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54-579: In 1936, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service issued a requirement for a new heavy bomber to replace both the Ki-20 (Army Type 92 Heavy Bomber) and the Ki-1 (Army Type 93 Heavy Bomber). The design called for a crew of at least four, top speed of 400 km/h (250 mph), endurance of at least five hours, and a bombload of 750 kg (1,650 lb). The design parameters were very ambitious for

108-629: A Farman biplane and a Grade monoplane , which had been brought back by the officers from Western Europe. On December 19, 1909, Captain Yoshitoshi Tokugawa in a Farman III conducted the first successful powered flight on Japanese soil at Yoyogi Parade Ground in Tokyo. The following year in 1911, several more aircraft were imported and an improved version of the Farman III biplane, the Kaishiki No.1 ,

162-615: A division , the unit was a brigade-sized force, and was part of the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service (IJAAS). The Teishin units were therefore distinct from the marine parachute units of the Special Naval Landing Forces . ' Giretsu ' ( 義烈空挺隊 , Giretsu Kūteitai ) was an airborne special forces unit of the Imperial Japanese Army formed from Army paratroopers , in late 1944 as

216-758: A complete re-organization of the Army Air Service resulted in the creation of the Hikō Sentai ( 飛行戦隊 , Air Combat Group) , which replaced all of the former Air Battalions and Air Regiments. Each Air Combat Group was a single-purpose unit consisting typically of three squadrons, divided into three shōtai ( 小隊 , flights) of three aircraft each. Together with reserve aircraft and the headquarters flight, an Air Combat Group typically had 45 aircraft (fighter) or up to 30 aircraft (bomber or reconnaissance). Two or more Air Combat Groups formed an Hikōdan ( 飛行団 , Air Brigade) , which, together with base and support units and

270-664: A dedicated military balloon unit. In 1909, together with the Imperial Japanese Navy and the Tokyo Imperial University , the Rinji Gunyo Kikyu Kenkyukai ( Temporary Military Balloon Research Association ) was set up. The association was chaired by Major General Masahiko Obama and continued to drive Japanese aviation policy until 1920. During March of that year Army Lieutenant Hino and Navy Engineer Sanji Narahara each designed an aircraft. Narahara flew

324-662: A hydrogen balloon in 1897. In 1900 he invented a cylindrical kite balloon and sold them to the Imperial Japanese Army. The army first used them operationally during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 for artillery spotting. In 1907, Lieutenant Commander Eisuke Yamamoto approached the Ministers of the Army and Navy, General Masatake Terauchi and Admiral Minoru Saito . They formulated an aeronautical policy and established

378-419: A lack of armament and self-sealing fuel tanks , while the aircraft's oxygen system also proved unreliable. The Ki-21-Ib was an improved version designed to address the armament issue by increasing the number of 7.7 mm (0.303 in) Type 89 machine guns to five, and incorporating improvements to the horizontal tail surfaces and trailing edge flaps . In addition, the bomb bay was enlarged. The tail gun

432-618: A last-ditch attempt to reduce and delay Allied bombing raids on the Japanese home islands . The Giretsu Special Forces unit was commanded by Lieutenant General Kyoji Tominaga . In 1940 the Japanese Army Air Service consisted of the following: The Japanese Air Army Force had one technical section, the First Tachikawa Air Army Arsenal, which was in charge of aviation research and development. The Arsenal included

486-529: A number of Independent Squadrons, formed an Hikō Shudan ( 飛行集団 , Air Corps) . In 1942, the Air Corps were renamed Hikō Shidan ( 飛行師団 , Air Divisions) , to mirror the terminology for infantry divisions , but the structure remained the same. Two Air Divisions, together with some independent units made an Kōkū gun ( 航空軍 , Air Army) . Throughout most of the Pacific War , the Japanese Army Air Service

540-501: A single Nieuport VI-M monoplane flew 86 sorties between them. In December 1915, an air battalion based around 1 air company and 1 balloon company was created under the Army Transport Command and located at Tokorozawa . The Army Transport Command became responsible for all air operations. In total 10 aircraft were added the Army Air Service in 1914 and 1915. A number of Japanese pilots served with French flying corp during

594-706: A testing section for captured Allied aircraft, the Air Technical Research Laboratory (Koku Gijutsu Kenkyujo). The Army Air Arsenal was also connected with Tachikawa Hikoki K.K. and Rikugun Kokukosho K.K. , the Army-owned and operated aircraft manufacturing companies. much as the IJNAS operated its own firm, the Yokosuka Naval Air Technical Arsenal . Due to the poor relations between the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy ,

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648-498: The Taiyō Maru , Unyo Maru , Chuyo Maru , Kaiyō Maru , Shinyo Maru , Kamakura Maru , Akitsu Maru , Nigitsu Maru , Kumano Maru , Yamashiro Maru , Shimane Maru , Chigusa Maru (not completed), and Otakisan Maru (not completed) and were operated by civilian crews with Army personnel manning the light and medium anti-aircraft guns . As an integral part of the IJA,

702-570: The Bolshevik Red Army near Vladivostok . From 1918 reorganisation of the Army Air Service, the basic unit of the Service remained the Air Battalion (航空大隊, Kōkū Daitai), with each battalion consisting of two squadrons (中隊, Chutai) with nine aircraft each, plus three reserve aircraft and three earmarked for use by the headquarters, for a total of 24 aircraft per battalion. The officer commanding

756-519: The Fiat BR.20 bombers which had been purchased as an interim measure. Several improved versions followed before the production of the type ended in September 1944. A total of 2,064 aircraft were built, 1,713 by Mitsubishi and 351 by Nakajima. The Ki-21-Ia was used in combat in the war with China by the 60th Sentai from autumn 1938, carrying out long-range unescorted bombing missions in conjunction with

810-696: The Hispano-Suiza engine. Nakajima later license-produced the Gloster Sparrowhawk and Bristol Jupiter . Similarly, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries started producing aircraft under license from Sopwith in 1921, and Kawasaki Heavy Industries started producing the Salmson 2 A.2 bomber from France, and hired German engineers such as Dr. Richard Vogt to produce original designs such as the Type 88 bomber. Kawasaki also produced aircraft engines under license from BMW . By

864-626: The Mitsubishi Kinsei . Produced in a wide variety of models, the Kasei began with a rated power of 1,530 horsepower (1,140 kW), with a gradual evolution to 1,850 horsepower (1,380 kW) in later wartime versions. Three variants were developed for the Japanese Navy starting in 1939. It was also later adopted by the Imperial Japanese Army as the Ha-101 engine. Unified code was Ha-32. Physically,

918-703: The Nakajima Ha-5 engines used by the Nakajima design and vice versa, while the Ki-21 gained a revised glazed nose similar to that of the Ki-19 and revised tail surfaces. Thus modified, the Ki-21 proved superior and was ordered into production in November 1937 as the "Army Type 97 Heavy Bomber Model 1A". Production aircraft began to enter service in August 1938, supplementing and then replacing

972-533: The Pacific War that the two air arms attempted to integrate the air defense of the home islands . The Japanese military became interested in the use of captive balloons in the mid 19th century, having noted their use by Western European armies. The first experimental ascent by the Japanese was in 1874 at the cadet military school. Japan began to construct its own balloons in 1877 based on a French one they had acquired. Yamada Isaburô, an industrialist, started to develop

1026-778: The Royal Thai Air Force against Vichy French forces in French Indochina but did not participate in the French-Thai War as its crews had not completed training. Towards the end of the war, remaining Ki-21s were used by Giretsu Special Forces in strikes against American forces in Okinawa and the Ryūkyū Islands . One of the noted operations was an attack on the Allied-held Yontan airfield and Kadena airfield on

1080-512: The Air Armies were combined under a centralised command of General Masakazu Kawabe . Teishin Shudan ("Raiding Group") was the IJA's special forces / airborne unit during World War II . The word teishin may be literally translated as "dash forward", and is usually translated as "raiding". It may also be regarded as similar to the " commando " designation in the terminology of other armies. Called

1134-517: The Army Air Service wore the standard Imperial Japanese Army Uniforms . Only flying personnel and ground crews wore sky blue trim and stripes, while officers wore their ranks on sky blue patches. Mitsubishi Kasei The Mitsubishi Kasei ( 火星 , Mars) was a two-row, 14-cylinder air-cooled radial engine built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and used in a variety of World War II Japanese aircraft , such as Mitsubishi J2M and Mitsubishi G4M . The Mitsubishi model designation for this engine

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1188-435: The Army found it necessary to procure and operate their own aircraft carriers for the purposes of providing escort and protection for Army transport shipping convoys. These escort/transport carriers were converted from small passenger liners or merchant ships and possessed the capacity to operate from eight to 38 aircraft, depending on type and size, and were also used to transport personnel and tanks. These vessels included

1242-640: The BR.20 equipped 12th and 98th Sentai s. The Ki-21 proved to be more successful than the BR.20, having a longer range and being more robust and reliable. Two more Sentai s, the 58th and 61st deployed to Manchuria in the summer of 1939 for operations against China, with aircraft from the 61st also being heavily used against Russian and Mongolian Forces during the Nomonhan Incident in June–July 1939. Losses were high during early combat operations, with weaknesses including

1296-569: The Croix de Guerre. Isobe Onokichi , Ishibashi Katsunami , Masaru Kaiya (IJN), Tadao Yamanaka , Masatoshi Takeishi , Isakitchy Nagao , and Moro Goroku , a Kawasaki aircraft engineer, also served in the French Flying corp. However, serious interest in military aviation did not develop until after World War I . Japanese military observers in Western Europe were quick to spot the advantages of

1350-592: The Imperial Japanese Army Air Force during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II were: With the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, operational conditions favored the use of many small units, resulting in the creation of many Dokuritsu Hikō Daitai ( 独立飛行大隊 , independent Air Battalions) or even Dokuritsu Hikō Chutai ( 独立飛行中隊 , independent squadrons) , each with its own distinctive markings. In August 1938,

1404-549: The Ki-21 began to suffer heavy casualties from Curtiss P-40s and Hawker Hurricanes . To partially compensate, the IJAAF introduced the Ki-21-IIb , with a pedal-operated upper turret with one 12.7 mm (0.50 in) Type 1 machine gun , redesigned cockpit canopies and increased fuel capacity. Although used in all fronts in the Pacific theater, it became clear by 1942 that the design

1458-604: The aircraft on 5 May 1910 making it the first Japanese built plane to do so. Subsequent designs were unsuccessful and the Army and Navy decided to utilise foreign aircraft until they could build a sufficient level of technical skill in Japan to design and build their own aircraft. In 1910, the society sent Captain Yoshitoshi Tokugawa and Captain Hino Kumazō to France and Germany, respectively, to receive pilot training and purchase aircraft. The Japanese Army purchased its first aircraft,

1512-560: The chutai was the Chutaicho, whose rank was usually that of captain. The commander's aircraft often had distinctive markings, often a partly or totally scarlet, red, orange or yellow tail. The first aircraft factory in Japan, Nakajima Aircraft Company , was founded in 1916 and later obtained a license to produce the Nieuport 24 and Nieuport-Delage NiD 29 C.1 (as the Nakajima Ko-4) as well as

1566-749: The command structure of the Imperial Japanese Air Service fell under three separate areas. Operations were controlled by the Chief of General Staff through the area Army's direct to the Air Army's in each respective area. Training fell under the Inspectorate General of Aviation and personal, administration, and procurement fell under both the Minister of War and the Aviation Headquarters. See

1620-673: The earlier Ha-5 powered models, and "Sally 2" referring to the Ha-101 powered Ki-21-IIa. Data from The Concise Guide to Axis Aircraft of World War II General characteristics Performance Armament Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Imperial Japanese Army Air Service The Imperial Japanese Army Air Service ( IJAAS ) or Imperial Japanese Army Air Force ( IJAAF ; Japanese : 大日本帝國陸軍航空部隊 , romanized :  Dainippon Teikoku Rikugun Kōkūbutai , lit.   'Greater Japan Empire Army Air Corps')

1674-566: The end of the 1920s, Japan was producing its own designs to meet the needs of the Army, and by 1935 had a large inventory of indigenous aircraft designs that were technically sophisticated. Japanese army aviation was organized into a separate chain of command within the Ministry of War of Japan in 1919. In May 1925, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Corps was established under the command of Lieutenant General Kinichi Yasumitsu , it

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1728-580: The final phase of the war, the Special Attack Units evolved into dedicated suicide units for kamikaze missions. Around 170 of these units were formed, 57 by the Instructor Air Division alone. Notionally equipped with 12 aircraft each, it eventually comprised around 2,000 aircraft. The final reorganisation of the took place during preparation for Operation Ketsu-Go , the defence of the home islands in 1945 against expected invasion when all

1782-443: The final stages of the war were the formation of "Special Attack Units" and "Air-shaking Units", which were short-lived units with their own names (often taken from Japanese mythology or history) and markings, but located within existing squadrons. These units were specially designated and trained with the mission of air-to-air ramming of Allied bomber aircraft. They usually had their armaments removed and their airframes reinforced. In

1836-568: The increase in weight, the main wheels of the Ki-21-IC were increased in size. However, by the attack on Pearl Harbor and the start of the Pacific War , improvements in the ROC Air Force caused losses to mount, and most Ki-21-1a, -1b and -1c were relegated to training or second-line duties. Front line units from mid-1940 were equipped with the Ki-21-IIa ("Army Type 97 Heavy Bomber Model 2A") with

1890-432: The mid-1930's; few twin-engine bombers anywhere in the world could exceed such performance at that time. Both Mitsubishi and Nakajima were asked to build two prototypes each, a further proposal from Kawasaki was rejected. The Mitsubishi design was an all-metal mid-wing cantilever monoplane with retractable landing gear , ventral bomb bay and two radial engines . The first prototype flew on 18 December 1936, with

1944-1227: The more powerful 1,118 kW (1,500 hp) Mitsubishi Ha-101 air-cooled engines and larger horizontal tail surfaces. This became the main version operated by most IJAAF heavy bomber squadrons at the beginning of the Pacific War and played a major role in many early campaigns. For operations over the Philippines , the JAAF's 5th, 14th and 62nd Air Groups, based in Taiwan , attacked American targets at Aparri , Tuguegarao , Vigan and other targets in Luzon on 8 December 1941. The 3rd, 12th, 60th, and 98th Air Groups, based in French Indochina, struck British and Australian targets in Thailand and Malaya , bombing Alor Star , Sungai Petani and Butterworth under escort by Nakajima Ki-27 and Ki-43 fighters. However, starting from operations over Burma in December 1941 and early 1942,

1998-482: The name was quickly changed to "Sally" when General Douglas MacArthur objected that the name was the same as that of his wife. When the Ki-21-IIb entered service, the absence of the long dorsal "greenhouse" led Allied observers to mistake it for a completely new type, which was designated "Gwen". However, when it was realized that "Gwen" was a new version of the Ki-21, it was renamed "Sally 3", with "Sally 1" referring to

2052-455: The new technology, and after the end of the war, Japan purchased large numbers of surplus military aircraft, including 20 Sopwith 1½ Strutters , 3 Nieuport 24s , and 6 Spads . To cope with this increase in the number of available aircraft the first flying school was set up at Tozorozawa (Tokorozawa Rikugun Koku Seibi Gakkō) followed by Akeno and Shimoshizu . A French military mission was invited to Japan to help develop aviation. The mission

2106-666: The night of 24 May 1945. Twelve Ki-21-IIb's of the Daisan Dokuritsu Hikōtai were dispatched for a strike, each with 14 commandos . Five managed to crash-land on the Yontan airfield. Only one plane landed successfully. The surviving raiders, armed with submachine guns and explosives, then wrought havoc on the supplies and nearby aircraft, destroyed 70,000 US gallons (260,000 L) of fuel and nine aircraft, and damaged 26 more. A number of Ki-21-Ia were modified to serve as military transports for use by Greater Japan Airways , which

2160-445: The respective Air Army: See the Inspectorate General of Aviation See Ministry of the Army By 1941, the Japanese Army Air Force had about 1,500 combat aircraft. During the first years of the war, Japan continued technical development and deployment of increasingly advanced aircraft and enjoyed air superiority over most battlefields due to the combat experience of its crews and the handling qualities of its aircraft. However, as

2214-500: The restricted strategic materials, the Japanese found themselves materialistically outmatched. In terms of manpower, Japan was even worse off. Experienced crews were killed and replacements had not been planned. The Japanese had lost skilled trainers, and they did not have the fuel or the time to use the trainers they did have. Because of this, towards the end of its existence the JAAF resorted to kamikaze attacks against overwhelmingly superior Allied forces. Important aircraft used by

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2268-592: The second prototype, which differed in replacing the dorsal turret of the first prototype with a long greenhouse canopy, following later in the month. In the resulting competition, Mitsubishi's Ki-21 and Nakajima's Ki-19 were found to be similar, with the Ki-21 having better performance, while the Nakajima design was a better bombing platform and had more reliable engines. In order to make a final decision, two further prototypes were ordered from both Mitsubishi and Nakajima, with Mitsubishi instructed to change its own 615 kW (825 hp) Mitsubishi Ha-6 radial engines for

2322-407: The war continued, Japan found that its production could not match that of the Allies. On top of these production problems, Japan faced continuous combat and thus continued losses. Furthermore, there were continual production disruptions brought on by moving factories from location to location, each transfer with the goal of avoiding the Allied strategic bombing. Between these factors and others, such as

2376-418: The war. Kiyotake Shigeno joined the corps in December 1914. He was a member of the league of French flying aces having shot down two confirmed and six unconfirmed German aircraft. He also was awarded the Ordre national de la Légion d’honneur, France's highest decoration. Kobayashi Shukunosuke became a licensed pilot in December 1916, dying in combat during the 1918 Spring Offensive. He was posthumously awarded

2430-401: Was A10 while it was an experimental project, in service it was known as the MK4 , and known as the Ha101 & Ha111 by the Army and Kasei by the Navy. According to unified designation code it was Ha-32 of the variants from 11 to 27. Although originally ordered by the Imperial Japanese Navy , the Kasei was based on the earlier Mitsubishi Shinten engine, itself based originally on

2484-446: Was a 'stinger' installation and was remotely controlled. Also, the fuel tanks were partially protected with laminated rubber sheets. This was followed in production by the Ki-21-Ic with provision for a 500 L (130 US gal) auxiliary fuel tank, fitted in the rear weapons bay and one more 7.7 mm (0.303 in) machine gun, bringing the total to six. Four 50 kg (110 lb) bombs were carried externally. To offset

2538-461: Was built and flown in Japan by Captain Togugawa. Also in 1911 a policy decision was made to split the Army and Navy aviation into two separate organisations. In 1914, with the outbreak of war, the Japanese laid siege to the German colony of Qingdao , aircraft from the army together with navy's seaplane carrier Wakamiya conducted reconnaissance and bombing operations. The Provisional Air Corps consisting of four Maurice Farman MF.7 biplanes and

2592-399: Was headed by Jacques-Paul Faure and composed of 63 members to establish the fundamentals of the Japanese aviation, the mission also brought several aircraft including 30 Salmson 2A2 as well as 2 Caquot dirigibles. In 1919 40 Nieuport , 100 Spad XIII , and two Breguet XIV . During this time Japanese aircraft were being used in combat roles during the 1920 Siberian Intervention against

2646-418: Was not the primary mission of the IJAAS, and it lacked a heavy bomber force. It did not usually control artillery spotter/observer aircraft; artillery battalions controlled the light aircraft and balloons that operated in these roles. The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service was responsible for long-range bomber and attack aircraft, as well as strategic air defense. It was not until the later stages of

2700-487: Was organized into four Air Armies, with two more added in the final stages of the war: In April 1944, a reorganization of the Japanese Army Air Service occurred. Maintenance and ground service units, formerly a separate command, were merged into the Air Combat Group ( Hiko Sentai ). The flying squadrons of the Air Combat Group were re-designated as Hikōtai ( 飛行隊 , Squadron) , and the ground units were designated Seibutai ( 整備隊 , Maintenance Units) . Other changes in

2754-482: Was rapidly becoming obsolete, and was increasingly shifted away from front-line service. In spite of its shortcomings, the Ki-21 remained in service until the end of the war, being utilized as transport (along with the civil transport version MC-21 ), bomber crew and paratrooper trainer , glider towing , liaison and communications, special commando and secret missions, and kamikaze operations. Nine Ki-21-Ia/b's were sold by Japan to Thailand in 1940 for use by

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2808-449: Was regarded as a branch equal to the artillery, cavalry or infantry, and contained 3,700 personnel with about 500 aircraft. In a reorganization of 1927-05-05, the Air Regiment ( 飛行連隊 , Hikō Rentai ) was created, each consisting of two battalions, with each battalion consisting of up to four squadrons. Each Air Regiment was a mixed purpose unit, consisting of a mixture of fighter and reconnaissance squadrons . By World War Two

2862-419: Was the aviation force of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA). Its primary mission was to provide tactical close air support for ground forces, as well as a limited air interdiction capability. The IJAAS also provided aerial reconnaissance to other branches of the IJA. While the IJAAS engaged in strategic bombing of cities such as Shanghai , Nanjing , Canton , Chongqing , Rangoon , and Mandalay , this

2916-460: Was under contract by the Japanese Army in China for transportation. Designated " MC-21 ", these aircraft had all armament and military equipment removed. Used primarily as cargo transports, each could also seat nine paratroopers. Aircraft built from the start as transports were given the separate designation of Mitsubishi Ki-57 , with equivalent civil aircraft being designated MC-20. The Ki-21 had more than one Allied codename. Initially called "Jane",

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