111-730: Nāgasena was a Sarvāstivādan Buddhist sage who lived around 150 BC. His answers to questions about Buddhism posed by Menander I ( Pali : Milinda ), the Indo-Greek king of northwestern India, are recorded in the Milindapañhā and the Sanskrit Nāgasenabhiksusūtra. According to Pali accounts, he was born into a Brahmin family in the Himalayas and was well-versed in the Vedas at an early age. However, he later converted to Buddhism. There
222-546: A Sanskrit Mahāvibhaṣa , compiled by the Kashmir Sarvāstivāda synod. The Jñānaprasthāna and its Mahāvibhaṣa, were then declared to be the new orthodoxy by Kashmiris, who called themselves Vaibhāṣikas. This new Vaibhāṣika orthodoxy, however, was not readily accepted by all Sarvāstivādins. Some "Western masters" from Gandhara and Bactria had divergent views which disagreed with the new Kashmiri orthodoxy. These disagreements can be seen in post- Mahāvibhaṣa works, such as
333-817: A bald, elderly monk scratching his ear with a stick to symbolize purification of the sense of hearing. An adherent of Buddhism should avoid listening to gossip and other nonsense so that they are always prepared to hear the truth. This article about a member of the Buddhist clergy is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This biography of an Indian religious figure is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sarv%C4%81stiv%C4%81da The Sarvāstivāda ( Sanskrit : 𑀲𑀭𑁆𑀯𑀸𑀲𑁆𑀢𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤 ; Pali : 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤 , romanized: Sabbatthivāda Chinese : 說一切有部 ; pinyin : Shuōyīqièyǒu Bù ; Japanese : せついっさいうぶ ; Korean : 설일체유부 ; Thai : สรวาสติวาท )
444-619: A commonly used synonym for Mahāyāna. The Mahāvibhāṣā reads: What is the Vaipulya? It is said to be all the sūtras corresponding to elaborations on the meanings of the exceedingly profound dharmas. According to a number of scholars, Mahāyāna Buddhism flourished during the time of the Kuṣāṇa Empire, and this is illustrated in the form of Mahāyāna influence on the Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra . The Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa also records that Kaniṣka presided over
555-775: A feudal safeguard against future unrest. In 1861, a supreme legislature for India was established — the Imperial Legislative Council of India . Further reforms also created a unified bank — the Imperial Bank of India , a police force — the Indian Imperial Police and a unified army — the Imperial Indian Army . In 1876, the Crown-ruled India and the numerous Indian states under the Crown's suzerainty formed
666-481: A geographical dividing line in the country. Indian states that are entirely above the Tropic of Cancer are Himachal Pradesh , Punjab , Haryana , Delhi , Uttarakhand , Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and most of North East Indian states. However that definition would also include major parts of Rajasthan , Madhya Pradesh , Jharkhand and West Bengal and minor regions of Chhattisgarh and Gujarat . In Maharashtra ,
777-555: A great deal of material with what appear to be strong affinities to Mahāyāna doctrines. The Mahāvibhāṣā is also said to illustrate the accommodations reached between the Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna traditions, as well as the means by which Mahāyāna doctrines would become accepted. The Mahāvibhāṣā also defines the Mahāyāna sūtras and the role in their Buddhist canon. Here they are described as Vaipulya doctrines, with "Vaipulya" being
888-471: A hierarchy of priests ( Brahmins ), warriors Kshatriyas , and commoners and peasants ( Vaishyas and Shudras ), and but which excluded certain peoples whose occupations were considered impure, arose during this period. On the Deccan Plateau , archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation. In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE,
999-614: A large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing economies , and increased its geopolitical clout. Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban; by religious and caste-related violence ; by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies ; and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India . It has unresolved territorial disputes with China and with Pakistan . India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among
1110-649: A later date, the Śāriputraparipṛcchā , contains a very similar passage with nearly the same information. In the earlier source, the Sarvāstivāda are described as wearing dark red robes, while the Dharmaguptas are described as wearing black robes. However, in the corresponding passage found in the later Śāriputraparipṛcchā , the Sarvāstivāda are described as wearing black robes and the Dharmaguptas as wearing dark red robes. In traditions of Tibetan Buddhism , which follow
1221-621: A loose political union called the Indian Empire , and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India in 1877. In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on
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#17328547910201332-747: A majority in North India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, are descendents of the Indo-Iranians who migrated from Central Asia via the Bactria-Margiana Culture into this region between 2000 BC and 1500 BC after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation . There was a slow migration of Indo-Iranian peoples through the northwest leading to the development of the Indo-Aryan languages from Proto-Indo-Iranian and minor vocal synthesis with
1443-521: A model for later Indian kingdoms. Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself. This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture , which found patrons among an urban elite. Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science , astronomy , medicine , and mathematics made significant advances. The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200 AD,
1554-663: A regional headquarters in Lucknow . The Hindu newspaper puts Bihar, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh related articles on its North pages. Articles in the Indian press have included the states of Bihar, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal in North as well. The Tropic of Cancer , which divides the temperate zone from the tropical zone in the Northern Hemisphere , runs through India, and could theoretically be regarded as
1665-533: A vase in his left; an excellent example can be seen on one of the thangkas in the Cleveland Museum of Art collection. "This figure [conforms with the image of] the arhat Nagasena, shown in Jivarama's sketchbook of 1435" who also holds a vase. A similar depiction can be seen in the collection of Singapore's Asian Civilisations Museum ( Qianlong era , 18C: thangka with silk appliqué.) More modern statues often show
1776-800: A wide variety of birds, including peafowl , parrots , and thousands of immigrant birds, such as the Siberian crane . Other birds include pheasants , geese , ducks , mynahs , parakeets , pigeons , cranes (including the celebrated sarus crane ), and hornbills . great pied hornbill , Pallas's fishing eagle , grey-headed fishing eagle , red-thighed falconet are found in the Himalayan areas. Other birds found here are tawny fish owl , scale-bellied woodpecker, red-breasted parakeet , Himalayan swiftlet , stork-billed kingfisher and Himalayan or white-tailed rubythroat . Important national parks and tiger reserves of North India include: Corbett National Park : It
1887-509: A wide variety of fish, amphibians and reptiles in the region. Animal species in North India include elephant , bengal tiger , indian leopard , snow leopard , sambar (Asiatic stag) , chital (spotted deer) , hangul (red deer) , hog deer , chinkara (Indian gazelle) , blackbuck , nilgai (blue bull antelope) , porcupine , wild boar , Indian fox , Tibetan sand fox , rhesus monkey , langur , jungle cat , striped hyena , golden jackal , black bear , Himalayan brown bear , sloth bear , and
1998-783: Is a geographical and broad cultural region comprising the northern part of India (or historically, the Indian subcontinent ) wherein Indo-Aryans form the prominent majority population. It extends from the Himalayan mountain range in the north to the Indo-Gangetic plains , the Thar Desert , the Central Highlands and the northwestern part of the Deccan plateau . It occupies nearly three-quarters of
2109-628: Is a great deal of mystery surrounding the rise and early development of the Sarvāstivādin school." According to Dhammajoti, "its presence, as well as that of its rival — the Vibhajyavāda lineage — in the time of Emperor Aśoka is beyond doubt. Since Aśoka's reign is around 268–232 B.C.E., this means that at least by the middle of the 3rd century B.C.E., it had already developed into a distinct school." In Central Asia, several Buddhist monastic groups were historically prevalent. According to some accounts,
2220-516: Is almost universal agreement that a core text was later expanded by numerous other authors, following a question and answer pattern established in the early books. The version extant today is very long, and has signs of inconsistent authorship in the later volumes. There is no agreed-upon point at which Nagasena's authorship may be said to end (and the work of other hands begins), nor has this been perceived as an inherently important distinction by monastic scholars. The text mentions that Nagasena learned
2331-436: Is also a Hindu majority state but has a large aboriginal minority. The union territories of Jammu and Kashmir is a Muslim majority territories while Ladakh has a Muslim plurality with minority Hindus and Buddhists. The state of Punjab has a Sikh majority of 60% and is the homeland of Sikh religion. Linguistically, North India is dominated by Indo-Aryan languages . It is in this region, or its proximity, that Sanskrit and
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#17328547910202442-560: Is also notorious for heavy fog during the winters. Extreme temperatures among inhabited regions have ranged from −45 °C (−49 °F) in Dras , Ladakh to 50.6 °C (123 °F) in Alwar , Rajasthan. Dras is claimed to be the second-coldest inhabited place on the planet (after Siberia ), with a recorded low of −60 °C. The region receives heavy rain in plains and light snow on Himalayas precipitation through two primary weather patterns:
2553-554: Is core reserve. This park is known not only for its rich and varied wildlife but also for its scenic beauty. Nanda Devi National Park and Valley of Flowers National Park : Located in West Himalaya, in the state of Uttarakhand, these two national parks constitute a biosphere reserve that is in the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2004. The Valley of Flowers is known for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and
2664-743: Is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity. When Harsha of Kannauj , who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE , attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan. When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal . No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region. During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for
2775-666: Is famous for being the author of the Abhidharmakośa (4–5th century CE), a very influential Abhidharma work, with an auto-commentary that defends the Sautrāntika views. He famously later converted to the Yogācāra school of Mahāyāna Buddhism , a tradition that itself developed out of the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma. Vasubandhu's Kośa led to a vigorous reaction from his contemporary, the brilliant Vaibhāṣika master Saṃghabhadra, who
2886-645: Is important to realize that not all of them necessarily subscribed to each and every view sanctioned by the MVŚ compilers. Moreover, the evolving nature of the Vaibhāṣika views must be recognized as well." The Vaibhāśika-Sarvāstivādins are sometimes referred to in the MVŚ as "the Ābhidharmikas", "the Sarvāstivāda theoreticians" and "the masters of Kāśmīra." In various texts, they also referred to their tradition as Yuktavāda (the doctrine of logic), as well as Hetuvāda (the doctrine of causes). The Vaibhāṣika school saw itself as
2997-610: Is much uncertainty as to the relationship of the Mūlasarvāstivāda (meaning root or original Sarvāstivāda) school and the others. They were certainly influential in spreading their Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, as it remains the monastic rule used in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism today. Also, they seem to have been influential in Indonesia by the 7th century, as noted by Yijing . A number of theories have been posited by academics as to how
3108-410: Is predominantly Tropical evergreen and Montane . Of the evergreen trees sal , teak , Mahogany, sheesham (Indian rosewood) and poplar are some which are important commercially. The Western Himalayan region abounds in chir , pine , deodar (Himalayan cedar), blue pine , spruce , various firs , birch and junipers . The birch, especially, has historical significance in Indian culture due to
3219-512: Is said to have spent 12 years composing the Nyāyānusāra , a commentary to Vasubandhu's verses to refute his views and those of other Sautrāntika monks, such as Sthavira Śrīlāta and his pupil Rāma. The Kośa was so influential that it became the Abhidharma text par excellence in both Indo - Tibetan Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism , and remains the primary source for Abhidharma studies. There
3330-414: Is the principle of 'all exists' that is the axial doctrine holding the larger movement together when the precise details of other doctrines are at stake. In order to explain how it is possible for a dharma to remain the same and yet also undergo change as it moves through the three times, the Vaibhāṣika held that dharmas have a constant essence ( svabhāva ) which persists through the three times. The term
3441-576: The Aravalli Range , beyond which lies the state of Gujarat . The Vindhya mountains are, in some interpretations, taken to be the southern boundary of North India. The predominant geographical features of North India are: The states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Jammu and Kashmir also have a large forest coverage. North India lies mainly in the north temperate zone of the Earth . Though cool or cold winters, hot summers, and moderate monsoons are
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3552-768: The Buddhist pilgrimage centres of Sarnath and Kushinagar , the Sikh Golden Temple as well as world heritage sites such as the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve , Khajuraho temples , Hill Forts of Rajasthan , Jantar Mantar (Jaipur) , Qutb Minar , Red Fort , Agra Fort , Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal . North India's culture developed as a result of interaction between these Hindu and Muslim religious traditions. The terms 'North Zone,' 'North Region,' or 'Northern Cultural Zone' are used by various ministries of
3663-760: The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. In the 7th century, Yijing wrote that in eastern China, most people followed the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, while the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya was used in earlier times in Guanzhong (the region around Chang'an ), and that the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya was prominent in the Yangzi River area and further south. In the 7th century, the existence of multiple Vinaya lineages throughout China
3774-618: The Dīrgha Āgama in Sanskrit. The Madhyama Āgama (T26, Chinese trans. Gotama Saṅghadeva) and Saṃyukta Āgama (T99, Chinese trans. Guṇabhadra) have long been available in Chinese translation. The Sarvāstivāda is therefore the only early school besides the Theravada for which we have a roughly complete sutra collection, although unlike the Theravada it has not all been preserved in the original language. During
3885-471: The House of Maurya . The Magadhan Mauryan emperors are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka 's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma . In North India, by the 4th and 5th centuries, the House of Gupta of Magadha had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became
3996-539: The Indus Valley Civilisation , the first urban culture in South Asia, which flourished during 2500–1900 BC north-western Indian subcontinent. Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro , Harappa , Dholavira , and Kalibangan , and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade. Between 2000 BC and 1500 BC, several waves of Indo-Aryan migrations from Central Asia occurred and these migrants settled in
4107-621: The Little Vehicle of the school of the Sarvāstivādas (Shwo-yih-tsai-yu-po). Their doctrine (teaching of Sūtras) and their rules of discipline (principles of the Vinaya) are like those of India, and those who read them use the same (originals). Sarvāstivāda was a widespread group, and there were different sub-schools or sects throughout its history, the most influential ones being the Vaibhāṣika and
4218-857: The Mahāsāṃghikas used Prākrit, the Sarvāstivādins used Sanskrit, the Sthavira nikāya used Paiśācī , and the Saṃmitīya used Apabhraṃśa . The Sarvāstivādins of Kāśmīra held the Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra as authoritative, and thus were given the moniker of being Vaibhāṣikas. The Mahāvibhāṣā is thought to have been authored around 150 CE, around the time of Kaniṣka (127–151) of the Kushan Empire . This massive treatise of Abhidharma (200 fascicles in Chinese) contains
4329-725: The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, red robes are regarded as characteristic of their tradition. During the first century BCE, in the Gandharan cultural area (consisting of Oddiyana , Gandhara and Bactria , Tokharistan , across the Khyber Pass ), the Sthaviriyas used the Gāndhārī language to write their literature using the Kharosthi . The Tibetan historian Buton Rinchen Drub wrote that
4440-400: The Mūlasarvāstivāda sect, although the relationship between these two groups has not yet been fully determined. According to Prebish, "this episode corresponds well with one Sarvāstivādin tradition stating that Madhyantika converted the city of Kasmir, which seems to have close ties with Gandhara." A third tradition says that a community of Sarvāstivādin monks was established at Mathura by
4551-434: The Samayabhedoparacanacakra state that the Mahīśāsaka emerged from the Sarvāstivāda. The Sarvāstivādins are believed to have given rise to the Mūlasarvāstivāda and Sautrāntika schools, although the relationship between these groups has not yet been fully determined. Sarvāstivāda is a Sanskrit term that can be glossed as: "the theory of all that exists". The Sarvāstivāda argued that all dharmas (phenomena) exist in
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4662-542: The Sautrāntika schools. According to Cox, Willemen and Dessein: we have, basically, to differentiate the original Sarvāstivādins originating from Mathura , the Kaśmīri Vaibhāṣikas, the Western Masters of Gandhara and Bactria (the Dārṣṭāntika-Sautrāntika Masters) who were also referred to as Bahirdesaka, Aparāntaka and Pāścāttya, and the Mūlasarvāstivādins. As the various groups influenced one another, even these sub-schools do very often not form homogeneous groups. [REDACTED] Religion portal The Vaibhāṣika
4773-425: The Sultanate of Delhi in 1206. The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs. By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting
4884-466: The Tarim Basin in 630 CE, he received the favours of Suvarṇadeva, the son and successor of Suvarṇapuṣpa , the non- Mahayana Buddhist king of Kucha. Xuanzang described in many details the characteristics of Kucha, and probably visited the Kizil Caves . Of the religion of the people of Kucha, he says that they were Sarvastivadins: There are about one hundred convents (saṅghārāmas) in this country, with five thousand and more disciples. These belong to
4995-475: The Tibetan tenets system as the two tenets of the Hinayana , ignoring other early Indian Buddhist schools, which were not known to the Tibetans. Sarvāstivādin meditation teachers also worked on the dhyāna sutras ( Chinese : 禪經 ), a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which were translated into Chinese and became influential in the development of Chinese Buddhist meditation methods. North India North India , also called Northern India ,
5106-425: The Tripiṭaka under the Greek Buddhist monk Dhammarakkhita near Pātaliputta (modern Patna ). He also reached enlightenment and became an arhat under his guidance. Other personalities mentioned in the text are Nāgasena's father Soñuttara , his teachers Rohana, Assagutta of Vattaniya and another teacher named Āyupāla from Sankheyya near Sāgala . There is a tradition that Nagasena brought to Thailand
5217-680: The Yamuna and the Narmada rivers. North India includes the states of Himachal Pradesh , Uttarakhand , Punjab and Haryana , Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh , Madhya Pradesh , Chhattisgarh , Goa , Gujarat , Maharashtra , Bihar , Jharkhand , and West Bengal and union territories of Chandigarh , Delhi , Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh . In its narrower administrative sense, the term has varying implications ( see below ) with different states included being Haryana , Himachal Pradesh , Punjab , Uttarakhand , Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan and union territories of Chandigarh , Delhi , Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh . Indo-Aryans , who today form
5328-465: The partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan. Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic. Per the London Declaration , India retained its membership of the Commonwealth , becoming the first republic within it. Economic liberalisation, which began in the 1980s and the collaboration with Soviet Union for technical know-how, has created
5439-426: The * Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra (成實論), the * Abhidharmahṛday a (T no. 1550) and its commentaries (T no. 1551, no. 1552), the Abhidharmakośakārikā of Vasubandhu and its commentaries (who critiqued some orthodox views), and the * Nyāyānusāra (Ny) of master Saṃghabhadra (ca fifth century CE) who formulated the most robust Vaibhāṣika response to the new criticisms. When the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited Kucha in
5550-526: The 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion, resulting in greater patronage of painting , literary forms, textiles, and architecture . Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas , the Rajputs , and the Sikhs , gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience. Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along
5661-527: The Chinese term, Shuōyīqièyǒu bù ( Chinese : 說一切有部 ), which is literally "the sect that speaks of the existence of everything," as used by Xuanzang and other translators. The Sarvāstivāda was also known by other names, particularly hetuvada and yuktivada . Hetuvada comes from hetu – 'cause', which indicates their emphasis on causation and conditionality. Yuktivada comes from yukti – 'reason' or even 'logic', which echoes their use of rational argument and syllogism . According to Charles Prebish, "there
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#17328547910205772-417: The Dravidian languages. North India was the historical centre of the ancient Vedic culture , the Mahajanapadas , and Magadha Empire, the medieval Delhi Sultanate and the modern Mughal India and the Indian Empire , among many others. It has a diverse culture, and includes the Hindu pilgrimage centres of Char Dham , Haridwar , Varanasi , Ayodhya , Mathura , Prayagraj , Vaishno Devi and Pushkar ,
5883-418: The Government of India to refer to the northernmost administrative division of the country, whether one of four or six. These terms are distinct from 'North India,' which refers to a much larger geo-cultural region. The Northern Zonal Council is one of the advisory councils, created in 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act to foster interstate co-operation under the Ministry of Home Affairs , which included
5994-759: The Himalayan region like Kinnauri , Ladakhi , Balti , and Lahuli–Spiti languages . The composite culture of North India is known as Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb , a result of the amicable interaction of Hindus and Muslims there. Dance of North India too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab , Ghoomar of Rajasthan, Nati of Himachal Pradesh and rouf and bhand pather of Kashmir. Main dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama such as Kathak . Each state of North India has its own regional forms of clothing: North Indian vegetation
6105-410: The Indian Monsoon and the Western Disturbances . The Monsoon carries moisture northwards from the Indian Ocean , occurs in late summer and is important to the Kharif or autumn harvest . Western Disturbances, on the other hand, are an extratropical weather phenomenon that carry moisture eastwards from the Mediterranean Sea , the Caspian Sea and the Atlantic Ocean . They primarily occur during
6216-419: The Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Vedas , the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism , were composed during this period, and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain . During the period 2000–500 BCE , many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to the Iron Age ones. The caste system , which created
6327-401: The Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status. The State's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency, caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of
6438-407: The Sarvāstivāda school held a synod in Kashmir during the reign of Kanishka II (c. 158–176), the most important Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma text, the Astagrantha of Katyayaniputra was rewritten and revised in Sanskrit. This revised text was now known as Jñānaprasthāna ("Course of Knowledge"). Though the Gandharan Astagrantha had many vibhaṣas (commentaries), the new Kashmiri Jñānaprasthāna had
6549-410: The Sarvāstivāda’: Dharmatrāta, Buddhadeva, Vasumitra and Ghoṣaka. The doctrines of Sarvāstivāda were not confined to 'all exists', but also include the theory of momentariness ( ksanika ), conjoining ( samprayukta ) and causal simultaneity ( sahabhu ), conditionality ( hetu and pratyaya ), a unique presentation of the spiritual path ( marga ), and others. These doctrines are all inter-connected and it
6660-413: The Sarvāstivādins emerged from the Sthavira nikāya , a small group of conservatives, who split from the reformist majority Mahāsāṃghikas at the Second Buddhist council. According to this account, they were expelled from Magadha, and moved to northwestern India where they developed into the Sarvāstivādin school. A number of scholars have identified three distinct major phases of missionary activity seen in
6771-403: The area and population of India and includes all of the three mega cities of India : Mumbai , Delhi and Kolkata . In a more specific and administrative sense, North India can also be used to denote the Indo-Gangetic Plain within this broader expanse, stretching from the Ganga-Yamuna Doab to the Thar Desert . Several major rivers flow through the region including the Indus, the Ganges ,
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#17328547910206882-409: The capital city's population. The states of Rajasthan , Haryana , Himachal Pradesh , Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh are overwhelmingly Hindu-majority. Maharashtra, Uttarakhand , Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal are also Hindu majority states, but have a large Muslim minority (12% in Maharashtra, 14% In Uttarakhand, 18% in Bihar, 19% in Uttar Pradesh and 27% in West Bengal). Jharkhand
6993-416: The coasts of southern and eastern India. As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs. By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company , had established coastal outposts. The East India Company's control of
7104-533: The consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe . However, disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes,
7215-477: The cost of moving goods, and helped nascent Indian-owned industry. After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served in the Indian Army , a new period began. It was marked by the enactment of the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms as the Government of India Act 1919 but also repressive legislation , by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which Mahatma Gandhi would become
7326-429: The endangered caracal . Reptiles are represented by a large number of snake and lizard species, as well as the ghariyal and crocodiles . Venomous snakes found in the region include king cobra and krait . Various scorpion , spider and insect species include the commercially useful honeybees , silkworms and lac insects. The strikingly coloured bir bahuti is also found in this region. The region has
7437-446: The establishment of Prajñāpāramitā doctrines in the northwest of India. Étienne Lamotte has also pointed out that a Sarvāstivāda master is known to have stated that the Mahāyāna Prajñā sūtras were to be found amongst their Vaipulya sūtras. According to Paul Williams, the similarly massive Da zhidu lun also has a clear association with the Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins. The Vaibhāṣika and Sautrāntika subschools are both classified in
7548-559: The extensive use of birch paper ( Sanskrit : bhurja patra ) as parchment for many ancient Indian texts. The Eastern Himalayan region consists of oaks , laurels , maples , rhododendrons , alder , birch and dwarf willows . Reflecting the diverse climatic zones and terrain contained in the region, the floral variety is extensive and ranges from Alpine to Cloud forests, coniferous to evergreen, and thick tropical rainforests to cool temperate woods. There are around 500 varieties of mammals, 2000 species of birds, 30,000 types of insects and
7659-485: The far north, languages of Dardic (such as Kashmiri) and Pahari (such as Dogri, Kumaoni and Garhwali) groups are spoken in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal and Uttarakhand. Punjabi is spoken in Punjab . Bengali is spoken in West Bengal. Languages of Bihari group, such as Maithili, Magahi and Bhojpuri are spoken in Bihar and Jharkhand. A number of aboriginal languages of Austroasiatic and Dravidian origin are spoken in some regions. Several Sino-Tibetan languages are spoken in
7770-425: The first century, the Sarvāstivāda abhidharma primarily consisted of the Abhidharmahrdaya authored by Dharmashresthin, a native from Tokharistan , and the Ashtagrantha authored/compiled by Katyayaniputra. Both texts were translated by Samghadeva in 391 AD and in 183 AD. respectively, but they were not completed until 390 in Southern China. The Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma consists of seven texts: Following these, are
7881-432: The first representation of the Buddha, the Emerald Buddha . According to this legend, the Emerald Buddha would have been created in India in 43 BC by Nagasena in the city of Pātaliputta. Nagasena is not known through other sources besides the Milinda Panha and this legend. Nāgasena is one of the Eighteen Arhats of Mahayana Buddhism . His traditional textile depiction shows him holding a khakkhara in his right hand and
7992-707: The general patterns, North India is one of the most climatically diverse regions on Earth. During summer, temperatures often rise above 35°C across much of the Indo-Gangetic plain, reaching as high as 50°C in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, and up to 49°C in Delhi. During winter, the lowest temperatures on the plains dip below 5°C and drop below freezing in some states. Heavy to moderate snowfall occurs in Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Uttarakhand. Much of North India
8103-456: The growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes. The caste system consequently began to show regional differences. In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language. They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of
8214-512: The history of Buddhism in Central Asia , which are associated with respectively the Dharmaguptaka , Sarvāstivāda, and the Mūlasarvāstivāda, and the origins of the Sarvāstivāda have also been related to Ashoka sending Majjhantika (Sanskrit: Madhyāntika ) on a mission to Gandhara , which had an early presence of the Sarvāstivāda. The Sarvāstivādins in turn are believed to have given rise to
8325-452: The initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages. After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains. A general Qutub-ud-din Aibak declared his independence and established
8436-577: The leader and enduring symbol. During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections. The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War ;II , the Congress's final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism . All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by
8547-603: The middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India. In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal, and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the Kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states and evolved into the Magadha Empire under
8658-512: The orthodox Sarvāstivāda tradition, and they were united in their doctrinal defense of the theory of "all exists" ( sarvām asti ). This is the doctrine which held that dharmas , past present and future, all exist. This doctrine has been described as an eternalist theory of time . While the Vaibhāṣikas held that dharmas of the three times all exist, they held that only present dharmas have "efficacy" ( karitra ), thus they were able to explain how
8769-548: The orthodox Vaibhāṣika views or provided a defense of the orthodoxy. Dhammajoti provides the following list of such later abhidharma works that are extant in Chinese: 108 109 Between 148 and 170 CE, the Parthian monk An Shigao came to China and translated a work which described the color of monastic robes (Skt. kāṣāya ) utilized in five major Indian Buddhist sects, called Da Biqiu Sanqian Weiyi (大比丘三千威儀). Another text translated at
8880-489: The past, present and future, the "three times". Vasubandhu 's Abhidharmakośa-bhāsya states, "He who affirms the existence of the dharmas of the three time periods [past, present and future] is held to be a Sarvāstivādin." Although there is some dispute over how the word "Sarvāstivāda" is to be analyzed, the general consensus is that it is to be parsed into three parts: sarva "all" or "every" + asti "exist" + vada "speak", "say" or "theory". This equates perfectly with
8991-580: The patriarch Upagupta . In the Sarvāstivādin tradition Upagupta is said to have been the fifth patriarch after Mahākaśyapa, Ānanda, Madhyāntika, and Śāṇakavāsin, and in the Ch'an tradition he is regarded as the fourth. The Sarvāstivāda enjoyed the patronage of Kanishka (c. 127–150 CE) emperor of the Kushan Empire , during which time they were greatly strengthened, and became one of the dominant sects of Buddhism in north India for centuries, flourishing throughout Northwest India, North India, and Central Asia . When
9102-803: The perception of the westerners." The Government of Bihar official site places the state in the eastern part of India. Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are largely considered as being a part of north India, however. By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or Homo sapiens , had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved. The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago. After 6500 BC, evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan . These gradually developed into
9213-406: The present seems to function differently than the past or future. Among the different Sarvāstivāda thinkers, there were different ideas on how this theory was to be understood. These differences were accepted as long as they did not contradict the doctrine of "all exists" and can be seen in the MVŚ, which outlines the four different interpretations of this doctrine by the ‘four great Ābhidharmikas of
9324-562: The rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule. Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and the direct administration of British territories in India by the British Crown . Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as
9435-648: The region uses references to these six seasons quite extensively and has done so since ancient times when Sanskrit was prevalent. In the mountainous areas, sometimes the winter is further divided into "big winter" (e.g. Kashmiri chillai kalaan ) and "little winter" ( chillai khurd ). The people of North India mostly belong to the Indo-Aryan ethno linguistic branch, and include various social groups such as Brahmins , Rajputs , Kayasthas , Banias , Jats , Rors , Gurjars , Kolis , Yadavs , Khatris and Kambojs . Other minority aboriginal ethnic communities such as Dravidians and Austroasiatics exist throughout
9546-414: The region. Hinduism is the dominant religion in North India. Other religions practiced by various ethnic communities include Islam , Sikhism , Jainism , Zoroastrianism , Judaism , Baháʼí , Christianity , and Buddhism . Hindus constitutes more than 80 percent of the North India's population. National capital of India ( New Delhi ) is overwhelming Hindu-majority with Hindus constituting nearly 90% of
9657-446: The scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north. The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire . In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers, fell again to
9768-517: The school composed the large and encyclopedic Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra around the time of the reign of Kanishka (c. 127–150 CE). Because of this, orthodox Sarvāstivādins who upheld the doctrines in the Mahāvibhāṣa were called Vaibhāṣikas . According to the Theravādin Dīpavaṃsa , the Sarvāstivādins emerged from the older Mahīśāsaka school, but the Śāriputraparipṛcchā and
9879-455: The seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly assert its military strength and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain powerful influence over the Bengal province in 1757 and sideline the other European companies. Its further access to the riches of Bengal and
9990-537: The small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas . The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira . Buddhism , based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha , attracted followers from all social classes excepting
10101-736: The states of Chandigarh , Delhi , Haryana , Himachal Pradesh , Jammu and Kashmir , Ladakh , Punjab and Rajasthan . The Ministry of Culture established the North Culture Zone in Patiala , Punjab on 23 March 1985. It differs from the North Zonal Council in its inclusion of Uttarakhand and the omission of Delhi . The Geological Survey of India (part of the Ministry of Mines ) in its Northern Region, included Uttar Pradesh and Delhi , but excluded Rajasthan and Chandigarh , with
10212-719: The subcontinent . Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well. Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation. By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in South-East Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar , Thailand , Laos , Brunei , Cambodia , Vietnam , Philippines , Malaysia , and Indonesia . Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took
10323-588: The subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s. India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying Britain with raw materials. By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British Parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture. In 1833,
10434-837: The superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors. A Turco-Mongol emir, Zahir-ud-din Mohammad "Babur", after defeating the Delhi Sultanate, upgraded himself from Emir and proclaimed himself as the Padishah of Hindustan . His successors were called Mughals or Moguls by European historians owing to the dynasty's Mongol origins. They did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar ,
10545-621: The sūtras"), also known as Dārṣṭāntika (who may or may not have been a separate but related group), did not uphold the Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra but rather emphasized the Buddhist sūtras as being authoritative. Already by the time of the MVŚ, the early Dārṣṭāntika monks such as Dharmatrāta and Buddhadeva, existed as a school of thought within the fold of the Sarvāstivāda who disagreed with the orthodox views. These groups were also called "the western masters" ( pāścātya ) or "the foreign masters" ( bahirdeśaka ; also called ‘the masters outside Kaśmīra’, and
10656-597: The sūtras"). However, the Sautrāntikas did not reject the Abhidharma method; in fact, they were the authors of several Abhidharma manuals, such as the Abhidharmahṛdaya . The later Buddhist tradition of pramāṇa , founded by the Buddhist monks Dignāga and Dharmakīrti , is also associated with the Sautrāntika school. The most important Sautrāntika was Vasubandhu (ca. 350–430), a native from Purusapura in Gandhara . He
10767-526: The term "North Indian" is sometimes used to describe migrants from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, often using the term bhaiya (which literally means 'elder brother') along with it in a derogatory sense. However within Uttar Pradesh (literally meaning "North Province" in Hindi) itself, "the cultural divide between the east and the west is considerable, with the purabiyas (easterners) often being clubbed with Biharis in
10878-643: The texts that became the authority of the Vaibhāṣika: All of these works have been translated into Chinese, and are now part of the Chinese Buddhist canon . In the Chinese context, the word abhidharma refers to the Sarvāstivāda abhidharma, although at a minimum the Dharmaguptaka, Pudgalavada and Theravada also had abhidharmas. Various other Abhidharma works were written by Sarvāstivāda masters, some are more concise manuals of abhidharma, others critiqued
10989-523: The three presidencies of Bengal , Bombay and Madras were unified into a unitary state, headed by the Governor-General of India and the creation of the Government of India . Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of India set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These included
11100-470: The two are related including: The Dharmaguptaka are known to have rejected the authority of the Sarvāstivāda pratimokṣa rules on the grounds that the original teachings of the Buddha had been lost. The complete Sarvāstivāda Vinaya is extant in the Chinese Buddhist canon . In its early history, the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya was the most common vinaya tradition in China. However, Chinese Buddhism later settled on
11211-544: The variety of flora, this richly diverse area is also home to rare and endangered animals. Dachigam National Park : Dachigam is a higher altitude national reserve in the state of Jammu and Kashmir that ranges from 5,500 to 14,000 feet above sea level. It is home to the hangul (a red deer species, also called the Kashmir stag). Great Himalayan National Park : This park is located in Himachal Pradesh and ranges in altitude from 5,000 to 17,500 feet. Wildlife resident here includes
11322-760: The various Prakrits are thought to have evolved. Hindi is spoken in Western Uttar Pradesh and Delhi and by a large number of people in many urban centres across North India. Many other languages of the Central Indo-Aryan languages such as Awadhi, Braj, Haryanvi, Chhattisgarhi, Bundeli and Bagheli are spoken in Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Marwari, Harauti, Malvi, Gujarati, Khandeshi, Marathi and Konkani are spoken in Rajasthan, extreme eastern Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa. Towards
11433-457: The whims of far-away markets. There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines , and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians. There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption. The railway network provided critical famine relief, notably reduced
11544-817: The winter season and are critically important for the Rabi or spring harvest , which includes the main staple over much of North India, wheat . The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand receive some snowfall in winter months. Northern Indian tradition recognises six distinct seasons in the region: summer ( grishma or garmi (jyesth- ashadh), May–June), rainy ( varsha (shravan-bhadra), July–August), cool ( sharad (ashivan-kartik), September–October, sometimes thought of as 'early autumn'), autumn ( hemant (margh-paush), November–December, also called patjhar , lit. leaf-fall ), winter ( shishir or sardi (magh-phagun),January–February) and spring ( vasant (chaitra-baishakh), March–April). The literature, poetry and folklore of
11655-591: The world's newer nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved. North India lies mainly on continental India, north of peninsular India. Towards its north are the Himalayas which define the boundary between the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau . To its west is the Thar desert , shared between North India and Pakistan and
11766-484: The ‘Gāndhārian masters’). They studied the same Abhidharma texts as the other Sarvāstivādins, but in a more critical way. According to K. L. Dhammajoti, they eventually came to repudiate the Sarvāstivāda doctrine that "all exists". It is this group, i.e. those who rejected the most important Sarvāstivāda doctrine (along with numerous other key Vaibhāṣika views), which came to be called the Sautrāntika ("those who rely on
11877-418: Was also identified as a unique mark or own characteristic ( svalaksana ) that differentiated a dharma and remained unchangeable throughout its existence. According to Vaibhāṣikas, svabhavas are those things that exist substantially ( dravyasat ) as opposed to those things which are made up of aggregations of dharmas and thus only have a nominal existence ( prajñaptisat ). The Sautrāntika ("those who uphold
11988-505: Was criticized by prominent Vinaya masters such as Yijing and Dao'an (654–717). In the early 8th century, Daoan gained the support of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang , and an imperial edict was issued that the saṃgha in China should use only the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya for ordination. Scholars at present have "a nearly complete collection of sūtras from the Sarvāstivāda school" thanks to a recent discovery in Afghanistan of roughly two-thirds of
12099-526: Was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park along the banks of the Ramganga River. It is India's first National Park, and was designated a Project Tiger Reserve in 1973. Situated in Nainital district of Uttarakhand, the park acts as a protected area for the critically endangered Bengal tiger of India. Cradled in the foothills of the Himalayas, it comprises a total area of 500 km out of which 350 km
12210-498: Was formed by adherents of the Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra (MVŚ) during the council of Kashmir. Since then, it comprised the orthodox or mainstream branch of the Sarvāstivāda school based in Kāśmīra (though not exclusive to this region). The Vaibhāśika-Sarvāstivāda, which had by far the most "comprehensive edifice of doctrinal systematics" of the early Buddhist schools , was widely influential in India and beyond. As noted by KL Dhammajoti, "It
12321-432: Was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (third century BCE). It was particularly known as an Abhidharma tradition, with a unique set of seven canonical Abhidharma texts. The Sarvāstivādins were one of the most influential Buddhist monastic groups, flourishing throughout North India , especially Kashmir and Central Asia , until the 7th century CE. The orthodox Kashmiri branch of
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