor's names. The patient or diviner throws bones on

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3806-472: A person on special days such as death day of person, event anniversaries, festivals, auspicious days in Kartika, Shravana or Bhadrapada months of Hindu calendar . These memorials are washed with milk and water on these days. They are smeared with sindoor or kumkuma and flowers are scattered over it. The earthen lamp is lighted near it with sesame oil. Sometimes a flag is erected over it. Tuluvas practice

3979-551: A personal involvement in the healing process; protection of the therapeutic knowledge by keeping it a secret; and being rewarded for their services. In a manner similar to orthodox medicinal practice , the practitioners of traditional medicine specialize in particular areas of their profession. Some, such as the inyangas of Eswatini are experts in herbalism, whilst others, such as the South African sangomas , are experts in spiritual healing as diviners , and others specialize in

4152-474: A review by UNAIDS in September 2000, regarding collaboration with traditional healers in HIV/AIDS prevention and care, found that modern and traditional belief systems are not incompatible, but complementary. Medical doctors have reported cases of patients with serious gastrointestinal problems through the use of muti, especially in enema form, and have coined the phrase "ritual enema induced colitis" to describe

4325-454: A risk with HIV. Cultural expectations play an important role in treatment as a 1985 study amongst the Mende people of Sierra Leone showed that treatment decisions were made "largely on traditional notions of the efficacy of a medicine of a particular color, consistency, taste, size and reputed success in treating analogous illnesses". This led to the inappropriate use of many modern medicines by

4498-420: A sacred healing hut or indumba , where they believe their ancestors reside. Where no physical 'indumba' is available, a makeshift miniature sacred place called imsamo can be used. Sangomas believe they are able to access advice and guidance from their ancestors for their patients through spirit possession by an ancestor, or mediumship , divination bones , or by dream interpretation . In possession states,

4671-598: A sangoma is not conscious of what is happening, and will require witnesses to repeat what had been said during the trance) where the ancestors will be channeled (which is signified in Zulu traditions by episodes of convulsive fits) followed by the singing of ancestral songs. These songs are echoed back to the ancestor via the audience in a process of call and response . The possessed sangoma will then change into their traditional ancestral clothing and dance vigorously while others drum and sing in celebration. The Zulu word with prefix

4844-861: A small area such as the Faraday Street market in Johannesburg , South Africa. However, approximately 60%-80% of the people in Africa rely on traditional remedies to treat themselves for various diseases. A 2018 systematic review estimated that close to 60% of the general population in sub-Saharan Africa regularly use traditional and complementary medicine products for themselves and to treat their animals for various diseases. Ebola survivors in Sierra Leone have recently been reported to use traditional medicine alone or together with conventional medicine. There are many plants in Africa that can be used for medicinal purposes and more than 4000 are used for this purpose in

5017-519: A small proportion of ethnoveterinary medicine plants in South Africa had been researched for biological activity. A literature survey conducted in 2013 identified several compounds (mostly glucosides , sterols and sterolins ) contained in the Hypoxis species, (known locally as inkomfe or African potato ) that had been isolated and tested with "promising prospects reported in some studies". South African sangomas have been long and vocal advocates of

5190-559: A study conducted from 2011 to 2016, a traditional medicine from the tropical Olon tree, and another species of genus Zanthoxylum , was found to have synergistic compounds that kill both mosquitoes and their plasmodium parasites. A 2000 study of thirty-three species of plants, found in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, that are considered weeds, alien invaders or problem plants were investigated for their uses in traditional medicine. The plants included: Some healers may employ

5363-478: A treatment depends on its efficacy. They do not request payment until after the treatment is given. This is another reason many prefer traditional healers to western doctors who require payment before the patient has assessed the effectiveness of the treatment. The payment methods have changed over time, with many practitioners now asking for monetary payment, especially in urban settings, rather than their receiving good in exchange, as happened formerly. There are also

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5536-531: A year by the royal family, during the Burmese New Year ( Thingyan ), at the beginning and at the end of Vassa . The images were stored in the treasury and worshiped at the Zetawunzaung ( ဇေတဝန်ဆောင် , "Hall of Ancestors"), along with a book of odes. Some scholars attribute the disappearance of ancestor worship to the influence of Buddhist doctrines of anicca and anatta , impermanence and rejection of

5709-663: Is Sub-Saharan Africa . Though, neighbouring medical traditions have influenced traditional African medicine. Modern science has considered methods of traditional knowledge as primitive and under colonial rule some traditional medical practices were outlawed. During this time, attempts were also made to control the sale of herbal medicines. For example, after Mozambique gained independence in 1975, attempts to control traditional medicine went as far as sending diviner-healers to re-education camps. As colonialism and Christianity spread through Africa, colonialists built general hospitals and Christian missionaries built private ones, with

5882-411: Is isangoma (pl. izangoma ), alternatively it is also spelled as umngoma (pl. abangoma ), sa ngoma means 'do ngoma and i sa ngoma means "those who do ngoma ", so sangoma or isangoma refers specifically to the practitioner of the ngoma practice. The term sangoma is often used colloquially in South Africa for equivalent professions in other Bantu cultures in Southern Africa . Forms of

6055-494: Is a Zulu term that is colloquially used to describe all types of Southern African traditional healers, there are differences between practices: an inyanga is concerned mainly with medicines made from plants and animals, while a sangoma relies primarily on divination for healing purposes and might also be considered a type of fortune teller . A trainee sangoma (or ithwasane ) starts their ukuthwasa or ubungoma (in Xhosa) journey which

6228-416: Is a lack of the detailed documentation of the traditional knowledge , which is generally transferred orally. A literature survey in 2014, indicated that several African medicinal plants contain bioactive anti-trypanosomal compounds that could be used for the treatment of African trypanosomiasis ("Sleeping sickness") but no clinical studies had been conducted on them. A 2008 literature survey found that only

6401-517: Is a time when many Cambodians pay their respects to deceased relatives of up to seven generations. Monks chant the suttas in Pali language overnight (continuously, without sleeping) in prelude to the gates of hell opening, an event that is presumed to occur once a year, and is linked to the cosmology of King Yama originating in the Pali Canon . During this period, the gates of hell are opened and ghosts of

6574-540: Is all it means. Foreign spirits are not your ancestors. My forefathers, for instance, were warriors and they killed some people. When these people were killed, they become my family's foreign spirits. There must be a working relationship with your foreign spirit and your ancestors. They have something, an injustice, a murder that must be worked out, must be healed. During training, as the ancestors come out, you have to finish up with your own ancestors first. That relationship sorts itself out, then you are ready to work with

6747-560: Is also common practice among veterans to memorialize fallen service members on the dates of their death. This practice is also common in other countries when remembering Americans who died in battles to liberate their towns in the World Wars . One example of this is on 16 August (1944) Colonel Griffith , died of wounds from enemy action sustained in Lèves , the same day he is credited with saving Chartres Cathedral from destruction. In Judaism, when

6920-540: Is associated with the "calling" to become a sangoma, though this event also involves those with schizophrenia . A similar term, amafufunyana refers to claims of demonic possession due to members of the Xhosa people exhibiting aberrant behaviour and psychological concerns. After study, it was discovered that this term is directed toward people with varying types of schizophrenia . In modern times, colonialism , urbanisation , apartheid and transculturation have blurred

7093-484: Is believed that the soul comes in the form of a bird to taste it. They are also obliged to offer śrāddha , a small feast of specific preparations, to eligible Brahmins . Only after these rituals are the family members allowed to eat. It is believed that this reminds the ancestors's spirits that they are not forgotten and are loved, so it brings them peace. On śrāddha days, people pray that the souls of ancestors be appeased, forget any animosity and find peace. Each year, on

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7266-463: Is believed to be "called" to heal through an initiation illness; symptoms involve psychosis , headaches , intractable stomach pain, shoulder, neck complaints, short breath, swollen feet and waist issues or illness that cannot be cured by conventional methods. These problems together must be seen by a sangoma as thwasa or the calling of the ancestors, though this event also involves those with schizophrenia . Sangomas believe that failure to respond to

7439-412: Is believed to have come to southern Africa during the western Bantu migration that began around 2000 BCE and was further influenced by the eastern Bantu migration that occurred until 500 CE. The practice has evolved along with the social problems of its users. In pre-colonial form ngoma songs dealt mainly with issues of hunting. Over time the system adapted to include the introduction of guns, and later

7612-628: Is common for volunteers to place small American flags at each grave. Memorial Day is traditionally observed on the last Monday in May, allotting for a 3-day weekend in which many memorial services and parades take place not only across the country, but in 26 American cemeteries on foreign soil (in France, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the Philippines, Panama, Italy, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, and Tunisia). It

7785-521: Is derived from the Zulu / Xhosa / Northern Ndebele umuthi , meaning 'tree'. African traditional medicine makes extensive use of botanical products but the medicine prescribed by an inyanga may also include other formulations which are zoological or mineral in composition. Traditional medicine uses approximately 3,000 out of 30,000 species of higher plants of southern Africa. Over 300 species of plants have been identified as having psychoactive healing effects on

7958-478: Is generous enough to give this power to the medicine men, they are expected to practice healing freely. The !Kung medicine men effect a treatment by performing a tribal dance . Many traditional medicinal practitioners are people without formal education, who have rather received knowledge of medicinal plants and their effects on the human body from their forebears and by observation. Traditional practitioners and their practices vary but common features among them are

8131-515: Is largely confined to some ethnic minority communities, but mainstream remnants of it still exist, such as worship of Bo Bo Gyi (literally "great grandfather"), as well as of other guardian spirits such as nats , all of which may be vestiges of historic ancestor worship. Ancestor worship was present in the royal court in pre-colonial Burma. During the Konbaung dynasty , solid gold images of deceased kings and their consorts were worshipped three times

8304-561: Is marked by the recounting of ghost stories , bonfires , wearing costumes , carving jack-o'-lanterns , and " trick-or-treating " (going door to door and begging for candy). In Cornwall and Wales , the autumn ancestor festivals occur around November 1. In Cornwall the festival is known as Kalan Gwav , and in Wales as Calan Gaeaf . Modern-day Halloween is derived from these festivals. During Samhain , November 1 in Ireland and Scotland,

8477-469: Is no such a thing as doubling a person’s money. They only help to connect with the ancestors, who gives them directions on how to heal and assist people in need. The ancestors get angry when people play with their name and end up taking away the powers and calling given to a person. The [real] sangomas are not rich because they are controlled by the ancestors. The bogus sangomas cause people to not believe [in the] ancestors, because they lie about their work with

8650-403: Is normally not as accessible in rural areas because it is much more costly. Older rural women particularly tend to utilize traditional healers in their communities. Younger women and the urbanized have been found to be renouncing the use of traditional healers. A 2001 study of rural Ethiopian women where HIV was present found that they rejected the presence of HIV in rural villages and claimed it

8823-549: Is often a mix of medicinal plants and various animal body fats or skin. Sangomas perform a holistic and symbolic form of healing by drawing on the embedded beliefs of the Bantu peoples in South Africa , who believe that ancestors in the afterlife guide and protect the living. Sangomas are called to heal, and through them, it is believed that ancestors from the spirit world can give instruction and advice to heal illness, social disharmony and spiritual difficulties. Traditional healers work in

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8996-402: Is reached through spiritual means and a treatment is prescribed, usually consisting of a herbal remedy that is considered to have not only healing abilities but also symbolic and spiritual significance. Traditional African medicine, with its belief that illness is not derived from chance occurrences, but through spiritual or social imbalance, differs greatly from modern scientific medicine , which

9169-479: Is technically and analytically based. In the 21st century, modern pharmaceuticals and medical procedures remain inaccessible to large numbers of African people due to their relatively high cost and concentration of health facilities in urban centres. Traditional medicine was the dominant medical system for millions of people in Africa prior the arrival of the Europeans , who introduced evidence-based medicine , which

9342-574: Is the complete lack of clinical trials to test any traditional African medicine before practicing with it on the public. Modern medicine in the United States is subject to The Nuremberg Code and the related Declaration of Helsinki which are the basis for the Code of Federal Regulations issued by the United States Department of Health and Human Services , to oblige humane behavior in experimenting on

9515-482: Is to cultivate kinship values, such as filial piety , family loyalty, and continuity of the family lineage . Ancestor veneration occurs in societies with every degree of social, political, and technological complexity, and it remains an important component of various religious practices in modern times. Ancestor reverence is not the same as the worship of a deity or deities. In some Afro-diasporic cultures, ancestors are seen as being able to intercede on behalf of

9688-423: Is to receive the knowledge and skills passed down informally from a close family member such as a father or uncle, or even a mother or aunt in the case of midwives. Apprenticeship to an established practitioner, who formally teaches the trade over a long period of time and is paid for their tutoring, is another route to becoming a healer. In Africa, traditional healers and remedies made from indigenous plants play

9861-422: Is unknown, especially interactions between traditional treatments and antiretroviral drugs for HIV/AIDS. Herbal treatments are frequently used in Africa as a primary treatment for HIV/AIDS and for HIV-related issues. Collaboration with traditional healers has been recommended to determine what herbal treatments are used for HIV and to educate people supplying alternative treatments against unsafe practices. Given

10034-700: The Anglican Church in England ), November 1 ( All Saints' Day ), became known and is still known as the day to specifically venerate those who have died, and who have been deemed official saints by the Church. November 2, ( All Souls Day ), or "The Day of the Dead", is the day when all of the faithful dead are remembered. On that day, families go to cemeteries to light candles for their dead relatives, leave them flowers, and often to picnic. They also celebrate Suffrage Masses to shorten

10207-458: The Catholic Church , one's local parish church often offers prayers for the dead on their death anniversary or All Souls' Day. In the United States, Memorial Day is a Federal holiday for remembering the deceased men and women who served in the nation's military, particularly those who died in war or during active service. In the 147 National Cemeteries , like Arlington and Gettysburg , it

10380-521: The Celtic nations and the diaspora . Lights in the window to guide the dead home are left burning all night. On the Isle of Man the festival is known as "old Sauin" or Hop-tu-Naa . In the United States and Canada, flowers, wreaths, grave decorations and sometimes candles, food, small pebbles, or items the dead valued in life are put on graves year-round as a way to honor the dead. These traditions originate in

10553-641: The Cordillerans ; tonong among the Maguindanao and Maranao ; umboh among the Sama-Bajau ; ninunò among Tagalogs ; and nono among Bicolanos . Ancestor spirits are usually represented by carved figures called taotao . These were carved by the community upon a person's death. Every household had a taotao stored in a shelf in the corner of the house. The predominantly Roman Catholic Filipino people still hold ancestors in particular esteem—though without

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10726-627: The Nguni , Sotho , and Tsonga societies of Southern Africa: the diviner ( sangoma ) and the herbalist ( inyanga ). These healers are effectively South African shamans who are highly revered and respected in a society where illness is thought to be caused by witchcraft, pollution (contact with impure objects or occurrences) or through neglect of the ancestors. It is estimated that there are as many as 200,000 traditional healers in South Africa compared to 25,000 doctors trained in bio-medical practice. Traditional healers are consulted by approximately 60% of

10899-624: The Traditional Health Practitioners Act of 2004 (Act. 35 of 2004) . However, the act was ruled unconstitutional after Doctors for Life International challenged it at the Constitutional Court , citing the insufficient public participation at provincial level in the drafting of the act. The South African Law Reform Commission received a submission from the Traditional Healers Organisation requesting

11072-637: The Traditional Health Practitioners Act of 2007 (Act. 22 of 2007) as diviners alongside herbalists, traditional birth attendants, and traditional surgeons. The act calls for the establishment of a national council of traditional health practitioners to regulate and register a.o. sangomas in the country. However, it was only in December 2011 that the National Department of Health took action and opened nominations for seats on an interim council. In October 2012, Health Department spokesperson Joe Maila advised that

11245-459: The anniversary of a family member's death is called charye (차례). It is still practised today. The majority of Catholics, Buddhists and nonbelievers practise ancestral rites, although Protestants do not. The Catholic ban on ancestral rituals was lifted in 1939, when the Catholic Church formally recognised ancestral rites as a civil practice. Ancestral rites are typically divided into three categories: Ancestor worship in modern-day Myanmar

11418-458: The ngoma ritual are practiced throughout southern and south-eastern Africa in countries such as South Africa , Eswatini , Zimbabwe , Mozambique , Lesotho , Kenya , and Botswana . In more northern areas the practices are generally more diverse and less organised than the southern practices. Among the Kongo , the practice is called loka or more negatively doga , a term meaning witchcraft. Ngoma

11591-408: The pseudoscientific and "magical". Treatments may include fasting , dieting, herbal therapies, bathing, massage , and surgical procedures. Examples of the pseudoscientific treatments include: Consensus between traders of the components of the medication used by practitioners of traditional African medicine regarding what should be used to treat different illnesses varies considerably, even within

11764-428: The razana (ancestors). The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the famadihana , whereby a deceased family member's remains may be exhumed to be periodically re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds before being replaced in the tomb. The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy

11937-534: The African and European cultures see themselves as doing. This is consistent with the meaning of the word veneration in English, that is great respect or reverence caused by the dignity, wisdom, or dedication of a person. Although there is no generally accepted theory concerning the origins of ancestor veneration, this social phenomenon appears in some form in all human cultures documented so far. David-Barrett and Carney claim that ancestor veneration might have served

12110-533: The All Souls' Day period. In Sri Lanka, making offerings to one's ancestors is conducted on the sixth day after death as a part of traditional Sri Lankan funeral rites. In rural northern Thailand , a religious ceremony honoring ancestral spirits known as Faun Phii ( Thai : ฟ้อนผี , lit. "spirit dance" or "ghost dance") takes place. It includes offerings for ancestors with spirit mediums sword fighting, spirit-possessed dancing, and spirit mediums cock fighting in

12283-639: The Heian Period, abandonment was a common method of disposing of the dead. Following the advent of Buddhism, rituals were sometimes performed at the gravesite after burial or cremation. In Korea , ancestor veneration is referred to by the generic term jerye ( Korean :  제례 ; Hanja :  祭 禮 ) or jesa ( 제사 ; 祭 祀 ). Notable examples of jerye include Munmyo jerye and Jongmyo jerye , which are performed periodically each year for venerated Neo-Confucian scholars and kings of ancient times, respectively. The ceremony held on

12456-636: The Mende. Veneration of the dead In European , Asian , Oceanian , African and Afro-diasporic cultures (which includes but should be distinguished from multiple cultures and Indigenous populations in the Americas who were never influenced by the African Diaspora), the goal of ancestor veneration is to ensure the ancestors' continued well-being and positive disposition towards the living, and sometimes to ask for special favours or assistance. The social or non-religious function of ancestor veneration

12629-854: The South African population, usually in conjunction with modern bio-medical services. For harmony between the living and the dead, vital for a trouble-free life, traditional healers believe that the ancestors must be shown respect through ritual and animal sacrifice. They perform summoning rituals by burning plants like impepho ( Helichrysum petiolare ), dancing, chanting, channeling or playing drums . Traditional healers will often give their patients muthi —medications made from plant, animal and minerals—imbued with spiritual significance. These muthi often have powerful symbolism; for example, lion fat might be prepared for children to promote courage. There are medicines for everything from physical and mental illness, social disharmony and spiritual difficulties to potions for protection, love and luck. Although sangoma

12802-681: The Southern African region, which is a much greater doctor-to-patient ratio than is found in North America. In many parts of Africa there are few practitioners trained in modern medicine and traditional healers are a large and influential group in primary health care and an integral part of the African culture. Without them, many people would go untreated. Medications and treatments that Western pharmaceutical companies manufacture are far too costly and not available widely enough for most Africans. Many rural African communities are not able to afford

12975-553: The Traditional Healers Organisation, see nothing wrong with white sangomas. Kubekeli and Maseko maintain the position that traditional healing knows no colour. Several white sangomas, interviewed by The Big Issue in 2010, claimed that they have been welcomed by the black community in South Africa, aside from isolated experiences of hostility. On the other hand, there have also been reports that white sangomas have been less readily accepted by black sangomas. A number of South African traditions (e.g. Swazi and Tsonga/Shangaan ) involve

13148-781: The Traditional Healers Organization (THO), says: Traditional African medicine Traditional African medicine is a range of traditional medicine disciplines involving indigenous herbalism and African spirituality , typically including diviners , midwives, and herbalists . Practitioners of traditional African medicine claim, largely without evidence, to be able to cure a variety of diverse conditions including cancer, psychiatric disorders, high blood pressure, cholera , most venereal diseases, epilepsy , asthma , eczema , fever, anxiety, depression, benign prostatic hyperplasia , urinary tract infections, gout, and healing of wounds and burns and Ebola . Diagnosis

13321-557: The ability to bring back lost lovers, potions to enlarge penises and spells that will make people rich or provide them with luck. In the Cape province of South Africa, scammers may adopt Arabic-sounding names in order to attract the local Cape Coloured population, who are in part Muslim . Significant amounts of money have been lost in these scams and women seeking abortions through these unregulated services have suffered damage to their reproductive organs, impacting their ability to conceive in

13494-681: The ability to detect witchcraft is the Ndau Spirit. The Ndau spirit possesses the descendants of the Gaza soldiers who had slain the Ndau and taken their wives. Once the Ndau spirit has been converted from hostile to benevolent forces, the spirits bestow the powers of divination and healing on the n'angna. Ngoma has been adapted by many to include both Christian and Muslim beliefs. Sangomas are legally recognised in South Africa as "traditional health practitioners", under

13667-456: The ability to diagnose and treat illnesses are a gift from God. Rather than looking for the medical or physical reasons behind an illness (or a spell of bad luck), traditional healers attempt to determine the root cause underlying it, which is believed to stem from a lack of balance between the patient and their social environment or the spiritual world. In other words, supernatural causes, not natural causes, are attributed to illnesses. According to

13840-491: The ability to perform domestic duties and the state of being disease free. Furthermore, the study found that they attributed poor health to supernatural, evil forces, that illness is seen as a form of punishment from spirits. In another study, which explored the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Ghana, women identified HIV/AIDS with reprobate behaviour, such as "prostitution, promiscuity, and extramarital relationships", or traveling to areas outside

14013-428: The ancestors are even aware of what their descendants do for them, but that the expression of filial piety is what is important. Most cultures who practice ancestor veneration do not call it "ancestor worship". In English, the word worship usually but not always refers to the reverent love and devotion accorded a deity (god) or God . However, in other cultures, this act of worship does not confer any belief that

14186-405: The ancestors of the patient require, and how to resolve the disharmony. In the same way, sangomas will interpret metaphors present in dreams, either their own those of their patients. When the diviner comes to an acceptable understanding of the problem and the patient agrees, the diviner then throws the bones again to ask the ancestors if they could help the patient. Depending on the feedback from

14359-402: The ancestors, purification through steaming, washing in the blood of sacrificed animals, and the use of muthi , medicines with spiritual significance. The trainee may not see their families during training and must abstain from sexual contact and often live under harsh and strict conditions. This is part of the cleansing process to prepare the healer for a life's work of dedication to healing and

14532-522: The ancestors. Dr Motlalepula Matsabisa, director of the Medical Research Council's Indigenous Knowledge Unit, says there appears to be many fake traditional healers around, however because of a lack of regulation, they go unchecked and explains that if anyone can bring about good luck and predict lotto numbers, they would not be poor themselves. However, he also warns that people should not be gullible. Phephsile Maseko, national coordinator of

14705-402: The belief that a foreign or alien spirit can call one to become a traditional healer, which they call a bandzawo , especially if there is a significant extreme relationship between one of the healer's biological ancestors and the foreign spirit that occurred in the past. Dr Nhlavana Maseko, founder of the Traditional Healers Organisation, explains: Foreign spirits are not of your family. That

14878-450: The bones, they will instruct the patient on a course of medicine, which may include the use of ngoma, referral to a herbalist if the sangoma does not have the knowledge themselves, or the recommendation of a Western-style medicine regimen. The spiritually curative medicines prescribed by a traditional healer are called muthi . They may be employed in healing as warranted in the opinion of the herbal specialist or inyanga . The term "muthi"

15051-401: The calling will result in further illness until the person concedes and goes to be trained. The word thwasa means 'the light of the new moon' or is derived from ku mu thwasisa meaning 'to be led to the light'. A trainee sangoma (or ithwasane ) trains formally under another sangoma for a period of anywhere between a number of months and many years. The training involves learning humility to

15224-432: The ceremonies. In China , ancestor veneration (敬祖, pinyin : jìngzǔ ) and ancestor worship (拜祖, pinyin : bàizǔ ) seek to honour and recollect the actions of the deceased; they represent the ultimate homage to the dead. The importance of paying respect to parents (and elders) lies with the fact that all physical bodily aspects of one's being were created by one's parents, who continued to tend to one's well-being until one

15397-401: The community. These women endure arduous conditions and a traditional healer plays an instrumental role in their daily lives. The traditional healer provides health care to the rural communities and represents him/herself as an honorable cultural leader and educator. An advantage of the traditional healer in rural areas is that they are conveniently located within the community. Modern medicine

15570-410: The completion of training. The trainee is tested by the local elder sangomas to determine whether they have the skills and insight necessary to heal. The climactic initiation test is to ensure the trainee has the ability to "see" things hidden from view. This is proved when other sangomas hide sacred objects for the trainee to find in front of the community. The trainee must call upon their ancestors, find

15743-444: The continent's national health care systems has increased and the use of traditional medicinal plants is being encouraged in some countries. The medical diagnoses and chosen methods of treatment in traditional African medicine rely heavily on spiritual aspects, often based on the belief that psycho-spiritual aspects should be addressed before the medical aspects. There is the belief among the practitioners of traditional healing that

15916-418: The continent. Furthermore, the large Indian population in places such as Fiji and Guyana has resulted in these practices spreading beyond their Asian homeland. The Ahom religion is based on ancestor-worship. The Ahoms believe that a person after his death remains as ‘Dam’(ancestor) only for a few days and soon he becomes ‘Phi’ (God). They also believe that the soul of a person which is immortal unites with

16089-428: The dead and the loving duty toward one's ancestors ( pietas ) were fundamental aspects of ancient Roman culture. A clear manifestation of this is Roman Republican era portrait busts which may have originated in the practice of making death masks of ancestors which were displayed in the home and during funerary rites and on the anniversary of the ancestor’s death. In Catholic countries in Europe (continued later with

16262-442: The dead ( preta ) are presumed to be especially active. In order to combat this, food-offerings are made to benefit them, some of these ghosts having the opportunity to end their period of purgation, whereas others are imagined to leave hell temporarily, to then return to endure more suffering; without much explanation, relatives who are not in hell (who are in heaven or otherwise reincarnated) are also generally imagined to benefit from

16435-408: The dead are thought to return to the world of the living, and offerings of food and light are left for them. On the festival day, ancient people would extinguish the hearth fires in their homes, participate in a community bonfire festival, and then carry a flame home from the communal fire and use it to light their home fires anew. This custom has continued to some extent into modern times, in both

16608-403: The dead can manifest as apparitions or ghosts ( mantiw ) and cause harm to living people. Paganito can be used to appease or banish them. Ancestor spirits also figured prominently during illness or death, as they were believed to be the ones who call the soul to the underworld, guide the soul (a psychopomp ), or meet the soul upon arrival. Ancestor spirits are also known as kalading among

16781-545: The dead finds its greatest expression in the Philippines is the Hallowmas season between 31 October and 2 November, variously called Undás (based on the word for "[the] first", the Spanish andas or possibly honra ), Todos los Santos (literally " All Saints "), and sometimes Áraw ng mga Patáy (lit. "Day of the Dead"), which refers to the following solemnity of All Souls' Day . Filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting

16954-726: The dead, is celebrated by the Ahom people on 31 January every year in memory of the departed. It is the manifestation of the concept of ancestor worship that the Ahoms share with other peoples originating from the Tai-Shan stock. It is a festival to show respect to the departed ancestors and remember their contribution to society. On the day of Me-Dam Me Phi worship is offered only to Chaufi and Dam Chaufi because they are regarded as gods of heaven. At Rakhigarhi , an Indus Valley civilization (IVC) site in Haryana ,

17127-516: The dead, which one academic referred to as "ghost riders". A ghost who came to possess a person would be honored with a dedicated grave monument or sanctuary, where locals would make offerings and swear oaths. Those who swore false oaths may be punished by the ghost in residence. This ghost was considered both powerful and something for others to fear. These ghosts are not necessarily saints (in fact, those who hold these beliefs believe very holy persons never possess others in this way, as they are always in

17300-605: The deceased in the Spring , Autumn , and Ghost Festivals . Due to the hardships of the late 19th- and 20th-century China, when meat and poultry were difficult to come by, sumptuous feasts are still offered in some Asian countries as a practice to the spirits or ancestors. However, in the orthodox Taoist and Buddhist rituals, only vegetarian food would suffice. For those with deceased in the afterlife or hell , elaborate or even creative offerings, such as servants , refrigerators , houses , car , paper money and shoes are provided so that

17473-444: The deceased will be able to have these items after they have died. Often, paper versions of these objects are burned for the same purpose. Originally, real-life objects were buried with the dead. In time these goods were replaced by full size clay models which in turn were replaced by scale models, and in time today's paper offerings (including paper servants). Ancestors are widely revered, honoured, and venerated in India. The spirit of

17646-406: The demands of the local population on the use of traditional African medicine, it has been proposed that South African medical schools should inform medical students about traditional, supplementary and alternative medicine and the possible conflicts and interactions with modern medicine. Use of traditional African medicines as antivirals instead of using specific antiretroviral drugs, is especially

17819-559: The departed ancestors have become some kind of deity. Rather, the act is a way to express filial duty, devotion and respect and look after ancestors in their afterlives as well as seek their guidance for their living descendants. In this regard, many cultures and religions have similar practices. Some may visit the graves of their parents or other ancestors, leave flowers and pray to them in order to honor and remember them, while also asking their ancestors to continue to look after them. However, this would not be considered as worshipping them since

17992-468: The department aimed to have the council up and running by the end of 2012. The Interim Traditional Health Practitioners Council was eventually inaugurated on 12 February 2013. Several sections of the act, dealing with the establishment and governance of the national council and the registration of practitioners, came into effect on 1 May 2014. Previously, the South African Parliament had passed

18165-514: The distinction between the two and traditional healers tend to practice both arts. Traditional healers can alternate between these roles by diagnosing common illnesses, selling and dispensing remedies for medical complaints, and divining cause and providing solutions to spiritually or socially centred complaints. Each culture has their own terminology for their traditional healers. Xhosa traditional healers are known as amaxhwele (herbalists) or amagqirha (diviners). Ngaka and selaoli are

18338-432: The diverse cultural backgrounds of the current populations of both countries. In the United States, many people honor deceased loved ones who were in the military on Memorial Day . Days with religious and spiritual significance like Easter , Christmas , Candlemas , and All Souls' Day , Day of the Dead , or Samhain are also times when relatives and friends of the deceased may gather at the graves of their loved ones. In

18511-399: The early 1980s in southwestern Uganda, it was reported that many locals infected with the disease ("Slim") after showing symptoms of diarrhoea and weight-loss would consult traditional healers due to their belief in the connection between the disease and witchcraft. During the HIV/AIDS epidemic traditional healers' methods were criticised by practitioners of modern medicine, and in particular

18684-470: The early hours of the morning the trainee is required to sweep the yard, wash their clothing and bath in the river, only returning home when they are dry. Sangoma can also literally mean 'person of the drum' or 'the drumming one' and drumming is an important part of summoning the ancestors. During times of celebration (e.g. at an initiation) the possessed sangoma is called to dance and celebrate their ancestors. The sangoma will fall into trance (when in trance

18857-444: The effects of some of the medicinal plants of Africa. "The pharmaceutical industry has come to consider traditional medicine as a source for identification of bio-active agents that can be used in the preparation of medicine." Pharmaceutical industries are looking into the medicinal effects of the most commonly and widely used plants to use in drugs. In comparing the techniques of African healers and Western techniques, T. Adeoze Lambo,

19030-512: The efficacy of their herbal remedies. Botanists and pharmaceutical scientists continue to study the ingredients of traditional medicines in use by sangomas. Well-known contributions to world medicine from South African herbal remedies include aloe , buchu and devil's claw . Public health specialists are now enlisting sangomas in the fight, not only against the spread of HIV / AIDS , but also diarrhoea and pneumonia , which are major causes of death in rural areas, especially in children. In

19203-403: The end of the training, to signify the start of initiation, a female goat is slaughtered during the early hours of the morning and the next day chickens will be sacrificed next to a river before a second large animal is slaughtered. All these sacrifices are to call to the ancestors and appease them. The local community, friends and family are all invited to the initiation to witness and celebrate

19376-406: The expression of CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein . This results in the inhibition of drug metabolism and transport. Peltzer et al. also found that an important issue with herbal medicines used in traditional medicine is that when a patient decides to see a doctor in addition to a traditional healer, they do not always mention that he or she is taking an herbal medicine. Herbal medicines can interact with

19549-502: The family Asteraceae (such as Calendula) followed by Fabaceae (such as the butterfly pea plant), and Euphorbiaceae (such as Phyllanthus Muellerianus ). Muthi is prepared, and depending on the affliction, a number of purification practices can be administered. Abstinence and f asting are important things to do in preparing muthi and healing. Purification practices include bathing, vomiting, steaming, nasal ingestion, enemas , and cuttings: An experienced inyanga/sangoma will generally seek

19722-608: The family dead, cleaning and repairing their tombs. Common offerings are prayers, flowers, candles, and even food, while many also spend the remainder of the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the graveyard, playing games and music or singing. Chinese Filipinos , meanwhile, have the most apparent and distinct customs related to ancestor veneration, carried over from traditional Chinese religion and most often melded with their current Catholic faith. Many still burn incense and kim at family tombs and before photos at home, while they incorporate Chinese practises into Masses held during

19895-411: The few who could gather them in most societies. Midwives also make extensive use of indigenous plants to aid childbirth. African healers commonly "describe and explain illness in terms of social interaction and act on the belief that religion permeates every aspect of human existence." Traditional healers, like any other profession, are rewarded for their services. In African societies, the payment for

20068-419: The floor, which may include animal vertebrae, dominoes, dice, coins, shells and stones, each with a specific significance to human life. For example, a hyena bone signifies a thief and will provide information about stolen objects. The sangoma or patient may physically throw the bones, but the ancestors control how they land. The sangoma then interprets this metaphor in relation to the patient's afflictions, what

20241-418: The foreign spirits. It happens in a natural way. The ancestors do the work through you. Maybe the foreign spirit want to be the important or senior ancestor; when the ancestor of your clan comes, well, they may have to fight it out. You might feel some aches during this time. It is friction among them that is working itself out. The formal health sector has shown continued interest in the role of sangomas and

20414-463: The form of poe divination , or to confirm whether the ancestors consent on the messages requested by the divinator. In traditional Chinese culture, sacrifices are sometimes made to altars as food for the deceased. This falls under the modes of communication with the Chinese spiritual world concepts . Some of the veneration includes visiting the deceased at their graves, and making or buying offerings for

20587-598: The form of propitiatory sacrifice, in order to put them to rest so that they will no longer trouble the living, especially children." According to Onwuanibe, Africans hold a religious world view which includes divine or spiritual intervention in medical practice. For example, the !Kung people of the Kalahari Desert believe that the great God Hishe created all things and, therefore, controls all sickness and death. Hishe presents himself to these medicine men in dreams and hallucinations, giving them curative power and this god

20760-400: The form of song and dance, a process that is nurtured by the analysis of dreams, anxieties, and with prayer. The story develops into a song that becomes a large part of the graduation-type ceremony that marks the end of the ukuthwasa training. At times in the training, and for the graduation, a ritual sacrifice of an animal is required to be performed (usually chickens and a goat or cow). At

20933-414: The formality common to their neighbours—despite having been Christianised since coming into contact with Spanish missionaries in 1521. In the present day, ancestor veneration is expressed in having photographs of the dead by the home altar, a common fixture in many Filipino Christian homes. Candles are often kept burning before the photographs, which are sometimes decorated with garlands of fresh sampaguita ,

21106-441: The future. Believing that fake healers harm the reputation of traditional healers, trained sangomas are looking to curb their negative impact through regulation, legal action and awareness. Many sangomas do not advertise through flyers or posters, tending to rely on word of mouth and the belief that their ancestors will send them the right clients. Mary Bungeni, a sangoma herself, explains: Sangomas don’t do miracles and there

21279-548: The guidance of an ancestral spirit before embarking to find and collect muthi. Healers pay attention to dreams and prayers for ancestral advice on auspicious time to collect plants, which particular plants to collect and where these plants are located. Many traditional healers won't have to collect plants for each patient as they have herbs stored in their huts. The healer supplements the perceived advice from an ancestral spirit with their own knowledge, training and experience. Both men and women can become traditional healers. A sangoma

21452-432: The hidden objects, which include the skin of the sacrificed goat and the ancestors' clothes, and return them back to the sangomas that hid them, thus proving they have the ability to 'see' beyond the physical world. The practise is done at night and involves removing the traditional clothing worn throughout the day to be hidden again for the trainee to find. The graduation ceremony takes three days from Friday to Sunday. During

21625-592: The high price of pharmaceuticals and can not readily obtain them even if they were affordable; therefore, healers are their only means of medical help. Because this form of medicine is "the most affordable and accessible system of health care for the majority of the African rural population," the African Union declared 2001 to 2010 to be the Decade for African Traditional Medicine with the goal of making "safe, efficacious, quality, and affordable traditional medicines available to

21798-516: The hopes of making headway against widespread diseases. However, little was done to investigate the legitimacy of the traditional medical practices, despite the obvious role that the traditional healers played in the basic health needs of their communities; the colonial authorities along with doctors and health practitioners continued to shun their contributions. It was also believed that during times of conflict people were more likely to resort to supernatural explanations and would seek treatment involving

21971-464: The illness is not easily identified, otherwise, the sickness may be quickly diagnosed and a remedy prescribed. Sometimes the practitioner will advise the patient to consult a diviner who can give a diagnosis and recommend a treatment. It is believed that contact with the spirit world through divination often requires not only medication, but sacrifices . Traditional practitioners use a wide variety of treatments ranging from standard medical treatments to

22144-482: The intense experiences of training tend to earn a deeply entrenched place in the sangoma's memory. The training period or ukuthwasa is a deeply personal and spiritual one, marked by various rituals, teachings, and preparations. The process can vary in length, with some sources suggesting a minimum duration of nine months to fully explore and develop the abilities and knowledge of an initiate. The Xhosa term "ukuthwasa" translates to "come out" or "be reborn," symbolising

22317-893: The investigation of the constitutionality of the Witchcraft Suppression Act of 1957 and the Mpumalanga Witchcraft Suppression Bill of 2007 , the drafting of which was suspended in 2008. On 23 March 2010 the Minister of Justice and Constitutional Development approved a South African Law Reform Commission project to review witchcraft legislation. In March 2012 the South African Law Reform Commission advised that Ms Jennifer Joni has been designated as researcher and Judge Dennis Davis has been designated as project leader for Project 135: Review of witchcraft legislation. Dr Theodore Petrus, who completed

22490-651: The later adopted religions of Christianity (as in Nigeria among the Igbo people ), and Islam (among the different Mandé peoples and the Bamum and the Bakossi people) in much of the continent. In orthodox Serer religion , the pangool is venerated by the Serer people . The Seereer people of Senegal, The Gambia and Mauritania who adhere to the tenets of A ƭat Roog (Seereer religion) believe in

22663-487: The living, often as messengers between humans and God. As spirits who were once human themselves, they are seen as being better able to understand human needs than would a divine being. In other cultures, the purpose of ancestor veneration is not to ask for favors but to do one's filial duty. Some cultures believe that their ancestors actually need to be provided for by their descendants, and their practices include offerings of food and other provisions. Others do not believe that

22836-442: The living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. Small, everyday gestures of respect include throwing the first capful of a newly opened bottle of rum into the northeast corner of the room to give the ancestors their due share. In Egypt, a form of adorcism entwined with veneration of

23009-413: The lover's skeletons of a man between 35 and 40 years old and women in early 20s were found who were likely married to each other and buried together, their grave contained pots which likely carried food and water as offering to the dead. The Paliya memorial stones are associated with ancestral worship in western India. These memorials are worshipped by people of associated community or descendants of

23182-613: The migratory camps many of these men would have sex with prostitutes, become infected with HIV and return home with it. Furthermore, since traditional medicine does not have an early detection method, infectious diseases are often spread unknowingly, allowing the 3.1 million people infected with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa to grow exponentially to 25.4 million in 2004. The patriarchal culture that defines traditional marriages in rural areas, places female sexuality under male control and decrees that women are not permitted to discuss and practice safe sex with their partners, which results in

23355-482: The modern medicine prescribed by the doctor to treat HIV and negatively impact the patient. Peltzer et al. mentions that a "IGM-1 seem to be effective in symptom improvement, but generally no significant effect on antiviral or immunity enhancement among reviewed herbs was seen" for the treatment of HIV. Since HIV is such a volatile disease, it is imperative to try to boost the patient's immunity, not just relieve symptoms. The ethical issue, as presented by modern medicine,

23528-428: The national flower. Ancestors, particularly dead parents, are still regarded as psychopomps, as a dying person is said to be brought to the afterlife ( Tagalog : sundô , "fetch") by the spirits of dead relatives. It is said that when the dying call out the names of deceased loved ones, they can see the spirits of those particular people waiting at the foot of the deathbed. Filipino Catholic and Aglipayan veneration of

23701-582: The nervous system, many of which need further cultural and scientific study In South African English and Afrikaans , the word muthi is sometimes used as a slang term for medicine in general. A variation on spelling, " muti" is a result of the historical effects of the British colonial spelling. Bapedi traditional healers use 36 plant species to manage reproductive health problems. These medicinal species are distributed among 35 genera and 20 families. The largest proportion of medicinal species collected belongs to

23874-605: The particular date (as per the Hindu calendar ) when the person had died, the family members repeat this ritual. This period falls just before the Navaratri or Durga Puja falling in the month of Ashvin . Mahalaya marks the end of the fortnight-long tarpana to the ancestors. Indian and Chinese practices of ancestor-worship are prevalent throughout Asia as a result of the large Indian and Chinese populations in countries such as Singapore , Malaysia , Indonesia , and elsewhere across

24047-588: The past decade, the role of traditional healers has become important in fighting the impact of HIV and treating people infected with the virus before they advance to a point where they require (or can obtain) anti-retroviral drugs. However, there are no traditional medicines in South Africa that have clinically been proven to be effective in the treatment of HIV/AIDS. Repeated use of the same razor blade to make incisions for muthi as well as wielding power over patients to sexually assault them, sometimes dressed up as ritual, carries HIV transmission risks. A conclusion from

24220-417: The patient and the world of the dead in order to make restitution. This is generally performed through divination (throwing the bones or ancestral channelling), purification rituals, or animal sacrifice to appease the spirits through the atonement.Throwing bones to access the advice of ancestors is an alternative practice to the relatively exhausting ritual of possession by the ancestor. In a typical session,

24393-403: The patient's suffering. The sangoma may burn incense (like impepho ) or sacrifice animals to please the ancestral spirits. Snuff is also used to communicate with the ancestors through prayer. A sangoma's goal in healing is to establish a balanced and harmless relationship between the afflicted patient and the spirits that are causing their illness or problem. The healer intercedes between

24566-454: The patient. A form of sympathetic magic is also used, in which a model is made of the victim and it is believed that actions performed on the model are transferred to the victim, in a manner similar to the familiar voodoo doll . Superstitious beliefs regarding spirits are also exploited and people are convinced that "spirits of deceased relatives trouble the living and cause illness." In these instances "medicine men prescribe remedies, often in

24739-998: The patients at risk for antiretroviral treatment failure, viral resistance, or drug toxicity" since they interact with antiretroviral treatments and prevent the expression of CYP3A4 and P-glycoprotein . There have been attempts to assess some traditional medicines through clinical trials , although none have so far reached phase III . A small proportion of ethnoveterinary medicine plants in South Africa have been researched for toxic effects. The possible adverse effects of South African traditional medicines are not well documented; there has been limited research into mutagenic properties and heavy metal contamination. Serious adverse effects, even death, can result from misidentification or misuse of healing plants. For example, various aloe plants are widely used in traditional African medicine, but some varieties, such as Aloe globuligemma , are toxic and can cause death. The potential for traditional African medicine and pharmacokinetic interactions

24912-517: The phenomenon. While many traditional healers positively contribute toward the healing process, the industry has been exploited for financial gain by charlatans who have not undergone training, sometimes called plastic shamans . Not all countries in southern Africa have effective regulatory bodies to prevent this practice. Scammers commonly advertise through flyers and posters plastered on lampposts in streets throughout South Africa, especially in densely populated urban areas. The advertisements claim

25085-527: The presence of God), but like saints, they function as intermediaries with God. In some cases these may be family shrines, which are not frequented by outsiders, but some (usually older shrines) are frequented by many. When asking for aid from one of these spirits, one may often pledge an animal sacrifice upon aid being rendered, which is also done with saints. During Pchum Ben and the Cambodian New Year people make offerings to their ancestors. Pchum Ben

25258-475: The public for the good of society. Since traditional African healers do not have to adhere to the Nuremberg code , there is a potential danger to society when healers do not practice medicine humanely. Traditional healers have also been under scrutiny during the HIV/AIDS epidemic for unsanitary medical practices. The "re-use of medical instruments and lack of hygienic habits such as hand washing" have contributed to

25431-496: The racial and class struggles of practitioners under colonial rule. In Zimbabwe, the civil war experience led to a revival of ngoma practice with a new emphasis on the spirits of the victims of war. The service allowed the sangoma to help people cope with their own violent acts as well as those they had fallen victim to. An example of this is the Tsonga who believe that one of the main alien spirits that can bestow powers of clairvoyance and

25604-567: The sangoma works themself into a trance through drumming, dancing and chanting, and allows their ego to step aside for an ancestor to take possession of their body and communicate directly with the patient, or dancing fervently beyond their stated ability. The sangoma will provide specific information about the problems of the patient. Some sangomas speak to their patients through regular conversation, whilst others speak in tongues or languages foreign to their patients, but all languages used by sangomas are indigenous Southern African languages depending on

25777-424: The soul of a person travels (usually by boat) to a spirit world . There can be multiple locations in the spirit world, varying in different ethnic groups. Which place souls end up in depends on how they died, the age at death, or conduct of the person when they were alive. Souls reunite with deceased relatives in the underworld and lead normal lives in the underworld as they did in the material world. In some cases,

25950-432: The souls of evil people undergo penance and cleansing before they are granted entrance into a particular spirit realm. Souls would eventually reincarnate after a period of time in the spirit world. Souls in the spirit world still retain a degree of influence in the material world, and vice versa. Paganito rituals may be used to invoke good ancestor spirits for protection, intercession, or advice. Vengeful spirits of

26123-409: The specific ancestors being called upon. Not all sangomas follow the same rituals or beliefs. Ancestral spirits can be the personal ancestors of the sangoma or the patient, or they might be general ancestors associated with the geographic area or the community. It is believed that the spirits have the power to intervene in people's lives who work to connect the sangoma to the spirits that are acting in

26296-405: The spread of infectious diseases by traditional healers. A study of traditional healers in Nigeria found that 60% of the population was at risk because of the contamination spread by tradition healers. Women experience the most fatal impact from the HIV/AIDS epidemic. When industrial development required the labor of men from rural communities, the men often left those communities and while away at

26469-498: The starting of a new business, or even when a family member needs guidance or counsel and is a hallmark of the emphasis Vietnamese culture places on filial duty. A significant distinguishing feature of Vietnamese ancestor veneration is that women have traditionally been allowed to participate and co-officiate ancestral rites, unlike in Chinese Confucian doctrine, which allows only male descendants to perform such rites. Care of

26642-635: The state or province as these markers serve as potent reminders to drive cautiously in hazardous areas. The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C., is particularly known for the leaving of offerings to the deceased; items left are collected by the National Park Service and archived. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints perform posthumous baptisms and other rituals for their dead ancestors, along with those of other families. Native Americans were not heavily concerned with

26815-574: The study were: A 2008 literature survey was made to assess the botanical knowledge and uses within traditional medicine in Southern Africa for the genus Aloe within the family Asphodeloideae . Most common medical uses were for the treatment of "infections, internal parasites, digestive ailments and injuries." Socially the plants are used as ingredients in tobacco snuff . A 2014 literature survey found that at least 12 palm species in sub-Saharan Africa are used in various ritual practices, including

26988-508: The supernatural. For various reasons, in the late 20th century the traditional systems of medical care in developing countries underwent a major revival. These countries also realized that modern health care systems and the technologies that they are dependent on are not locally manufactured and maintained thus making them expensive and rendering the population dependent on supply-chains that might be erratic or politicised. Due to this, interest in integrating traditional African medicine into

27161-409: The supreme soul, possesses the qualities of a spiritual being and always blesses the family. So every Ahom family in order to worship the dead establish a pillar on the opposite side of the kitchen (Barghar) which is called ‘Damkhuta’ where they worship the dead with various offerings like homemade wine, mah-prasad, rice with various items of meat and fish. Me-Dam-Me-Phi, a ritual centred on commemorating

27334-499: The term worship may not always convey such meaning in the exclusive and narrow context of certain Western European Christian traditions. In that sense the phrase ancestor veneration may but from the limited perspective of certain Western European Christian traditions, convey a more accurate sense of what practitioners, such as the Chinese and other Buddhist-influenced and Confucian-influenced societies, as well as

27507-525: The terms in Northern Sotho and Southern Sotho respectively, while among the Venda they are called mungome . The Tsonga refer to their healers as n'anga or mungoma . A sangoma is a practitioner of Ngoma , a philosophy based on a belief in ancestral spirits ( siSwati : amadloti ; Zulu : amadlozi ; Sesotho : badimo ; Xhosa : izinyanya ) and the practice of traditional African medicine , which

27680-510: The time that souls need to leave Purgatory and the enter in Paradise . The evening before All Saints'—"All Hallows Eve" or "Hallowe'en"—is unofficially the Catholic day to remember the realities of Hell, to mourn the souls lost to evil, and to remember ways to avoid Hell . It is commonly celebrated in the United States and parts of the United Kingdom in a spirit of light-hearted horror and fear, which

27853-453: The transformative nature of the experience. A similar term, Amafufunyana refers to claims of demonic possession due to members of the Xhosa people exhibiting aberrant behaviour and psychological concerns. After study, it was discovered that this term is directed toward people with varying types of schizophrenia . During the training period the healer in training will share their ailments in

28026-488: The tropical regions of Africa. Medicinal plants are used in the treatments of many diseases and illnesses, the uses and effects of which are of growing interest to Western societies. Not only are plants used and chosen for their healing abilities, but they also often have symbolic and spiritual significance. For example, leaves, seeds, and twigs that are white, black and red are seen as especially symbolic or magical and are believed to possess special properties. One example of

28199-405: The type of imbalance the individual is experiencing, an appropriate healing plant will be used, which is valued for its symbolic and spiritual significance as well as for its medicinal effect. When a person falls ill, a traditional practitioner uses incantations to make a diagnosis. The incantations are thought to give the air of mystical and cosmic connections. Divination is typically used if

28372-454: The use of palm oil in healing mixtures. In 2016 an in vitro study of the essential oil from Erigeron floribundus , used as a medicinal plant in Cameroon, demonstrated good activity against Staphylococcus aureus , "cytotoxicity on colon carcinoma cells" and "ferric reducing antioxidant power." Among the constituents of the essential oil are spathulenol and limonene . As a result of

28545-482: The use of certain herbal treatments for HIV/AIDS. According to Edward Mills, herbal remedies are used as a therapy for HIV-symptoms such as "dermatological disorders, nausea, depression, insomnia, and weakness." While some of these remedies have been beneficial, the herbal treatments hypoxis and sutherlandia "may put the patients at risk for antiretroviral treatment failure, viral resistance, or drug toxicity" since they interact with antiretroviral treatments and prevent

28718-469: The use of charms, incantations, and the casting of spells in their treatments. For example, there is the belief among the Ibos of Nigeria that medicine men can implant something into a person from a distance to inflict sickness on them, in a process referred to as egba ogwu. To remove the malignant object, the intervention of a second medicine man is typically required, who then removes it by making an incision in

28891-524: The vast majority of the people." Excessive use of plants is an ecological risk, as this may lead to their extinction. Women in Sub-Saharan rural African communities are almost entirely responsible for domestic work in their households. These women are often at higher risk for disease and poverty than their male counter-parts and have less control over their daily lives than them. A literature survey from 2001 found that these women defined 'good health' as

29064-413: The veneration of the pangool (ancient Seereer saints and/or ancestral spirits). There are various types of pangool (singular: fangol ), each with its own means of veneration. Veneration of ancestors is prevalent throughout the island of Madagascar . Approximately half of the country's population of 20 million currently practice traditional religion, which tends to emphasize links between the living and

29237-446: The veneration of the dead, though they were known to bury the dead with clothes and tools as well as occasionally leave food and drink at the gravesite; Pueblo Indians supported a cult of the dead which worshipped or petitioned the dead through ritualistic dances. Islam has a complex and mixed view on the idea of grave shrines and ancestor worship. The graves of many early Islamic figures are holy sites for Muslims, including Ali , and

29410-421: The world it is found in powders, tinctures , and pills. A 2007 study investigated the effectiveness of 16 plants, growing in South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal region, in lowering blood pressure "by acting as an ACE inhibitor." Of the 16 plants, only one (Tulbaghia violacea) showed promise. It then was tested on rats and "demonstrated hypotensive activity", i.e. reduction of blood pressure. The plants included in

29583-423: Was a noticeable turning point in the history of this tradition and culture. Herbal medicines in Africa are generally not adequately researched, and are weakly regulated. There is a lack of the detailed documentation of the traditional knowledge , which is generally transferred orally. Serious adverse effects can result from misidentification or misuse of healing plants. The geographical reach of this article

29756-531: Was an urban illness, despite the presence of HIV in the rural communities. However, these women also claimed that their communities did not advocate for prevention, but rather treated an illness once it was present. For patients with HIV/AIDS, traditional healers provided a local, familiar, and accessible option compared to biomedical personnel who were usually overbooked and located farther away. Traditional healers were seen as having an authoritative role in physical, psychological, and spiritual aspects of health. In

29929-447: Was on firm footing. The respect and homage to parents is to return this gracious deed to them in life and after. The shi (尸; "corpse, personator") was a Zhou dynasty (1045–256  BCE ) sacrificial representative of a dead relative. During a shi ceremony, the ancestral spirit supposedly would enter the personator, who would eat and drink sacrificial offerings and convey spiritual messages. Spiritual messages usually were conveyed in

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