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135-706: In the Book of Revelation in the New Testament , the city is also called the Heavenly Jerusalem , as well as being called Zion in other books of the Christian Bible . In Jewish mysticism , there are two Gardens of Eden and two Promised Lands: the heavenly invisible one and the earthly visible one that is a copy of the heavenly invisible one. Heaven in Jewish mysticism includes a heavenly Promised land – including Jerusalem,

270-468: A Greco-Roman system with modern capabilities described by John in ways familiar to him; and idealist or symbolic interpretations consider that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events but is an allegory of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil. The book's commonest English name is "[Book of] Revelation". It is also called "[Book of] the Apocalypse" (for example in

405-492: A Seleucid deity was constructed on the Jewish altar. First Enoch was written in the wake of this calamity between 166 BCE–163 BCE. For the author of 1 Enoch, history is a steep descent into evil from the utopia in Eden . The author's vision of the eschaton centers on the restoration of Jerusalem: "I saw until the owner of the sheep brought a house, new and larger and loftier than the former" (1 Enoch 90:29). In this New Jerusalem passage,

540-582: A Temple in Heaven , not the eschaton. Second, these texts exhibit the final new Temple texts in Judaism. Jewish texts like 3 Baruch began to reject a restored Temple completely. However, these texts were deemed to be apocryphal by the Rabbis who maintained the belief in a Third Temple as central to Rabbinic Judaism . The Jewish apocalypse of 4 Ezra is a text contained in the apocryphal book 2 Esdras . The genre of 4 Ezra

675-532: A broad view of history while preterist interpretations treat Revelation as mostly referring to the events of the Apostolic Age (1st century), or, at the latest, the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Futurists , meanwhile, believe that Revelation describes future events with the seven churches growing into the body of believers throughout the age, and a reemergence or continuous rule of

810-577: A heavenly kingdom. Fourth Ezra also uses the title "Most High," throughout the apocalypse to emphasise that the Lord will once again reign and reside in Jerusalem. The apocalypse of 2 Baruch is a contemporary narrative of 4 Ezra. The text also follows the same basic structure 4 Ezra: Job-like grief, animosity towards the Lord, and the rectification of Jerusalem that leads to the comfort of the Job-figure. Second Baruch

945-523: A kind of dual citizenship. In this way, the New Jerusalem represents to Christians the final and everlasting reconciliation of God and his chosen people , "the end of the Christian pilgrimage ." As such, the New Jerusalem is a conception of Heaven, see also Heaven (Christianity) . Christianity interprets the city as a physical and/or spiritual restoration or divine re-creation of the city of Jerusalem . It

1080-445: A literal New Jerusalem that will come down out of Heaven , which will be an entirely new city of incredible dimensions. Other sects, such as various Protestant denominations , modernist branches of Christianity, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints and Reform Judaism , view the New Jerusalem as figurative, or believe that such a renewal may have already taken place, or that it will take place at some other location besides

1215-606: A metaphorical sense to those numerous utterances of the Bible which suggest a definite dwelling-place of the blessed. Theologians, therefore, generally hold that the heaven of the blessed is a special place with definite limits. Naturally, this place is held to exist, not within the earth, but, in accordance with the expressions of Scripture, without and beyond its limits. All further details regarding its locality are quite uncertain. The Church has decided nothing on this subject. Book of Revelation The Book of Revelation or Book of

1350-584: A military commander is told to deliver goods on the first of the month, but only to record this delivery in writing on the second of the month (seemingly because writing was considered a forbidden melakha ). In the Second Temple period, too, Rosh Chodesh was considered a day of rest according to some sources. In the Talmudic period, one passage considered Rosh Chodesh to be a day on which work ceased ( bittul ); another passage suggests that work ceased ( bittul ) but

1485-551: A minority tradition within Jewish literature. In the first Christian apocalypse, the Book of Revelation coincides with this perspective on Jerusalem. The study will now move to early Christian perspectives on the Temple and the apocalyptic response in Revelation. Christians have always placed religious significance on Jerusalem as the site of the crucifixion of Jesus and other events central to

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1620-523: A modified historicist method of interpreting prophecy, is identified in the teachings of the Bahá'í Faith . ʻAbdu'l-Bahá , the son and chosen successor of Bahá'u'lláh, has given some interpretations about the 11th and 12th chapters of Revelation in Some Answered Questions . The 1,260 days spoken of in the forms: one thousand two hundred and sixty days, forty-two months, refers to the 1,260 years in

1755-730: A part of the New Testament canon. The Synod of Hippo (in AD 393), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) , the Council of Carthage (419) , the Council of Florence (1442) and the Council of Trent (1546) classified it as a canonical book. The Apostolic Canons , approved by the Eastern Orthodox Council in Trullo in 692, but rejected by Pope Sergius I , omit it. Doubts resurfaced during

1890-647: A reconstruction, is an important theme in Judaism , Christianity , and the Baháʼí Faith . Renewed Jerusalem bears as its motto the words Ad librum (Latin: "as by the book".) Many traditions based on biblical scripture and other writings in the Jewish and Christian religions, such as Protestantism , and Orthodox Judaism , expect the literal renewal of Jerusalem to some day take place at the Temple Mount in accordance with various prophecies . Dispensationalists believe in

2025-417: A revolt in Jerusalem led by Jason, the former High Priest. An agitated Antiochus imposed harsh restrictions on Jewish religion. Circumcision, feast celebration, and Sabbath observance were all banned. Antiochus ordered the burning of Torah copies. Jews were required to eat pork. The worst oppression came in the desecration of the Temple. A polytheistic cult was formed, and worship of YHWH abolished. A statue to

2160-478: A river of the water of life that flows down the middle of the great street of the city from the Throne of God . The tree of life grows in the middle of the street and to both sides of the river. The tree bears twelve (kinds of) fruit and yields its fruit every month. According to John, "The leaves of the tree were for healing (those of all) nations." This inclusion of the tree of life in the New Jerusalem harkens back to

2295-505: A time of recognition by the Hebrews: Blow the horn on the new moon, on the full moon for our feast day. In the Bible, Rosh Chodesh is often referred to simply as "Chodesh", as the Hebrew word "chodesh" can mean both "month" and "new month". Judaism uses a lunisolar calendar , so Rosh Chodesh is celebrated in connection with the date of the new moon . Originally, the date of Rosh Chodesh

2430-515: A tradition dating from Irenaeus ( c.  130  – c.  202 AD) identifies John the Apostle as the author of all five. The modern consensus is that a Johannine community produced the Gospel of John and the three Johannine epistles , while John of Patmos wrote the Book of Revelation separately. The book is commonly dated to about AD 95, as suggested by clues in the visions pointing to

2565-618: A very costly stone, as a stone of crystal-clear jasper ." The street of the city is also made of "pure gold, like transparent glass". The base of the city is laid out in a square and surrounded by a wall made of jasper. It says in Revelation 21:16 that the height, length, and width are of equal dimensions – as it was with the Holy of Holies in the Tabernacle and First Temple – and they measure 12,000 furlongs (approximately 1,500 miles). John writes that

2700-533: Is historical fiction , set thirteen years after the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem. Fourth Ezra is dated approximately in 83 CE, thirteen years after the Roman destruction of Jerusalem. The story follows Ezra's period of mourning following Jerusalem's fall. Ezra is Job-like in his criticism of God's allowance of Jerusalem's downfall. In Ezra's deep state of grief, he meets a woman lamenting over Jerusalem. Ezra consoles

2835-487: Is a "complete lack of consensus" among scholars about the structure of Revelation. The following is therefore an outline of the book's contents rather than of its structure. Outline of the book of Revelation: Revelation has a wide variety of interpretations, ranging from the simple historical interpretation, to a prophetic view on what will happen in the future by way of God's will and the Woman's (traditionally believed to be

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2970-526: Is a manual of spiritual development and not, as conventionally interpreted, a cryptic history or prophecy." Such diverse theories have failed to command widespread acceptance. However, Christopher Rowland argues: "there are always going to be loose threads which refuse to be woven into the fabric as a whole. The presence of the threads which stubbornly refuse to be incorporated into the neat tapestry of our world-view does not usually totally undermine that view." The radical discipleship interpretation asserts that

3105-587: Is added to commemorate the Rosh Chodesh sacrifices in the Temple . Its middle blessing begins "Roshei Chadashim". After the service, many recite Psalm 104. If Rosh Chodesh falls on Shabbat , the regular Torah reading is supplemented with a reading of Numbers 28:9-15. The German custom is to sing the Half Kaddish preceding Maftir to a special tune. In most months (if it does not coincide with another special Haftarah),

3240-498: Is added to the Ritzeh (or "Avodah") blessing of the Amidah . In the morning service "half Hallel " ( Psalms 113–118, with two paragraphs omitted) is recited (except on Rosh Chodesh Tevet, which is during Chanukkah, when the full Hallel is recited). The Torah is read , specifically Numbers 28:1–15 which includes the sacrifices of Rosh Chodesh. An additional prayer service, called Mussaf ,

3375-419: Is adorned with precious sapphires, jewels, and rubies. The city is described as a place free from terror and full of righteousness. Here, Isaiah provides an example of Jewish apocalypticism , where a hope for a perfected Jerusalem and freedom from oppression is revealed. As the original New Jerusalem composition, Ezekiel functioned as a source for later works such as 4 Ezra , 2 Baruch , Qumran documents, and

3510-471: Is also interpreted by many Christian groups as referring to the Church to be the dwelling place of the saints . John of Patmos describes the New Jerusalem in the Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible , and so the New Jerusalem holds an important place in Christian eschatology and Christian mysticism , and has also influenced Christian philosophy and Christian theology . Such a renewal of Jerusalem, if

3645-607: Is difficult to know whether the author used the Hebrew or the Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures, but he was often influenced by the Greek. Modern understanding has been that the Book of Revelation was written to comfort beleaguered Christians as they underwent persecution at the hands of an emperor. This is, however, not the only interpretation; Domitian may not have been a despot imposing an imperial cult, and there may not have been any systematic empire-wide persecution of Christians in his time. Revelation may instead have been composed in

3780-481: Is entirely on the heavenly Temple that pre-dated the Garden of Eden. This may be a device to express the supremacy of the heavenly Temple as a sanctuary built before Eden (the traditional location of the earthly Temple). Second, Baruch believes that restoration for the people of Israel exists in heaven, not on earth. The apocalypse of 3 Baruch is the anomaly among post-revolt New Jerusalem texts. Unlike 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra,

3915-490: Is especially relevant to believers in the days preceding the second coming of Jesus Christ. "The universal church is composed of all who truly believe in Christ, but in the last days, a time of widespread apostasy, a remnant has been called out to keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus." "Here is the patience of the saints; here are those who keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus." As participatory agents in

4050-473: Is historical fiction, written after the Roman destruction but set before the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians. Baruch is distressed when the Lord informs him of Jerusalem's impending doom. Baruch responds with several theological questions for God. For this study, Baruch's inquiry about the future of Israel and the honor of the Lord are most pertinent (2 Baruch 3:4-6). Baruch learns that the Lord will destroy

4185-641: Is not extant in the Codex Vaticanus (4th century), it is extant in the other great uncial codices: the Codex Sinaiticus (4th century), the Codex Alexandrinus (5th century), and the Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (5th century). In addition, there are numerous papyri , especially 𝔓 and 𝔓 (both 3rd century); minuscules (8th to 10th century); and fragmentary quotations in

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4320-622: Is often a particular interest in the Shekinah , considered by the kabbalah to be a feminine aspect of God. These groups engage in a wide variety of activities that center around issues important to Jewish women, depending on the preference of the group's members. Many Rosh Chodesh groups explore spirituality, religious education, ritual, health issues, music, chanting, art, and/or cooking. Some groups also choose to educate young Jewish women in their community about sexuality, self-image, and other women's mental and physical health issues. Miriam's cup (for

4455-535: Is read if it does not coincide with another special Haftarah. Kiddush Levanah is recited soon after Rosh Chodesh, although most communities wait until three or seven days after the Molad (the time of the "birth" of the new moon). It is common to wait until Saturday night to recite Kiddush Levanah. Many have a custom to eat a special meal in honor of Rosh Chodesh, as recommended by the Shulchan Aruch . This gives one

4590-471: Is recorded in the Shulchan Aruch , but does not seem to be commonly practised in modern times. Yet for much of early Jewish history, Rosh Chodesh was observed much more seriously. In some Biblical sources, Rosh Hodesh is described as a day when business is not conducted and which seems to have been devoted to worship and feasting. This is corroborated by an inscription from the Arad ostraca (c. 600 BCE) in which

4725-558: Is specifically tied to conflict. The Babylonian Exile, Antiochene persecutions, and corrupt leadership in Jerusalem incited apocalyptic responses with a vision for a New Jerusalem. In the 1st century CE, an even greater conflict exploded in Iudaea province ; the Roman destruction of Jerusalem , as well as the other Roman-Jewish Wars . Subsequent apocalyptic responses fundamentally altered the New Jerusalem eschatology for Jews and Early Christians . At

4860-584: Is structured after creation, fall, judgment and redemption. Those who hold this view say that the Temple's destruction (AD 70) had a profound effect on the Jewish people, not only in Jerusalem but among the Greek-speaking Jews of the Mediterranean. They believe the Book of Revelation provides insight into the early Eucharist, saying that it is the new Temple worship in the New Heaven and Earth. The idea of

4995-602: Is the only book of the New Testament that is not read during services by the Byzantine Rite Churches, although it is read in the Western Rite Orthodox Parishes , which are under the same bishops as the Byzantine Rite. Similar to the early Protestants, Adventists maintain a historicist interpretation of the Bible's predictions of the apocalypse. Seventh-day Adventists believe the Book of Revelation

5130-520: Is the symbolism meant to be pictured realistically. Pope Benedict XVI taught that Revelation "should be understood against the backdrop of" the early church's persecutions and inner problems, that "the Lamb who is slain yet standing" symbolizes Jesus' paschal mystery and Jesus being the meaning of life , that the vision of the woman and child symbolizes both Mary and the Church, that the New Jerusalem symbolizes

5265-432: Is their God? And behold as I was weeping and saying such things, I saw an angel of the Lord coming and saying to me: Understand, O man, greatly beloved, and trouble not thyself so greatly concerning the salvation of Jerusalem." (3 Baruch 1:3) Third Baruch certainly mourns over the Temple. Yet 3 Baruch is not ultimately concerned with the lack of a Temple. This text goes along with Jeremiah and Sibylline Oracles 4 to express

5400-462: Is to fail to hold fast to the non-violent teachings and example of Jesus and instead be lured into unquestioning adoption and assimilation of worldly, national or cultural values – imperialism , nationalism , and civil religion being the most dangerous and insidious. Rosh hodesh In Judaism , Rosh Chodesh or Rosh Hodesh ( ראש חודש ‎; trans . Beginning of the Month ; lit . Head of

5535-468: The Catholic Church ), "Revelation to John", or "Apocalypse of St. John". Abbreviations of these are "Rev." (traditional), "Rv" (shorter), or "Apoc." These names come from the book's opening words , Rev 1:1 : "Revelation" and "Apocalypse" are respectively a translation and an anglicisation of the original Koine Greek word ἀποκάλυψις , which can also mean "unveiling". In the original Greek,

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5670-628: The Dead Sea Scrolls near Qumran , Israel , were fragments of a scroll which describes New Jerusalem in minute detail. The New Jerusalem Scroll (as it is called) appears to contain apocalyptic vision, although, being fragmented, it is hard to categorize. Written in Aramaic , the text describes a vast city, rectangular in shape, with twelve gates and encircled by a long wall. Similar descriptions appear in Ezekiel 40–48 and Revelation 21–22 and comparison to

5805-562: The Easter rites, of early Christianity as background and context for understanding the Book of Revelation's structure and significance. This perspective is explained in The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse (new edition, 2004) by Massey H. Shepherd , an Episcopal scholar, and in Scott Hahn 's The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth (1999), in which he states that Revelation in form

5940-532: The Holy Temple in Jerusalem according to the pattern shown to the prophet Ezekiel. During this time Jews believe an era of global peace and prosperity will be initiated, the nations will love Israel and will abandon their gods, turn toward Jerusalem, and come to the Holy Temple to worship the one God of Israel . Zechariah prophesied that any family among the nations who does not appear in the Temple in Jerusalem for

6075-577: The Islamic Calendar (AH 1260 or AD 1844). The " two witnesses " spoken of are Muhammad and Ali . The red Dragon spoken of in Revelation 12:3 – "And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads" – are interpreted as symbolic of the seven provinces dominated by the Umayyads : Damascus, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, Andalusia, and Transoxania. The ten horns represent

6210-458: The New Testament , in Revelation verses 3:12 and 21:2 . A large portion of the final two chapters of Revelation deals with John of Patmos' vision of New Jerusalem. He describes New Jerusalem as "'the bride, the wife of the Lamb'", where the river of the Water of Life flows ( Revelation 22:1 ). After John witnesses the new heaven and a new earth "that no longer has any sea", an angel takes him "in

6345-534: The Second Coming . This prophecy of the renewal of Jerusalem by the messiah echoes those of the Jewish prophets. John of Patmos ' vision of the New Jerusalem in the Book of Revelation draws on the Olivet discourse and all the historical precursors mentioned above. Based on the Book of Revelation, premillennialism holds that, following the end times and the second creation of heaven and earth (see The New Earth ),

6480-449: The Temple Mount . It is important to distinguish between "the camp of the saints, and the beloved city" spoken of in Revelation 20:9, and the New Jerusalem of chapter 21. Rev. 20:9 refers to an earthly city, the description and purpose of which is found in book of Ezekiel, starting with chapter 36 and ending with chapter 48. One of the most obvious differences is that the dimensions of the New Jerusalem of Rev. 21 are 1,000 times bigger than

6615-573: The Temple Scroll (also found near Qumran) shows many similarities despite no direct literary links between the two. From the middle of the 2nd century CE to the middle of the 6th century CE, the ancient Christian sect of Montanism , which spread throughout the Roman Empire, expected the New Jerusalem to descend to earth at the neighboring Phrygian towns of Pepuza and Tymion . In late antiquity , both places attracted crowds of pilgrims from all over

6750-454: The Virgin Mary ) victory over Satan (" symbolic interpretation"), to different end time scenarios ("futurist interpretation"), to the views of critics who deny any spiritual value to Revelation at all, ascribing it to a human-inherited archetype . This interpretation, which has found expression among both Catholic and Protestant theologians, considers the liturgical worship, particularly

6885-477: The 16th-century Protestant Reformation . Martin Luther called Revelation "neither apostolic nor prophetic" in the 1522 preface to his translation of the New Testament (he revised his position with a much more favorable assessment in 1530), Huldrych Zwingli labelled it "not a book of the Bible", and it was the only New Testament book on which John Calvin did not write a commentary. As of 2015, Revelation remains

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7020-424: The 4th century CE, this became impossible and instead a fixed calendar of 29- and 30-day months (see Hebrew calendar for details) was instituted by Hillel II . At the end of a 29-day month, Rosh Chodesh is celebrated for one day, on the first day of the new month. At the end of a 30-day month, Rosh Chodesh is celebrated for two days - the 30th day of the previous month, and the first day of the new month. Despite

7155-493: The Apocalypse is the final book of the New Testament (and therefore the final book of the Christian Bible ). Written in Koine Greek , its title is derived from the first word of the text: apokalypsis , meaning 'unveiling' or 'revelation'. The Book of Revelation is the only apocalyptic book in the New Testament canon . It occupies a central place in Christian eschatology . The author names himself as simply "John" in

7290-433: The Apocalypse of John was accepted as a canonical book and rejected at the same time: The Apocalypse of John is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp. Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. The disputation can perhaps be attributed to Origen. Origen seems to have accepted it in his writings. Cyril of Jerusalem (AD 348) does not name it among

7425-524: The Babylonian Empire conquered Assyria and rose to power from 612 to 609 BCE. Jerusalem surrendered without major bloodshed to Babylon in 597 BCE. An Israelite uprising brought the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar ’s army in 586 BCE. The entire city, including the First Temple , was burned. Israelite aristocrats were taken captive to Babylon. The Book of Ezekiel contains the first record of

7560-422: The Book of Revelation is best understood as a handbook for radical discipleship; i.e. how to remain faithful to the spirit and teachings of Jesus and avoid simply assimilating to surrounding society. In this interpretation the primary agenda of the book is to expose as impostors the worldly powers that seek to oppose the ways of God and God's Kingdom. The chief temptation for Christians in the 1st century, and today,

7695-478: The Book of Revelation should not be read as an enigmatic warning, but as an encouraging vision of Christ's definitive victory over evil. In the Coptic Orthodox Church , Armenian Apostolic Church and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church the whole Book of Revelation is read during Apocalypse Night after Good Friday . Biblically Ugo Vanni and other biblical scholars have argued that the Book of Revelation

7830-555: The Book of Revelation. These texts used similar measurement language and expanded on the limited eschatological perspective in Ezekiel. Judaism sees the Messiah as a human male descendant of King David who will be anointed as the king of Israel and sit on the throne of David in Jerusalem . He will gather in the lost tribes of Israel, clarify unresolved issues of halakha , and rebuild

7965-681: The Christian faith. In particular, the destruction of the Second Temple that took place in the year 70, a few decades after Christianity began its split from Judaism , was seminal to the nascent Christian apocalypticism of that time. In the Olivet Discourse of the Gospels , Jesus predicts the destruction of Herod's Temple , and promises that it will precede the return of the Son of Man , commonly called

8100-445: The Church fathers of the 2nd to 5th centuries and the 6th-century Greek commentary on Revelation by Andreas. Divisions in the book seem to be marked by the repetition of key phrases, by the arrangement of subject matter into blocks, and associated with its Christological passages, and much use is made of significant numbers, especially the number seven, which represented perfection according to ancient numerology. Nevertheless, there

8235-407: The Church in its glory on Judgment Day , and that the prayers in Revelation reflect 1st century Jewish-Christian liturgy and Jewish-Christian understanding of the heavenly liturgy. According to Catholic Answers , the author of Revelation identifies the beast as the Roman Empire, the dragon as Satan, and Babylon as Rome. The meaning is that Rome "cannot win. It will be completely overthrown, and

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8370-434: The Church is sure to triumph. This prophecy is as it were the hub of the Apocalypse. Around it John gradually unfolds the plan God has for the future of his Church." Eastern Orthodoxy treats the text as simultaneously describing contemporaneous events (events occurring at the same time) and as prophecy of events to come, for which the contemporaneous events were a form of foreshadowing. It rejects attempts to determine, before

8505-451: The East through the 15th century. Dionysius (AD 248), bishop of Alexandria and disciple of Origen , wrote that the Book of Revelation could have been written by Cerinthus although he himself did not adopt the view that Cerinthus was the writer. He regarded the Apocalypse as the work of an inspired man but not of an Apostle (Eusebius, Church History VII.25). Eusebius , in his Church History ( c.  AD 330 ), mentioned that

8640-399: The Eucharist as a foretaste of the heavenly banquet is also explored by British Methodist Geoffrey Wainwright in his book Eucharist and Eschatology (Oxford University Press, 1980). According to Pope Benedict XVI some of the images of Revelation should be understood in the context of the dramatic suffering and persecution of the churches of Asia in the 1st century. Accordingly, they argue,

8775-405: The Forgiveness of Sins, but in no vicarious sacrifice for sin ... they accepted Christ in the full realisation of the word; his life, not his death, was the keynote of their doctrine and their practice." James Morgan Pryse was an esoteric gnostic who saw Revelation as a western version of the Hindu theory of the Chakra . He began his work, "The purpose of this book is to show that the Apocalypse

8910-399: The Garden of Eden. The fruit the tree bears may be the fruit of life. John states that the New Jerusalem will be free of sin . The servants of God will have theosis (i.e. the power or likeness of God, that is "in his image" of holiness) and "His name will be on their foreheads." Night will no longer fall, and the inhabitants of the city will "have need (of) no lamp nor light of the sun, for

9045-486: The L ORD spoke unto Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt, saying: "This month shall mark for you the beginning of the months; it shall be the first of the months of the year for you." In the Book of Numbers , God speaks of the celebration of the new moon to Moses: And on your joyous occasions—your fixed festivals and new moon days—you shall sound the trumpets over your burnt offerings and your sacrifices of well-being. In Psalm 81:4 , both new and full moon are mentioned as

9180-420: The LORD will be your everlasting light, and your days of mourning shall be ended." (Isaiah 60:19) The Temple is discarded in the eschaton because the Lord will provide illumination for the New Jerusalem, and Christ will be the glory for its residents. Henceforth, Christians believed that the New Jerusalem no longer required a Temple. For Christians, their Lord sufficiently replaced the Temple . Discovered among

9315-410: The Lord God gives them light." John ends his account of the New Jerusalem by stressing its eternal nature: "And they shall reign forever and ever." It had a great, high wall with twelve gates and with twelve angels in charge of the gates. On the gates were written the names of the twelve tribes of the sons of Israel . There were three gates on each side: three on the east, three on the south, three on

9450-399: The Month ) is a minor holiday observed at the beginning of every month in the Hebrew calendar , marked by the birth of a new moon . Rosh Chodesh is observed for either one or two days, depending on whether the previous month contained 29 or 30 days. The Book of Exodus establishes the new moon of Nisan , which is the first month of Aviv , as the beginning of the Hebrew calendar : And

9585-405: The New City represent the four cardinal directions (North, South, East, and West.) In this way, New Jerusalem is thought of as an inclusive place, with the 12 gates accepting all of the 12 tribes of Israel from all corners of the earth. There is no temple building in the New Jerusalem. God and the Lamb are the city's temple, since they are worshipped everywhere. Revelation 22 goes on to describe

9720-449: The New Jerusalem in the eschatological role found in Revelation. Catholicism also holds that the New Jerusalem already exists as a spiritual community in Heaven , the Church triumphant , with an outpost on earth, the Church militant . Together, the Church triumphant, Church militant, and Church suffering form the Church universal . Augustine of Hippo , a Doctor of the Church and Church Father , draws inspiration from John's account of

9855-413: The New Jerusalem to outline this view in his monumental work The City of God . The Catholic Encyclopedia article on "Heaven" states that Catholic theologians deem more appropriate that there should be a special and glorious abode, in which the blessed have their peculiar home and where they usually abide, even though they be free to go about in this world. For the surroundings in the midst of which

9990-456: The New Jerusalem will be the earthly location where all true believers will spend eternity with God. The New Jerusalem is not limited to eschatology, however. Many Christians view the New Jerusalem as a current reality, that the New Jerusalem is the consummation of the Body of Christ , the Church and that Christians already take part in membership of both the heavenly Jerusalem and the earthly Church in

10125-460: The New Jerusalem. Within Ezekiel 40–48 , there is an extended and detailed description of the measurements of the Temple, its chambers, porticos, and walls. Ezekiel 48:30–35 contains a list of twelve Temple gates named for Israel's tribes. The Book of Zechariah expands upon Ezekiel's New Jerusalem. When the Second Temple was built, after the exile, Jerusalem's population was only a few hundred. There were no defensive city walls until 445 BCE. In

10260-528: The Orthodox Faith (Book IV:7) listed "the Revelation of John the Evangelist " as a canonical book. The Council of Laodicea (AD 363) omits it as a canonical book. The Decretum Gelasianum , which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, contains a list of books of scripture presented as having been reckoned as canonical by the Council of Rome (AD 382). This list mentions it as

10395-530: The Qumran Essenes. First, we do not have enough scroll fragments to completely analyze their New Jerusalem ideologies. Second, based on the evidence available, the Essenes rebelled against Temple leadership, not the Temple itself. Their vision of the New Jerusalem looked for the reunification of the twelve tribes around an eschatological Temple. As evidenced above, the historical progression of New Jerusalem language

10530-781: The Roman Empire. Pepuza was the headquarters of the Montanist church. The Montanist patriarch resided at Pepuza . Women played an emancipated role in Montanism, serving as priests and also bishops. In the 6th century CE, this church became extinct. Since 2001, Peter Lampe of the University of Heidelberg has directed annual archaeological campaigns in Phrygia, Turkey. During these interdisciplinary campaigns, together with William Tabbernee of Tulsa, Oklahoma, numerous unknown ancient settlements were discovered and archaeologically documented. Two of them are

10665-459: The Roman province of Asia, in what is now western Turkey. The seven cities where churches were located are close together, and the Island of Patmos is near the western coast of Turkey. The term apocalypse means the revealing of divine mysteries; John is to write down what is revealed (what he sees in his vision) and send it to the seven churches. The entire book constitutes the prophecy—the letters to

10800-598: The Spirit" to a vantage point on "a great and high mountain" to see New Jerusalem "descend out of heaven." The enormous city comes out of heaven down to the New Earth . John's elaborate description of New Jerusalem retains many features of the Garden of Eden and the paradise garden, such as rivers, a square shape, a wall, and the Tree of Life . According to John, the New Jerusalem is "pure gold, like clear glass" and its "brilliance [is] like

10935-590: The activities from which they must refrain: spinning, weaving, and sewing—the skills that women contributed to the building of the Mishkan ( Tabernacle ). The Shulchan Aruch writes that "Those women whose custom is not to do work on [Rosh Chodesh] have a good custom". The midrash Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer gives a historical explanation for this practice: Aaron argued with himself, saying: "If I say to Israel, 'Give ye to me gold and silver,' they will bring it immediately; but behold I will say to them, 'Give ye to me

11070-459: The addressees of Revelation are searching for the Lord to vindicate them and judge the "inhabitants of the earth" for their suffering (6:10). The fall of Jerusalem, coupled with the Neronian persecutions, form the tension within the subtext of Revelation. Throughout Revelation, several references to the Temple are made REV 3:12,7:15,11:19,14:15,16:1 . This Temple appears to be of heavenly origin. When

11205-501: The angel measures the city with a golden rod or reed, and records it as 12,000 stadia by 12,000 stadia at the base, and 12,000 stadia high. A stadion is usually stated as 185 meters, or 607 feet, so the base has dimensions of about 2220 km by 2220 km, or 1380 miles by 1380 miles. In the ancient Greek system of measurement, the base of the New Jerusalem would have been equal to 144 million square stadia, 4.9 million square kilometers or 1.9 million square miles (roughly midway between

11340-408: The author except that he was a Christian prophet. Modern theological scholars characterize the Book of Revelation's author as " John of Patmos ". The bulk of traditional sources date the book to the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian (AD 81–96), which evidence tends to confirm. The book spans three literary genres: the epistolary , the apocalyptic , and the prophetic . It begins with John, on

11475-489: The best candidates so far in the search for the identification of the two holy centers of ancient Montanism, Pepuza and Tymion , the sites of the expected descent of the New Jerusalem. Scholars had searched for these lost sites since the 19th century. The ancient settlement discovered and identified as Pepuza by William Tabbernee and Peter Lampe was settled continuously from Hellenistic times to Byzantine times. In Byzantine times, an important rock-cut monastery belonged to

11610-455: The biblical canon as a whole. Rather, an open and ongoing dialogue between God and the modern-day Prophet and Apostles of the LDS faith constitute an open canon of scripture. Christian Gnostics are unlikely to be attracted to the teaching of Revelation because the doctrine of salvation through the sacrificed Lamb, which is central to Revelation, is repugnant to Gnostics. Christian Gnostics "believed in

11745-430: The blessed have their dwelling must be in accordance with their happy state; and the internal union of charity which joins them in affection must find its outward expression in community of habitation. At the end of the world, the earth together with the celestial bodies will be gloriously transformed into a part of the dwelling-place of the blessed (Revelation 21). Hence there seems to be no sufficient reason for attributing

11880-468: The canonical books (Catechesis IV.33–36). Athanasius (AD 367) in his Letter 39 , Augustine of Hippo ( c.  AD 397 ) in his book On Christian Doctrine (Book II, Chapter 8), Tyrannius Rufinus ( c.  AD 400 ) in his Commentary on the Apostles' Creed , Pope Innocent I (AD 405) in a letter to the bishop of Toulouse and John of Damascus (about AD 730) in his work An Exposition of

12015-465: The city has no need of sun or moon to shine on it, for the glory of God is the light, and its lamp is the lamb." For the author of Revelation, there is no need for a Temple because the Lord will be the New Jerusalem's eternal light and Jesus (the lamb) will be its lamp. This re-interpretation uses Isaiah to make its case: "The LORD will be your everlasting light, and your God will be your glory. Your sun shall no more go down, or your moon withdraw itself; for

12150-417: The city, not the enemy. Baruch also learns of a pre-immanent heavenly Temple: "[The Temple] was already prepared from the moment I decided to create paradise." And I showed it to Adam before he sinned." (2 Baruch 4:3). This Temple was created before Adam, and shown to him before Adam’s fall. Two important conclusions come from 2 Baruch. First, the author dismisses hopes for an earthly re-built Temple. The focus

12285-463: The context of a conflict within the Christian community of Asia Minor over whether to engage with, or withdraw from, the far larger non-Christian community: Author Mark B. Stephens posed that the Revelation chastised those Christians who wanted to reach an accommodation with the Roman cult of empire. This is not to say that Christians in Roman Asia were not suffering due to withdrawal from and defiance of

12420-436: The core, apocalypses are a form of theodicy . They respond to overwhelming suffering with the hope of divine intercession and a perfected World to Come . The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE meant an end to Second Temple Judaism . Naturally, apocalyptic responses to the disaster followed. This section will first cover 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch . Fourth Ezra and 2 Baruch are important for two reasons. First, they look for

12555-475: The dimensions of the city in Ezekiel 48 (and, in Rev. 20:9). New Jerusalem of Revelation 21 is 2,225 km in length, width, and height. A city of these gigantic proportions cannot be located on Earth; but, as stated in Rev. 21, the city comes "down out of Heaven from God", presumably onto, the "new earth." The term New Jerusalem ( Greek : καινὴ Ἰερουσαλήμ , romanized :  kainē Ierousalēm ) occurs twice in

12690-430: The earrings of your wives and of your sons,' and forthwith the matter will fail," as it is said, "And Aaron said to them, 'Break off the golden rings.'" The women heard (this), but they were unwilling to give their earrings to their husbands; but they said to them: "Ye desire to make a graven image of a molten image without any power in it to deliver." The Holy One, blessed be He, gave the women their reward in this world and

12825-433: The entire new city. In 4Q554, the gates of Simeon, Joseph, and Reuben are mentioned in this partial fragment. For the author of this fragment, the New Jerusalem's twelve gates signify the reunification of the twelve tribes of Israel. In 5Q15, the author accompanies an angel who measures the blocks, houses, gates, avenues, streets, dining halls, and stairs of the New Jerusalem. There are two important points to consider regarding

12960-527: The eschaton arrives in REV 21:1 , the reader expects the temple to come down from heaven with the New Jerusalem. Revelation 21 even contains typical New Jerusalem terminology that accompanies a restored Temple. Specific measurements are given for the new city (Ezekiel 40–48, 4Q554), and the city is built with gold, sapphires, and emeralds (Isaiah, Tobit). In addition, 21:21 references the "twelve gates." Revelation maintains another typical aspect of New Jerusalem tradition –

13095-513: The exact number of allusions or the allusions themselves. Revelation rarely quotes directly from the Old Testament, yet almost every verse alludes to or echoes ideas of older scriptures. Over half of the references stem from Daniel , Ezekiel , Psalms , and Isaiah , with Daniel providing the largest number in proportion to length and Ezekiel standing out as the most influential. Because these references appear as allusions rather than as quotes, it

13230-468: The existence of a fixed calendar, Rosh Chodesh is still announced in synagogues on the preceding Shabbat (called Shabbat Mevarchim — The Shabbat of Blessing [the new month]). The announcement is made after the reading of the sefer Torah , before returning it to the Torah ark . The name of the new month, and the day of the week on which it falls, is given during the prayer. Some communities customarily precede

13365-529: The fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping them onto present-day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against those who proclaim "He is here!" prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times, whenever they may come ("as a thief in the night"), but they will come at the time of God's choosing, not something that can be precipitated nor trivially deduced by mortals. Book of Revelation

13500-450: The festival of Sukkoth will have no rain that year. Isaiah prophesied that the rebuilt Temple will be a house of prayer for all nations. The city of "YHWH Shamma," (cf. Ezek 48:35) the new Jerusalem, will be the gathering point of the world's nations, and will serve as the capital of the renewed Kingdom of Israel . Ezekiel prophesied that this city will have 12 gates, one gate for each of the tribes of Israel. The book of Isaiah closes with

13635-503: The following categories: Additionally, there are significant differences in interpretation of the thousand years (the "millennium") mentioned in Revelation 20:2. According to the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops the Book of Revelation contains an account of visions in symbolic and allegorical language borrowed extensively from the Old Testament. Symbolic descriptions are not to be taken as literal descriptions, nor

13770-528: The gates mentioned in Enoch , Chapters 33–35, where the prophet Enoch reports that from each of the four "heavenly gates – opening in heaven – three (new gates) were seen distinctly separating (off, as if) the extremities of the whole earth" [were pulling apart each of the four gates into three new ones]. Thus, the four gates were each replaced by three new ones, totaling twelve [i.e. 3 x 4 = 12] gates in all. [33, 3.][ref. Laurence translation, Book of Enoch .] In 21:16,

13905-647: The island of Patmos in the Aegean Sea , addressing letters to the " Seven Churches of Asia ". He then describes a series of prophetic visions , including figures such as the Seven-Headed Dragon, the Serpent , and the Beast , which culminate in the Second Coming of Jesus . The obscure and extravagant imagery has led to a wide variety of Christian interpretations. Historicist interpretations see Revelation as containing

14040-463: The later end of the reign of Emperor Nero Domitius (54 to 68 CE). The work is addressed to the "seven churches that are in Asia" (1:4). Revelation is normally broken into three sections: the prologue (1:1–3:22), the visions (4:1–22:5), and the epilogue (22:6–20). This study is principally concerned with chapter 21. The author of Revelation was both a Jew by birth and a believing Christian . The author and

14175-502: The north, and three on the west ( Revelation 21:12–13 ). The twelve gates were twelve pearls; each gate was made from a single pearl ( Revelation 21:21a ). The gates in the north wall are named for Reuben , Judah , and Levi ; those in the east wall, for Joseph , Benjamin , and Dan ; those in the south wall, for Simeon , Issachar , and Zebulun ; and those in the west wall are named for Gad , Asher , and Naphtali ( Ezekiel 48:31–34 ). The New Jerusalem gates may bear some relation to

14310-627: The only New Testament book not read in the Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church , though Catholic and Protestant liturgies include it. There are fewer manuscripts of Revelation than of any other part of the New Testament. As of 2020, in total, there are 310 manuscripts of Revelation. This number includes 7 papyri, 12 majuscules, and 291 minuscules. But, in fact, not all of them are available for research. Some of them have burned down, vanished, or been categorized wrongly. While it

14445-656: The opportunity to recite the Ya'a'le Ve-Yavo in Birkat Hamazon. Some Hasidic Jews sing Psalm 104 during this meal. Jews nowadays generally treat Rosh Chodesh as barely different from any other weekday (except for expansion of the prayer service). The Torah does not prohibit work ( melacha ) on Rosh Chodesh, and the Talmud states that work is permitted on Rosh Chodesh. The Jerusalem Talmud states that women refrain from work on Rosh Hodesh, but only by custom as opposed to law. This custom

14580-455: The passage, the author writes about a city wall of fire to protect the enormous population. This text demonstrates the beginning of a progression of New Jerusalem thought. In Ezekiel, the focus is primarily on the human act of Temple construction. In Zechariah, the focus shifts to God's intercession in the founding of New Jerusalem. New Jerusalem is further extrapolated in Isaiah, where New Jerusalem

14715-411: The prayer by an announcement of the exact date and time of the new moon, referred to as the molad , or "birth". Rosh Chodesh Tishrei (which is also Rosh Hashanah ) is never announced, although according to the fixed Jewish calendar, it is the determining factor for all of the postponements (Dehioth) which determine when each Rosh Chodesh is actually observed. On Rosh Chodesh, the prayer Yaaleh V'Yavo

14850-514: The prophecy, "And it will come to pass, that from one new moon to another, and from one sabbath to another, all flesh will come to worship before Me, says YHWH ". The Animal Apocalypse within 1 Enoch (chapters 85–90), is another example where conflict sparks hopes for the New Jerusalem. First Enoch is an apocalyptic response to the persecutions under Seleucid Emperor Antiochus IV . In 167 BCE, Emperor Antiochus returned from fighting in Egypt to quell

14985-408: The prophet Miriam ) originated in the 1980s in a Boston Rosh Chodesh group; it was invented by Stephanie Loo, who filled it with mayim hayim (living waters) and used it in a feminist ceremony of guided meditation . Some seders (including the original Women's Seder, but not limited to women-only seders) now set Miriam's cup as well as the traditional cup for the prophet Elijah, sometimes accompanied by

15120-519: The reader stops many times and the people respond; additionally the entire book is read in a liturgical setting that culminates with the Eucharist) shows great support for this biblical hypothesis, albeit with some notable difference. Additionally, the Book of Revelation permeates many liturgical prayers and iconography within the Coptic Church. Most Christian interpretations fall into one or more of

15255-572: The regular Haftarah is replaced by a special Rosh Chodesh Haftarah. The Mussaf prayer is also modified when Rosh Chodesh falls on Shabbat. The central benediction is replaced with an alternative version ( Ata Yatzarta ) that mentions both the Shabbat and Rosh Chodesh. If Rosh Chodesh falls on a Sunday and not on the Sabbath, the special Haftarah of Mahar Chodesh ("Tomorrow is the New Moon", I Samuel 20:18-42)

15390-402: The reign of the emperor Domitian . The beast with seven heads and the number 666 seem to allude directly to the emperor Nero (reigned AD 54–68), but this does not require that Revelation was written in the 60s, as there was a widespread belief in later decades that Nero would return . Revelation is an apocalyptic prophecy with an epistolary introduction addressed to seven churches in

15525-556: The reunification of the twelve tribes of Israel (Ezekiel 48:33–34, 4Q554). Verse 22 marks a sudden and remarkable shift in New Jerusalem apocalyptic rhetoric: "I saw no temple in the city, for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb." Following with the tradition of 3 Baruch and 4 Sibylline Oracles, Revelation foresees an eschaton without the Temple. Why has the Revelation suddenly denied an eschatological Temple? Verse 23 sheds light on this disparity. Verse 23 proclaims, "And

15660-456: The role of High Priest. The Essenes were not against the institution of the Temple and its cult per se. The Essenes at Qumran predicted the reunified twelve tribes to rise together against Roman occupation and incompetent Temple leadership and re-establish true Temple worship. The surviving New Jerusalem texts in Qumran literature focus specifically on the twelve city gates, and on the dimensions of

15795-471: The seven individual churches are introductions to the rest of the book, which is addressed to all seven. While the dominant genre is apocalyptic, the author sees himself as a Christian prophet: Revelation uses the word in various forms 21 times, more than any other New Testament book. The predominant view is that Revelation alludes to the Old Testament , although it is difficult among scholars to agree on

15930-607: The sheep are the Jewish people, the builder is God, and the house is the Temple. During the same time period, the Dead Sea scrolls contain a New Jerusalem tradition formed out of strife. As a tiny Jewish sect living in the caves of Qumran, the Essenes opposed Temple leadership and the High Priesthood in Jerusalem. Their condemnation of the Temple focused on criticizing High Priests. They were also frustrated that Judean Kings were also given

16065-577: The sizes of Australia and India ). If rested on the Earth, its ceiling would be inside the upper boundary of the exosphere but outside the lower boundary. By way of comparison, the International Space Station maintains an orbit with an altitude of about 386 km (240 mi) above the earth. The Book of Revelation may have been composed during the end of the 1st century AD near the end of Domitian ’s reign (A.D. 96), although some date it to

16200-464: The symbolism contained in the Book of Revelation. Topics include: the sea of glass, the four beasts and their appearance, the 24 elders, the book with seven seals, certain angels, the sealing of the 144,000, the little book eaten by John, and the two witnesses in Chapter 11. Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that the warning contained in Revelation 22:18–19 does not refer to

16335-557: The temple, and the Ark of the Covenant – and a heavenly Garden of Eden – including the tree of life , a storehouse for the manna that angels eat, and multiple rivers that water the garden. When the Bible mentions a New Jerusalem, heavenly sanctuary, bread of life, or God's throne, it is referring to the Jewish mystical understanding of heaven. The Babylonian threat to the Kingdom of Judah began as

16470-550: The ten names of the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty: Abu Sufyan, Muawiya, Yazid, Marwan, Abd al-Malik, Walid, Sulayman, Umar, Hisham, and Ibrahim. Some names were re-used, as in the case of Yazid II and Yazid III and the like, which were not counted for this interpretation. The Book of Mormon states that John the Apostle is the author of Revelation and that he was foreordained by God to write it. Doctrine and Covenants , section 77, postulates answers to specific questions regarding

16605-413: The text exemplifies an alternative tradition that lacks a restored Temple. Like other apocalypses, 3 Baruch still mourns over the Temple, and re-focuses Jews to the heavens. Yet 3 Baruch finds that the Temple is ultimately unnecessary. This move could be polemical against works which afforded the Temple with excessive veneration. In the passage, an angel comes to Baruch and consoles him over Jerusalem: "Where

16740-566: The text, but his precise identity remains a point of academic debate. Second-century Christian writers such as Papias of Hierapolis , Justin Martyr , Irenaeus , Melito of Sardis , Clement of Alexandria , and the author of the Muratorian fragment identify John the Apostle as the John of Revelation. Modern scholarship generally takes a different view, with many considering that nothing can be known about

16875-562: The town. The town is in the Phrygian Karahallı area, near the village of Karayakuplu ( Uşak Province , Aegean Region , Turkey ). The ancient site of Tymion identified by Peter Lampe is located not far away at the Turkish village of Şükranje. For the Montanists, the high plane between Pepuza and Tymion was an ideal landing place for the heavenly New Jerusalem. The Catholic Church places

17010-413: The wall is 144 cubits , which is assumed to be the thickness since the length is mentioned previously. 144 cubits is about 65 meters, or 72 yards. It is important to note that 12 is the square root of 144. The number 12 was very important to early Jews and Christians, and represented the 12 tribes of Israel and 12 Apostles of Jesus Christ. The number symbolizes completeness in Revelation. The four sides of

17145-399: The wider Roman society, which imposed very real penalties; Revelation offered a victory over this reality by offering an apocalyptic hope. In the words of professor Adela Collins , "What ought to be was experienced as a present reality." There is also theological interpretation that the book mainly prophesies the end of Old Covenant order, the Jewish temple and religious economy. Revelation

17280-542: The woman, and tells her to, "shake off your great sadness, and lay aside your many sorrows… the Most High may give you rest." (4 Ezra 10:24). Suddenly, the woman is transfigured in an array of bright lights. She transforms into the New Jerusalem being rebuilt. As a bereaved widow she convinced Ezra to apply solace to himself through the image of a New Jerusalem. Fourth Ezra has two clear messages. First, do not grieve excessively over Jerusalem. Second, Jerusalem will be restored as

17415-567: The word is singular, so the name "Revelations" sometimes found in English is often considered erroneous. The author states in Rev 1:9 that he is on Patmos , and so he is conventionally called John of Patmos . He was a Jewish Christian prophet, probably belonging to a group of such prophets, and was accepted by the congregations to whom he addresses his letter. The New Testament canon has four other " Johannine works " ascribed to authors named John, and

17550-483: The work of salvation for all humankind, "This remnant announces the arrival of the judgment hour, proclaims salvation through Christ, and heralds the approach of His second advent." The three angels of Revelation 14 represent the people who accept the light of God's messages and go forth as his agents to sound the warning throughout the length and breadth of the earth. By reasoning analogous with Millerite historicism, Bahá'u'lláh 's doctrine of progressive revelation ,

17685-517: The world to come. What reward did He give them in this world? That they should observe the new moons more stringently than the men, and what reward will He give them in the world to come? They are destined to be renewed like the new moons, as it is said: "Who satisfieth thy years with good things; so that thy youth is renewed like the eagle." In modern times, female-centered Rosh Chodesh observances vary from group to group, but many are centered on small gatherings of women, called Rosh Chodesh groups. There

17820-473: Was among the last books accepted into the Christian biblical canon , and to the present day some churches that derive from the Church of the East reject it. Eastern Christians became skeptical of the book as doubts concerning its authorship and unusual style were reinforced by aversion to its acceptance by Montanists and other groups considered to be heretical. This distrust of the Book of Revelation persisted in

17955-572: Was confirmed on the testimony of witnesses observing the new moon, a procedure known as kiddush hachodesh (sanctification of the month). After the Sanhedrin declared Rosh Chodesh for either a full (30-day) or defective (29-day) month, news of it would then be communicated throughout Israel and the diaspora. This system was dependent on the functioning of the Sanhedrin to declare the month, and to communicate this month to far-flung Jewish communities. In

18090-550: Was not forbidden ( assur ). To explain the current acceptance of working on Rosh Chodesh, Shaagat Aryeh proposed that there indeed was a general prohibition on Rosh Chodesh work while the Temple stood, as the mussaf sacrifice was offered on behalf of the entire people, and a general principle exists that a person may not work on a day when their sacrifice is offered. According to the Talmud , women do not engage in work on Rosh Chodesh. Rashi , in commenting on this passage, delineates

18225-506: Was written with the intention to be read entirely in one liturgical setting with dialogue-elements between the reader (singular) and the hearers (plural) based on Rev 1:3 and Rev 1:10. Beniamin Zakhary has recently shown that the structure of the reading the Book of Revelation within the Coptic rite of Apocalypse Night (this is the only biblical reading in the Coptic church with a dialogue in it, where

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