99-542: The Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa ( 隼 , " Peregrine falcon "), formal Japanese designation Army Type 1 Fighter ( 一式戦闘機 , Ichi-shiki sentōki ) is a single-engine land-based tactical fighter used by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service in World War II . The Allied reporting name was " Oscar ", but it was often called the "Army Zero" by American pilots because it bore a certain resemblance to
198-401: A scrape , normally on cliff edges or, in recent times, on tall human-made structures. The peregrine falcon became an endangered species in many areas because of the widespread use of certain pesticides, especially DDT . Since the ban on DDT from the early 1970s, populations have recovered, supported by large-scale protection of nesting places and releases to the wild. The peregrine falcon is
297-549: A breeding territory, a pair may have several nesting ledges; the number used by a pair can vary from one or two up to seven in a 16-year period. The peregrine falcon nests in a scrape, normally on cliff edges. The female chooses a nest site, where she scrapes a shallow hollow in the loose soil, sand, gravel, or dead vegetation in which to lay eggs. No nest materials are added. Cliff nests are generally located under an overhang, on ledges with vegetation. South-facing sites are favoured. In some regions, as in parts of Australia and on
396-586: A climb rate of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) in five minutes and a range of 800 km (500 mi). Maneuverability was to be at least as good as that of Ki-27. When first flown in early January 1939, the Ki-43 prototype was a disappointment. Japanese test pilots complained that it was less maneuverable than the Ki-27 and not much faster. In order to solve these problems, Nakajima produced a series of progressively modified prototypes through 1939 and 1940. These changes involved
495-417: A falcon's nostrils are theorized to guide the powerful airflow away from the nostrils, enabling the bird to breathe more easily while diving by reducing the change in air pressure. To protect their eyes, the falcons use their nictitating membranes (third eyelids) to spread tears and clear debris from their eyes while maintaining vision. The distinctive malar stripe or 'moustache', a dark area of feathers below
594-412: A few Arctic ground squirrels ( Urocitellus parryii ). Other small mammals including shrews , mice , rats , voles , and squirrels are more seldom taken. Peregrines occasionally take rabbits , mainly young individuals and juvenile hares . Additionally, remains of red fox kits and adult female American marten were found among prey remains. Insects and reptiles such as small snakes make up
693-404: A high perch or from the air. Large congregations of migrants, especially species that gather in the open like shorebirds, can be quite attractive to a hunting peregrine. Once prey is spotted, it begins its stoop, folding back the tail and wings, with feet tucked. Prey is typically struck and captured in mid-air; the peregrine falcon strikes its prey with a clenched foot, stunning or killing it with
792-419: A major weight saving program, a slimmer fuselage with the tail surfaces moved further aft and a new canopy. Crucially, the 11th prototype introduced the unique differential "butterfly" maneuvering Fowler flaps , which dramatically improved performance in tight turns. The 13th prototype combined all these changes, and tests of this aircraft resulted in an instruction for Nakajima to place the Ki-43 into production,
891-586: A peregrine falcon. The peregrine falcon has been designated the official city bird of Chicago . The Peregrine , by J. A. Baker , is widely regarded as one of the best nature books in English written in the twentieth century. Admirers of the book include Robert Macfarlane , Mark Cocker , who regards the book as "one of the most outstanding books on nature in the twentieth century" and Werner Herzog , who called it "the one book I would ask you to read if you want to make films", and said elsewhere "it has prose of
990-465: A single unit, similar to the German MG 81Z . It is commonly referred to as the "flexible type". It was derived from otsu-gou - an experimental machine gun (1922–1929) which was a Type 11 turned on its side and fed from a pan magazine. The machine gun was chambered in the 7.7x58mmSR Type 89 cartridge, it used a Y-shaped metallic stock, spade grips, the barrels had no cooling fins (contrary to Type 11), it
1089-607: A small proportion of the diet, and salmonid fish have been taken by peregrines. The peregrine falcon hunts most often at dawn and dusk, when prey are most active, but also nocturnally in cities, particularly during migration periods when hunting at night may become prevalent. Nocturnal migrants taken by peregrines include species as diverse as yellow-billed cuckoo , black-necked grebe , virginia rail , and common quail . The peregrine requires open space in order to hunt, and therefore often hunts over open water, marshes , valleys , fields, and tundra , searching for prey either from
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#17328551651721188-536: A technique called hacking . Finally, after years of close work with the US Fish and Wildlife Service, a limited take of wild peregrines was allowed in 2004, the first wild peregrines taken specifically for falconry in over 30 years. The development of captive breeding methods has led to peregrines being commercially available for falconry use, thus mostly eliminating the need to capture wild birds for support of falconry. The main reason for taking wild peregrines at this point
1287-595: A three-bladed propeller. The wing structure, which had suffered failures in the Ki-43-I, was strengthened and equipped with racks for drop tanks or bombs. The Ki-43-II was also fitted with a 13 mm (0.51 in) armor plate for the pilot's head and back, and the aircraft's fuel tanks were coated in rubber to form a crude self-sealing tank. This was later replaced by a 3-layer rubber bladder, 8mm core construction; with 2mm oil-proof lamination. The bladder proved to be highly resistant against 7.7 mm (0.303 in) bullets, but
1386-441: A two-bladed, two-position variable-pitch metal propeller. Top speed was 495 km/h (308 mph) at 4,000 m (13,000 ft) The Ki-43 was equipped with two synchronized cowling machine guns in various configurations, with either two 7.7 mm (0.303 in) Type 89 machine guns , one 12.7 mm (0.50 in) Ho-103 machine gun and one 7.7 mm (0.303 in) gun, or two 12.7 mm (0.50 in) Ho-103 guns;
1485-466: A variety of pigeons. Among pigeons, the rock dove or feral pigeon comprises 80% or more of the dietary intake of peregrines. Other common city birds are also taken regularly, including mourning doves , common wood pigeons , common swifts , northern flickers , eurasian collared doves , common starlings , American robins , common blackbirds , and corvids such as magpies , jays or carrion , house , and American crows . Coastal populations of
1584-410: A well-respected falconry bird due to its strong hunting ability, high trainability, versatility, and availability via captive breeding . It is effective on most game bird species, from small to large. It has also been used as a religious, royal, or national symbol across multiple eras and areas of human civilization. The peregrine falcon has a body length of 34 to 58 cm (13–23 in) and
1683-676: A wingspan from 74 to 120 cm (29–47 in). The male and female have similar markings and plumage but, as with many birds of prey , the peregrine falcon displays marked sexual dimorphism in size, with the female measuring up to 30% larger than the male. Males weigh 330 to 1,000 g (12–35 oz) and the noticeably larger females weigh 700 to 1,500 g (25–53 oz). In most subspecies, males weigh less than 700 g (25 oz) and females weigh more than 800 g (28 oz), and cases of females weighing about 50% more than their male breeding mates are not uncommon. The standard linear measurements of peregrines are:
1782-502: Is a 0.6–0.7% genetic distance in the peregrine falcon-Barbary falcon ("peregrinoid") complex. The peregrine falcon lives mostly along mountain ranges , river valleys , coastlines , and increasingly in cities . In mild-winter regions, it is usually a permanent resident, and some individuals, especially adult males, will remain on the breeding territory. Only populations that breed in Arctic climates typically migrate great distances during
1881-694: Is adapted to available prey in different regions. However, it typically feeds on medium-sized birds such as pigeons and doves , waterfowl , gamebirds , songbirds , parrots , seabirds , and waders . Worldwide, it is estimated that between 1,500 and 2,000 bird species, or roughly a fifth of the world's bird species, are predated somewhere by these falcons. The peregrine falcon preys on the most diverse range of bird species of any raptor in North America, with over 300 species and including nearly 100 shorebirds . Its prey can range from 3 g (0.11 oz) hummingbirds ( Selasphorus and Archilochus ssp.) to
1980-456: Is from the larger females of the largest subspecies to the smaller males of the smallest subspecies, approximately five to one (approximately 1500 g to 300 g). The males of smaller and medium-sized subspecies, and the females of the smaller subspecies, excel in the taking of swift and agile small game birds such as dove, quail, and smaller ducks. The females of the larger subspecies are capable of taking large and powerful game birds such as
2079-421: Is not clear, as the issue is complicated by widespread hybridization confounding mtDNA sequence analyses. One genetic lineage of the saker falcon ( F. cherrug ) is known to have originated from a male saker ancestor producing fertile young with a female peregrine ancestor, and the descendants further breeding with sakers. Today, peregrines are regularly paired in captivity with other species such as
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#17328551651722178-507: Is plucked before consumption. A 2016 study showed that the presence of peregrines benefits non-preferred species while at the same time causing a decline in its preferred prey. As of 2018, the fastest recorded falcon was at 242 mph (nearly 390 km/h). Researchers at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands and at Oxford University used 3D computer simulations in 2018 to show that
2277-510: Is relatively recent, during the time of the Last Ice Age , therefore the genetic differential between them (and also the difference in their appearance) is relatively tiny. They are only about 0.6–0.8% genetically differentiated. Although its diet consists almost exclusively of medium-sized birds, the peregrine will sometimes hunt small mammals, small reptiles, or even insects. Reaching sexual maturity at one year, it mates for life and nests in
2376-454: Is to maintain healthy genetic diversity in the breeding lines. Hybrids of peregrines and gyrfalcons are also available that can combine the best features of both species to create what many consider to be the ultimate falconry bird for the taking of larger game such as the sage-grouse . These hybrids combine the greater size, strength, and horizontal speed of the gyrfalcon with the natural propensity to stoop and greater warm weather tolerance of
2475-565: The Barbary falcon of the Canary Islands and coastal North Africa to be two subspecies ( pelegrinoides and babylonicus ) of Falco peregrinus , rather than a distinct species, F. pelegrinoides . The following map shows the general ranges of these 19 subspecies. The Barbary falcon is a subspecies of the peregrine falcon that inhabits parts of North Africa; namely, from the Canary Islands to
2574-621: The Mitsubishi A6M Zero , the Imperial Japanese Navy's counterpart to the Ki-43. Both aircraft had generally similar layout and lines, and also used essentially the same Nakajima Sakae radial engine , with similar round cowlings and bubble-type canopies (the Oscar 's being distinctly smaller and having much less framing than the A6M). While relatively easy for a trained eye to tell apart with
2673-679: The Mitsubishi Ki-30 , Ki-51 and Kawasaki Ki-32 light bombers, the Tachikawa Ki-9 (for training purposes only), and various other aircraft in the Army Air Force inventory. Additionally, there was also the Te-4 machine gun (the Te designation was given to firearms under 11mm, and Ho to larger weapons such as the 12.7mm Ho-103 heavy machine gun and 20mm Ho-5 autocannon ), the machine gun bore
2772-1000: The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt , Lockheed P-38 Lightning , North American P-51 Mustang , Vought F4U Corsair , Grumman F6F Hellcat , Yakovlev Yak-9 , Yakovlev Yak-3 U and late-model Supermarine Spitfire / Seafire , the Japanese were forced into a defensive war and most aircraft were flown by inexperienced pilots. However, even near the end, the Oscar's excellent maneuverability could still gain advantage over rash Allied pilots. From October to December 1944, 17 Ki-43s were shot down in air combat; their pilots claimed seven C-47s, five Consolidated B-24 Liberators , two Spitfires, two Bristol Beaufighters , two de Havilland Mosquitoes , two F4U Corsairs, two Boeing B-29 Superfortresses , one F6F Hellcat, one P-38, and one North American B-25 Mitchell . Like most Japanese combat types, many Hayabusas were at
2871-893: The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds . The RSPB estimated that there were 1,402 breeding pairs in the UK in 2011. In Canada, where peregrines were identified as endangered in 1978 (in the Yukon territory of northern Canada that year, only a single breeding pair was identified ), the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada declared the species no longer at risk in December 2017. Peregrines now breed in many mountainous and coastal areas, especially in
2970-510: The Type 97 machine gun (fixed), and Type 92 machine gun. The first machine gun is a recoil-operated, licensed copy of the Vickers Class E machine gun re-chambered to 7.7x58mmSR Type 89 cartridge, it is referred to as the "fixed type". It was used in synchronized applications in fighter cowls and in wing gun applications. It was belt-fed , using a steel link disintegrating belt. The fixed Type 89
3069-513: The domestic and feral pigeons are both domesticate forms of the rock dove , which are a major prey species for Eurasian Peregrine populations. Due to their prevalence over most other bird species in cities, feral pigeons support many peregrine populations as a staple food source, especially in urban settings . The peregrine is a highly successful example of urban wildlife in much of its range, taking advantage of tall buildings as nest sites and an abundance of prey such as pigeons and ducks. Both
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3168-452: The fastest animal on the planet. According to a National Geographic TV program, the highest measured speed of a peregrine falcon is 389 km/h (242 mph). As is typical for bird-eating (avivore) raptors, peregrine falcons are sexually dimorphic , with females being considerably larger than males. The peregrine's breeding range includes land regions from the Arctic tundra to
3267-481: The great horned owl and the Eurasian eagle-owl . When reintroductions have been attempted for peregrines, the most serious impediments were these two species of owls routinely picking off nestlings, fledglings and adults by night. Peregrines defending their nests have managed to kill raptors as large as golden eagles and bald eagles (both of which they normally avoid as potential predators) that have come too close to
3366-515: The lanner falcon ( F. biarmicus ) to produce the " perilanner ", a bird popular in falconry as it combines the peregrine's hunting skill with the lanner's hardiness, or the gyrfalcon to produce large, strikingly coloured birds for the use of falconers. Numerous subspecies of Falco peregrinus have been described, with 19 accepted by the 1994 Handbook of the Birds of the World , which considers
3465-461: The peregrine , and historically as the duck hawk in North America , is a cosmopolitan bird of prey (raptor) in the family Falconidae . A large, crow -sized falcon , it has a blue-grey back, barred white underparts, and a black head. The peregrine is renowned for its speed. It can reach over 320 km/h (200 mph) during its characteristic hunting stoop (high-speed dive), making it
3564-512: The prairie falcon ( F. mexicanus ). This lineage probably diverged from other falcons towards the end of the Late Miocene or in the Late Pliocene , about 3–8 million years ago (mya). As the peregrine-hierofalcon group includes both Old World and North American species, it is likely that the lineage originated in western Eurasia or Africa. Its relationship to other falcons
3663-433: The spinal column at the neck. An immature bird is much browner, with streaked, rather than barred, underparts, and has a pale bluish cere and orbital ring. A study shows that their black malar stripe exists to reduce glare from solar radiation , allowing them to see better. Photos from The Macaulay Library and iNaturalist showed that the malar stripe is thicker where there is more solar radiation. That supports
3762-458: The tropics . It can be found nearly everywhere on Earth, except extreme polar regions , very high mountains, and most tropical rainforests ; the only major ice-free landmass from which it is entirely absent is New Zealand . This makes it the world's most widespread raptor and one of the most widely found wild bird species . In fact, the only land-based bird species found over a larger geographic area owes its success to human-led introduction ;
3861-638: The " tiercel ") and the female (simply called the "falcon") both leave the nest to gather prey to feed the young. The hunting territory of the parents can extend a radius of 19 to 24 km (12 to 15 mi) from the nest site. Chicks fledge 42 to 46 days after hatching, and remain dependent on their parents for up to two months. The peregrine falcon is a highly admired falconry bird, and has been used in falconry for more than 3,000 years, beginning with nomads in central Asia . Its advantages in falconry include not only its athleticism and eagerness to hunt, but an equable disposition that leads to it being one of
3960-447: The "finer" lines of the Ki-43's fuselage – especially towards the tail – and more tapered wing planform; in the heat of battle, given the brief glimpses and distraction of combat, Allied aviators frequently made mistakes in enemy aircraft identification in the heat of a dogfight, reportedly having fought "Zeros" in areas where there were no Navy fighters. Like the Zero, the radial-engined Ki-43
4059-597: The 3.1 kg (6.8 lb) sandhill crane , although most prey taken by peregrines weigh between 20 g (0.71 oz) (small passerines ) and 1,100 g (2.4 lb) ( ducks , geese , loons , gulls , capercaillies , ptarmigans and other grouse ). Smaller hawks (such as sharp-shinned hawks ) and owls are regularly predated, as well as smaller falcons such as the American kestrel , merlin and, rarely, other peregrines. In urban areas, where it tends to nest on tall buildings or bridges, it subsists mostly on
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4158-470: The Arabian Peninsula. There is discussion concerning the taxonomic status of the bird, with some considering it a subspecies of the peregrine falcon and others considering it a full species with two subspecies (White et al. 2013). Compared to the other peregrine falcon subspecies, Barbary falcons sport a slimmer body and a distinct plumage color pattern. Despite numbers and range of these birds throughout
4257-480: The Canary Islands generally increasing, they are considered endangered, with human interference through falconry and shooting threatening their well-being. Falconry can further complicate the speciation and genetics of these Canary Islands falcons, as the practice promotes genetic mixing between individuals from outside the islands with those originating from the islands. Population density of the Barbary falcons on Tenerife,
4356-415: The English and scientific names of this species mean "wandering falcon", referring to the migratory habits of many northern populations. Experts recognize 17 to 19 subspecies , which vary in appearance and range; disagreement exists over whether the distinctive Barbary falcon is represented by two subspecies of Falco peregrinus or is a separate species, F. pelegrinoides . The two species' divergence
4455-639: The Ki-27 jigs being transferred to the Mansyu factory at Harbin in Japanese occupied Manchukuo . The Ki-43 (Oscar) was initially produced in November 1939, given the designation Ki-43-I . Deliveries from Nakajima's Ota factory commenced in February 1941. In addition to outstanding maneuverability, the Ki-43-I had an impressive rate of climb due to its light weight. Power was provided by the Nakajima Ha-25 engine turning
4554-714: The Ki-43, the 1st Army Air Arsenal was less successful – hampered by a shortage of skilled workers, it was ordered to stop production after 49 Ki-43s were built. Nakajima eventually ceased production in mid-1944 in favor of the Ki-84 Hayate , but the Tachikawa Hikoki continued to produce the Ki-43. Tachikawa also produced the Ki-43-III , which utilized the more powerful Nakajima Army Type 1 Ha-115-II engine. Maximum speed increased to 576 km/h (358 mph). Tachikawa produced 2,124 Ki-43-II and -III aircraft between April 1944 and
4653-544: The Netherlands East Indies were taken over by the newly declared Indonesian government and put into service during the fight against Dutch forces . Not included: A further 49 Ki-43-II's were assembled from October 1943 to November 1944 at Tachikawa Dai-Ichi Rikugun Kokusho arsenal plant. The number of Ki-43s actually delivered and accepted by August 1945 was 5,751; 3185 from Nakajima, 22 from Rikugun, and 2544 from Tachikawa. Data from Japanese Aircraft of
4752-509: The PCB concentrations found in these falcons is dependent upon the age of the falcon. While high levels are still found in young birds (only a few months old) and even higher concentrations are found in more mature falcons, further increasing in adult peregrine falcons. These pesticides caused falcon prey to also have thinner eggshells (one example of prey being the Black Petrels). In several parts of
4851-555: The Pacific War General characteristics Performance Armament Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Nohara, Shigeru (2000). 中島一式戦闘機「隼」 [ Nakajima ichishiki sentōki hayabusa ]. Aero Detail Volume 29. Tokyo: Dai Nihon Kaiga. ISBN 4-499-22735-6 . OCLC 166435828 . Peregrine falcon 17–19, see text The peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ), also known simply as
4950-627: The US were captive-bred from the progeny of falcons taken before the US Endangered Species Act was enacted and from those few infusions of wild genes available from Canada and special circumstances. Peregrine falcons were removed from the United States' endangered species list in 1999. The successful recovery program was aided by the effort and knowledge of falconers – in collaboration with The Peregrine Fund and state and federal agencies – through
5049-421: The aircraft was given various sub-designations to reflect these differences. The configuration that appears to have been most prevalent at the outset of the war was the first configuration with two 7.7 mm (0.303 in) Type 89 machine guns , while as the war progressed the heavier combinations gained popularity and the version with the heaviest armament was sometimes given the designation Ki-43-Ic. The Ho-103
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#17328551651725148-443: The back but with thin clean bars, is long, narrow, and rounded at the end with a black tip and a white band at the very end. The top of the head and a "moustache" along the cheeks are black, contrasting sharply with the pale sides of the neck and white throat. The cere is yellow, as are the feet, and the beak and claws are black. The upper beak is notched near the tip, an adaptation which enables falcons to kill prey by severing
5247-415: The biggest of the seven major Canary Islands, was found to be 1.27 pairs/100 km , with the mean distance between pairs being 5869 ± 3338 m. The falcons were only observed near large and natural cliffs with a mean altitude of 697.6 m. Falcons show an affinity for tall cliffs away from human-mediated establishments and presence. Barbary falcons have a red neck patch, but otherwise differ in appearance from
5346-634: The bird associated with princes in formal hierarchies of birds of prey, just below the gyrfalcon associated with kings . It was considered "a royal bird, more armed by its courage than its claws". Terminology used by peregrine breeders also used the Old French term gentil , "of noble birth; aristocratic", particularly with the peregrine. Since 1927, the peregrine falcon has been the official mascot of Bowling Green State University in Bowling Green, Ohio . The 2007 U.S. Idaho state quarter features
5445-478: The calibre that we have not seen since Joseph Conrad ". In the book, Baker recounts, in diary form, his detailed observations of peregrines (and their interaction with other birds) near his home in Chelmsford , Essex, over a single winter from October to April. Type 89 machine gun Type 89 refers to two unrelated Imperial Japanese Army aircraft machine guns . Its Imperial Japanese Navy counterparts are
5544-401: The chicks fledged. In Oregon , Portland houses ten percent of the state's peregrine nests, despite only covering around 0.1 percent of the state's land area. Due to its striking hunting technique, the peregrine has often been associated with aggression and martial prowess. The Ancient Egyptian solar deity Ra was often represented as a man with the head of a peregrine falcon adorned with
5643-444: The easier falcons to train. The peregrine falcon has the additional advantage of a natural flight style of circling above the falconer ("waiting on") for game to be flushed, and then performing an effective and exciting high-speed diving stoop to take the quarry . The speed of the stoop not only allows the falcon to catch fast flying birds, it also enhances the falcon's ability to execute maneuvers to catch highly agile prey, and allows
5742-416: The eggs are lost early in the nesting season, the female usually lays another clutch, although this is extremely rare in the Arctic due to the short summer season. Generally three to four eggs, but sometimes as few as one or as many as five, are laid in the scrape. The eggs are white to buff with red or brown markings. They are incubated for 29 to 33 days, mainly by the female, with the male also helping with
5841-704: The end expended in kamikaze strikes. The Ki-43 also served in an air defense role over Formosa , Okinawa and the Japanese home islands . Some examples were supplied to the pro-Japanese regimes of Thailand , Manchukuo and Wang Jingwei Government as well. The Thai units sometimes fought against the USAAF in southern China. Hayabusas were well liked in the JAAF because of the pleasant flight characteristics and excellent maneuverability, and almost all JAAF fighter aces claimed victories with Hayabusa in some part of their career. At
5940-617: The end of the war, most Hayabusa units received Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate "Frank" and Kawasaki Ki-100 fighters, but some units flew the Hayabusa to the end of the war. The top-scoring Hayabusa pilot was Sergeant Satoshi Anabuki with 39 confirmed victories, almost all scored with the Ki-43. After the war, some captured examples served in limited numbers in the French Air Force in Indochina against Viet Minh rebels. Ki-43s abandoned in
6039-559: The end of the war. Total production of all versions amounted to 5,919 aircraft. The Ki-43 was the most widely used Army fighter, and equipped 30 sentai FR (flight regiment) and 12 Dokuritsu Dai Shijugo Chutai ("Direct command fighter squadron" - independent squadrons not incorporated into sentai s). The first unit equipped with the Ki 43-I was the 59th FR at Hankow Airfield, during June–August 1941 and began operational sorties over Hengyang on 29 October 1941. The second unit to re-equip with
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#17328551651726138-461: The eyes, is thought to reduce solar glare and improve contrast sensitivity when targeting fast moving prey in bright light condition; the malar stripe has been found to be wider and more pronounced in regions of the world with greater solar radiation supporting this solar glare hypothesis. Peregrine falcons have a flicker fusion frequency of 129 Hz (cycles per second), very fast for a bird of its size, and much faster than mammals. A study testing
6237-521: The falcon to deliver a knockout blow with a fist-like clenched talon against game that may be much larger than itself. Additionally the versatility of the species, with agility allowing capture of smaller birds and a strength and attacking style allowing capture of game much larger than themselves, combined with the wide size range of the many peregrine subspecies, means there is a subspecies suitable to almost any size and type of game bird. This size range, evolved to fit various environments and prey species,
6336-423: The female in mid-air. To make this possible, the female actually flies upside-down to receive the food from the male's talons. During the breeding season, the peregrine falcon is territorial; nesting pairs are usually more than 1 km (0.62 mi) apart, and often much farther, even in areas with large numbers of pairs. The distance between nests ensures sufficient food supply for pairs and their chicks. Within
6435-409: The fighter suffered from the same weaknesses as the slower, fixed-gear Ki-27 "Nate" predecessor to the Oscar , and the more advanced naval A6M Zero; light armor and less-than-effective self-sealing fuel tanks , which caused high casualties in combat. Its armament of two machine guns also proved inadequate against the more heavily armored Allied aircraft. As newer Allied aircraft were introduced, such as
6534-523: The flight physics of an "ideal falcon" found a theoretical speed limit at 400 km/h (250 mph) for low-altitude flight and 625 km/h (388 mph) for high-altitude flight. In 2005, Ken Franklin recorded a falcon stooping at a top speed of 389 km/h (242 mph). The life span of peregrine falcons in the wild is up to 19 years 9 months. Mortality in the first year is 59–70%, declining to 25–32% annually in adults. Apart from such anthropogenic threats as collision with human-made objects,
6633-504: The genetic diversity of this species. Since peregrine falcon eggs and chicks are still often targeted by illegal poachers, it is common practice not to publicize unprotected nest locations. Populations of the peregrine falcon have bounced back in most parts of the world. In the United Kingdom, there has been a recovery of populations since the crash of the 1960s. This has been greatly assisted by conservation and protection work led by
6732-434: The high speed allows peregrines to gain better maneuverability and precision in strikes. The peregrine falcon is sexually mature at one to three years of age, but in larger populations they breed after two to three years of age. A pair mates for life and returns to the same nesting spot annually. The courtship flight includes a mix of aerial acrobatics, precise spirals, and steep dives. The male passes prey it has caught to
6831-561: The impact, then turns to catch it in mid-air. If its prey is too heavy to carry, a peregrine will drop it to the ground and eat it there. If they miss the initial strike, peregrines will chase their prey in a twisting flight. Although previously thought rare, several cases of peregrines contour-hunting, i.e., using natural contours to surprise and ambush prey on the ground, have been reported and even rare cases of prey being pursued on foot. In addition, peregrines have been documented preying on chicks in nests, from birds such as kittiwakes. Prey
6930-504: The inclusion of non-native subspecies was justified to optimize the genetic diversity found within the species as a whole. During the 1970s, peregrine falcons in Finland experienced a population bottleneck as a result of large declines associated with bio-accumulation of organochloride pesticides. However, the genetic diversity of peregrines in Finland is similar to other populations, indicating that high dispersal rates have maintained
7029-426: The incubation of the eggs during the day, but only the female incubating them at night. The average number of young found in nests is 2.5, and the average number that fledge is about 1.5, due to the occasional production of infertile eggs and various natural losses of nestlings. After hatching, the chicks (called " eyases " ) are covered with creamy-white down and have disproportionately large feet. The male (called
7128-672: The large subspecies pealei feed almost exclusively on seabirds . In the Brazilian mangrove swamp of Cubatão , a wintering falcon of the subspecies tundrius was observed successfully hunting a juvenile scarlet ibis . Among mammalian prey species, bats in the genera Eptesicus , Myotis , Pipistrellus and Tadarida are the most common prey taken at night. Though peregrines generally do not prefer terrestrial mammalian prey, in Rankin Inlet , peregrines largely take northern collared lemmings ( Dicrostonyx groenlandicus ) along with
7227-461: The largest of duck species, pheasant, and grouse. Peregrine falcons handled by falconers are also occasionally used to scare away birds at airports to reduce the risk of bird-plane strikes , improving air-traffic safety. They were also used to intercept homing pigeons during World War II. Peregrine falcons have been successfully bred in captivity, both for falconry and for release into the wild. Until 2004 nearly all peregrines used for falconry in
7326-484: The last months of the war for kamikaze missions against the American fleet. The Ki-43 was designed by Hideo Itokawa , who would later become famous as a pioneer of Japanese rocketry. The Ki-43 prototype was produced in response to a December 1937 specification for an interceptor/escort fighter successor to the popular fixed-gear Nakajima Ki-27 'Nate'. The specification called for a top speed of 500 km/h (310 mph),
7425-422: The name was used as juvenile birds were taken while journeying to their breeding location (rather than from the nest), as falcon nests are often difficult to get at. The Latin term for falcon, falco , is related to falx , meaning " sickle ", in reference to the silhouette of the falcon's long, pointed wings in flight. The peregrine falcon belongs to a genus whose lineage includes the hierofalcons and
7524-526: The natural cliff ledges that the peregrine prefers for its nesting locations. The pair defends the chosen nest site against other peregrines, and often against ravens , herons , and gulls , and if ground-nesting, also such mammals as foxes , wolverines , felids , bears , wolves , and mountain lions . Both nests and (less frequently) adults are predated by larger-bodied raptorial birds like eagles , large owls , or gyrfalcons . The most serious predators of peregrine nests in North America and Europe are
7623-688: The nest by ambushing them in a full stoop. In one instance, when a snowy owl killed a newly fledged peregrine, the larger owl was in turn killed by a stooping peregrine parent. The date of egg-laying varies according to locality, but is generally from February to March in the Northern Hemisphere , and from July to August in the Southern Hemisphere , although the Australian subspecies macropus may breed as late as November, and equatorial populations may nest anytime between June and December. If
7722-793: The new Aircraft was the 64th FR, from August to November 1941. The first version, Ki-43-I, entered service in 1941, the Ki-43-II in December 1942, the Ki-43-II- Kai in June 1943, and the Ki-43-IIIa in summer 1944. The aircraft fought in China, Burma, the Malay Peninsula , New Guinea , the Philippines, South Pacific islands and the Japanese home islands. Like the Zero, the Ki-43 initially enjoyed air superiority in
7821-411: The northern winter. The peregrine falcon reaches faster speeds than any other animal on the planet when performing the stoop, which involves soaring to a great height and then diving steeply at speeds of over 320 km/h (200 mph), hitting one wing of its prey so as not to harm itself on impact. The air pressure from such a dive could possibly damage a bird's lungs , but small bony tubercles on
7920-603: The origins of captive breeding stock used by the Peregrine Fund in the recovery of peregrine falcons throughout the contiguous United States. Several peregrine subspecies were included in the breeding stock, including birds of Eurasian origin. Due to the extirpation of the eastern population of Falco peregrinus anatum , the near-extirpation of anatum in the Midwest and the limited gene pool within North American breeding stock,
8019-594: The peregrine falcon proper merely according to Gloger's rule , relating pigmentation to environmental humidity . The Barbary falcon has a peculiar way of flying, beating only the outer part of its wings as fulmars sometimes do; this also occurs in the peregrine falcon, but less often and far less pronounced. The Barbary falcon's shoulder and pelvis bones are stout by comparison with the peregrine falcon and its feet are smaller. Barbary falcons breed at different times of year than neighboring peregrine falcon subspecies, but they are capable of interbreeding. There
8118-728: The peregrine may be killed by larger hawks and owls . The peregrine falcon is host to a range of parasites and pathogens . It is a vector for Avipoxvirus , Newcastle disease virus , Falconid herpesvirus 1 (and possibly other Herpesviridae ), and some mycoses and bacterial infections . Endoparasites include Plasmodium relictum (usually not causing malaria in the peregrine falcon), Strigeidae trematodes , Serratospiculum amaculata ( nematode ), and tapeworms . Known peregrine falcon ectoparasites are chewing lice , Ceratophyllus garei (a flea ), and Hippoboscidae flies ( Icosta nigra , Ornithoctona erythrocephala ). The peregrine falcon's diet varies greatly and
8217-417: The peregrine. The peregrine falcon became an endangered species over much of its range because of the use of organochlorine pesticides , especially DDT , during the 1950s, '60s, and '70s. Pesticide biomagnification caused organochlorine to build up in the falcons' fat tissues, reducing the amount of calcium in their eggshells. With thinner shells, fewer falcon eggs survived until hatching. In addition,
8316-566: The skies of Malaya , Dutch East Indies , Burma and New Guinea. This was partly due to the better performance of the Oscar and partly due to the relatively small numbers of combat-ready Allied fighters, mostly the Curtiss P-36 Hawk , Curtiss P-40 , Brewster Buffalo , Hawker Hurricane and Curtiss-Wright CW-21 in Asia and the Pacific during the first months of the war. As the war progressed, however,
8415-577: The solar disk, although most Egyptologists agree that it is most likely a Lanner falcon . Native Americans of the Mississippian culture (c. 800–1500) used the peregrine, along with several other birds of prey, in imagery as a symbol of "aerial (celestial) power" and buried men of high status in costumes associating to the ferocity of raptorial birds. In the late Middle Ages , the Western European nobility that used peregrines for hunting, considered
8514-399: The solar glare hypothesis. Falco peregrinus was first described under its current binomial name by English ornithologist Marmaduke Tunstall in his 1771 work Ornithologia Britannica . The scientific name Falco peregrinus is a Medieval Latin phrase that was used by Albertus Magnus in 1225. Peregrinus is Latin, meaning "one from abroad" or "coming from foreign parts". It is likely
8613-405: The species in captivity. The chicks are usually fed through a chute or with a hand puppet mimicking a peregrine's head, so they cannot see to imprint on the human trainers. Then, when they are old enough, the rearing box is opened, allowing the bird to train its wings. As the fledgling gets stronger, feeding is reduced, forcing the bird to learn to hunt. This procedure is called hacking back to
8712-472: The west and north, and nest in some urban areas, capitalising on the urban feral pigeon populations for food. Additionally, falcons benefit from artificial illumination, which allows the raptors to extend their hunting periods into the dusk when natural illumination would otherwise be too low for them to pursue prey. In England , this has allowed them to prey on nocturnal migrants such as redwings , fieldfares , starlings , and woodcocks . In many parts of
8811-513: The west coast of northern North America, large tree hollows are used for nesting. Before the demise of most European peregrines, a large population of peregrines in central and western Europe used the disused nests of other large birds. In remote, undisturbed areas such as the Arctic, steep slopes and even low rocks and mounds may be used as nest sites. In many parts of its range, peregrines now also nest regularly on tall buildings or bridges; these human-made structures used for breeding closely resemble
8910-491: The wild . To release a captive-bred falcon, the bird is placed in a special cage at the top of a tower or cliff ledge for some days or so, allowing it to acclimate itself to its future environment. Worldwide recovery efforts have been remarkably successful. The widespread restriction of DDT use eventually allowed released birds to breed successfully. The peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species list on 25 August 1999. Some controversy has existed over
9009-480: The wing chord measures 26.5 to 39 cm (10.4–15.4 in), the tail measures 13 to 19 cm (5.1–7.5 in) and the tarsus measures 4.5 to 5.6 cm (1.8–2.2 in). The back and the long pointed wings of the adult are usually bluish black to slate grey with indistinct darker barring (see "Subspecies" below ); the wingtips are black. The white to rusty underparts are barred with thin clean bands of dark brown or black. The tail, coloured like
9108-491: The world peregrine falcons have adapted to urban habitats, nesting on cathedrals , skyscraper window ledges, tower blocks, and the towers of suspension bridges . Many of these nesting birds are encouraged, sometimes gathering media attention and often monitored by cameras. In England , peregrine falcons have become increasingly urban in distribution, particularly in southern areas where inland cliffs suitable as nesting sites are scarce. The first recorded urban breeding pair
9207-647: The world, such as the eastern United States and Belgium , this species became extirpated (locally extinct) as a result. An alternate point of view is that populations in the eastern North America had vanished due to hunting and egg collection. Following the ban of organochlorine pesticides, the reproductive success of Peregrines increased in Scotland in terms of territory occupancy and breeding success, although spatial variation in recovery rates indicate that in some areas Peregrines were also impacted by other factors such as persecution. Peregrine falcon recovery teams breed
9306-478: Was fed from two quadrant-shaped 45-round pan magazines (each magazine has a place for nine 5-round stripper clips ). The machine gun was used as a rear gun on aircraft and some were pressed into ground and anti-aircraft use. Single or doubled Type 89s were used in most Imperial Japanese Army aircraft that had flexible defensive weapons, including the Mitsubishi Ki-21 , Ki-67 and Nakajima Ki-49 heavy bombers,
9405-556: Was light and easy to fly and became legendary for its combat performance in East Asia in the early years of the war. It could outmaneuver any opponent, but did not initially have armor or self-sealing fuel tanks , and its armament was poor until its final version, which was produced as late as 1945. Allied pilots often reported that the nimble Ki-43s were difficult targets but burned easily or broke apart with few hits. Total production amounted to 5,919 aircraft. Many of these were used during
9504-589: Was not as effective against larger calibers. The pilot also enjoyed a slightly taller canopy and a reflector gunsight in place of the earlier telescopic gunsight. Nakajima commenced production of the Ki-43-II at its Ota factory in November 1942. Production was also started at the Tachikawa Aircraft Company Ltd ( Tachikawa Hikoki KK ) and the 1st Army Air Arsenal ( Tachikawa Dai-Ichi Rikugun Kokusho ), also at Tachikawa . Although Tachikawa Hikoki successfully managed to enter into large-scale production of
9603-516: Was observed nesting on the Swansea Guildhall in the 1980s. In Southampton , a nest prevented restoration of mobile telephony services for several months in 2013, after Vodafone engineers despatched to repair a faulty transmitter mast discovered a nest in the mast, and were prevented by the Wildlife and Countryside Act – on pain of a possible prison sentence – from proceeding with repairs until
9702-458: Was often loaded with explosive ammunition to increase target effect; its penetrative effect against later Allied aircraft armor appears to have been marginal. Prototypes for the Ki-43-II flew in February 1942. The Ha-25 engine was upgraded with the 2-stage supercharger , thus becoming the more powerful Nakajima Ha-115 engine, which was installed in a longer-chord cowling. The new engine turned
9801-694: Was used in the Nakajima Ki-27 , Ki-43 , early Ki-44 fighters, the Mitsubishi Ki-30 and Ki-51 light bombers , the Kawasaki Ki-32 light bomber and various others. Communist forces used some ex-Japanese Type 89s during the Korean War . Indonesian Republican forces also used them for ground use during the Indonesian National Revolution . The second machine gun is gas-operated , it consists of two modified Type 11 machine guns paired into
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