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44-582: Mòcheno is closely related to Bavarian and is variously classified either as a Southern Bavarian variety or a separate language of its own. It has also been posited that it may be descended from Lombardic (with influence from nearby dialects). Mòcheno speakers reportedly partially understand Bavarian, Cimbrian , or Standard German . However, many essential differences in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation render it difficult for speakers of Standard German to understand. The name Mòcheni used by bilingual Italian - and Ladin -speaking neighbours to refer to

88-470: A Dachsprache for a number of quite different Romansh language forms spoken in parts of Switzerland . Similarly, Standard Basque and the Southern Quechua literary standard were both developed as standard languages for dialect continua that had historically been thought of as discrete languages with many dialects and no "official" dialect. Standard German and Italian , to some extent, function in

132-452: A pluricentric language . Examples include British and American Standard English , Standard Austrian German and German Standard German , or European and Brazilian variants of Portuguese . High Hindi and Urdu also have a common dialect basis ( Dehlavi ). The same is the case with Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, which also have the same dialect basis ( Shtokavian ), and consequently constitute four standard variants of

176-425: A "language": This framework addresses situations in which multiple varieties from a dialect continuum have been standardized, so that they are commonly considered distinct languages even though they may be mutually intelligible . The continental Scandinavian languages offer a commonly cited example of this situation. One of the applications of this theoretical framework is language standardization (examples since

220-564: A large degree. Approximately at the same time, Dutch started to replace Low German as a roof of the Low German dialects in the Netherlands that form today's Dutch Low Saxon group, and most Central German dialects went under the "roof" of the evolving High German . Low German ceased to be spoken on the eastern rim of the Baltic Sea. Today, its dialects surviving in northern Germany have come under

264-431: A number of features with Yiddish . Dachsprache In sociolinguistics , an abstand language is a language variety or cluster of varieties with significant linguistic distance from all others, while an ausbau language is a standard variety, possibly with related dependent varieties . Heinz Kloss introduced these terms in 1952 to denote two separate and largely independent sets of criteria for recognizing

308-573: A particular approach. There are several instances of languages and language pairs that have undergone role changes over time. Low German , for instance, was both an Abstand language and a roof of local dialects in the Netherlands and Germany and in parts of the Baltic states and their formerly German vicinity. With the end of the Hanseatic League , Low German lost its status as an official language to

352-774: Is mutual intelligibility , though this does not always produce consistent results, for example when applied to a dialect continuum . An abstand language does not need to have a standard form. This is often the case with minority languages used within a larger state, where the minority language is used only in private, and all official functions are performed in the majority language. The German verb ausbauen ( pronounced [ˈaʊ̯sˌbaʊ̯ən] , literally "to build out") expresses core meanings of "expanding" something or "developing something to completion", e.g. adding to an existing structure. (Croatian linguist Žarko Muljačić  [ hr ] translated Ausbausprache into French as langue par élaboration .) Kloss suggested

396-593: Is a major group of Upper German varieties spoken in the south-east of the German language area, including the German state of Bavaria , most of Austria and the Italian region of South Tyrol . Prior to 1945, Bavarian was also prevalent in parts of the southern Sudetenland and western Hungary . Bavarian is spoken by approximately 12 million people in an area of around 125,000 square kilometres (48,000 sq mi), making it

440-518: Is also the indefinite pronoun ebba(d) , "someone" with its impersonal form ebb(a)s , "something". It is inflected in the following way: The interrogative pronouns wea , "who", and wås , "what" are inflected the same way the indefinite pronoun ebba is inflected. Bavarians produce a variety of nicknames for those who bear traditional Bavarian or German names like Josef, Theresa or Georg (becoming Sepp'l or more commonly Sepp , Resi and Schorsch , respectively). Bavarians often refer to names with

484-468: Is an alternative naming many High German dialect speakers regard justified. Bavaria and Austria officially use Standard German as the primary medium of education. With the spread of universal education, the exposure of speakers of Bavarian to Standard German has been increasing, and many younger people, especially in the region's cities and larger towns, speak Standard German with only a slight accent. This accent usually only exists in families where Bavarian

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528-501: Is called Hausname (en: name of the house) and is seldom used to name the person, but more to state where they come from or live or to whom they are related. Examples of this are: Bayerish iz a grupe dyalektn afn dorem funem daytshishn shprakh-kontinuum. Sholem-aleykhem, ikh bin Peter un ikh kum fun Minkhn. Lize/Lizl hot zikh (hotsekh) tsebrokhn dem fus. ikh hob (kh'hob) gefunen gelt. The dialects can be seen to share

572-740: Is preferred in the mass media . Ludwig Thoma was a noted German author who wrote works such as Lausbubengeschichten in Bavarian. There is a Bavarian Misplaced Pages . Also, the official FC Bayern Munich website was available in Bavarian. Notes: Vowel phonemes in parentheses occur only in certain Bavarian dialects or only appear as allophones or in diphthongs. Nasalization may also be distinguished in some dialects. Bavarian has an extensive vowel inventory, like most Germanic languages. Vowels can be grouped as back rounded, front unrounded and front rounded. They are also traditionally distinguished by length or tenseness . * These are typically used in

616-462: Is restricted to use as the language of writing and the media. It is therefore often referred to as Schriftdeutsch ("written German") rather than the usual term Hochdeutsch (" High German " or "Standard German"). Given that Central German and Upper German together comprise the High German languages , out of which the then new, written standard was developed and as opposed to Low German , that

660-506: Is spoken regularly. Families that do not use Bavarian at home usually use Standard German instead. In Austria, some parts of grammar and spelling are taught in Standard German lessons. As reading and writing in Bavarian is generally not taught at schools, almost all literate speakers of the language prefer to use Standard German for writing. Regional authors and literature may play a role in education as well, but by and large, Standard German

704-554: Is the lingua franca . Although there exist grammars, vocabularies , and a translation of the Bible in Bavarian, there is no common orthographic standard. Poetry is written in various Bavarian dialects, and many pop songs use the language as well, especially ones belonging to the Austropop wave of the 1970s and 1980s. Although Bavarian as a spoken language is in daily use in its region, Standard German, often with strong regional influence,

748-447: Is typically taught in schools, and it is used as a written language in a wide variety of social and political functions, possibly including that of an official national language. In contrast, varieties that are not ausbau languages are typically only spoken and typically only used in private contexts. Trudgill expands the definition to include related varieties: [A]n Ausbau language is an autonomous standardized variety together with all

792-486: The Duchy of Bavaria , forming the south-eastern part of the kingdom of Germany . The Old High German documents from the area of Bavaria are identified as Altbairisch (Old Bavarian), even though at this early date there were few distinctive features that would divide it from Alemannic German . The dialectal separation of Upper German into East Upper German (Bavarian) and West Upper German (Alemannic) became more tangible in

836-548: The Middle High German period, from about the 12th century. Three main dialects of Bavarian are: Differences are clearly noticeable within those three subgroups, which in Austria often coincide with the borders of the particular states. For example, each of the accents of Carinthia, Styria, and Tyrol can be easily recognised. Also, there is a marked difference between eastern and western central Bavarian, roughly coinciding with

880-619: The Moselle River valley and neighbouring French département of Moselle ). Other examples of groups of vernaculars lacking abstand internally but that have given rise to multiple ausbau languages are: Persian of Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan ( cf. Farsi , Dari , Tajik ); Bulgarian and Macedonian , because they have different dialect bases. Finally, the ausbau languages may be so different that they also constitute abstand languages. Examples include Dutch versus German , Persian versus Pashto , and Tamil versus Telugu . In

924-628: The Scandinavian dialect continuum spanning Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The three standardized languages Norwegian , Swedish and Danish (or four if Norwegian Bokmål and Nynorsk are distinguished) are mutually distinct ausbau languages, even though speakers of the different standards can readily understand one another. This classification invokes the criterion of social and political functions of language use. The sociolinguist Peter Trudgill has linked Kloss's theoretical framework with Einar Haugen 's framework of autonomy and heteronomy , with

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968-428: The pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language . Standards created from different dialects, but with little abstand , would not be considered separate abstand languages, but constitute distinct ausbau languages, as noted above for Danish , Swedish and Norwegian . The concept of ausbau is particularly important in cases where the local spoken varieties across a larger region form a dialect continuum. In such cases,

1012-449: The 1960s including Basque and Romansh ). Abstandsprache means "language by virtue of linguistic distance". Kloss suggested the English translation "language by distance", referring to linguistic differences rather than geographical separation. Abstand means a distance of ongoing separation, e.g. a clearance by mechanical design. In the context of language varieties, abstand indicates

1056-423: The English translation "language by development", referring to the development of a standard variety from part of a dialect continuum : Languages belonging in this category are recognized as such because of having been shaped or reshaped, molded or remolded—as the case may be—in order to become a standardized tool of literary expression. Kloss identified several stages of this development, beginning with use of

1100-977: The Italian parliament and provincial assembly that put the Mòcheno language and culture under protection. A cultural institute was founded by decree, whose purpose is to safeguard and raise awareness of the language. School curricula were adapted in order to teach in Mòcheno, and Italian street signs are being changed to bilingual Mòcheno/Italian. Vatar ingar en Himbl, gahailegt kimmp der dai Núm. der dai Raich schellt kemmen. Vater unser im Himmel, geheiligt werde Dein Name. Dein Reich komme. Our Father in heaven, hallowed be Thy name. Thy kingdom come. [REDACTED] Media related to Mòcheno language at Wikimedia Commons Bavarian language Bavarian ( German : Bairisch [ˈbaɪʁɪʃ] ; Bavarian : Boarisch, Boirisch ), alternately Austro-Bavarian ,

1144-561: The World's Languages in Danger since 2009; however, the classification of Bavarian as an individual language has been criticized by some scholars of Bavarian. Reasons why Bavarian can be viewed as a dialect of German include the perception of its speakers, the lack of standardization, the traditional use of Standard German as a roofing language , the relative closeness to German which does not justify Bavarian to be viewed as an abstand language , or

1188-528: The border between Austria and Bavaria. In addition, the Viennese dialect has some characteristics distinguishing it from all other dialects. In Vienna, minor, but recognizable, variations are characteristic for distinct districts of the city. Before the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia , the linguistic border of Bavarian with Czech was on the farther side of the Bohemian Forest and its Bohemian foreland

1232-501: The discontinuity of two dialects; in the words of Kloss, there is a "definite break" between the varieties. An abstand language is a cluster of varieties that is distinctly separate from any other language. European examples include Basque and Breton . Kloss also spoke of degrees of abstand between pairs of varieties. He did not specify how the differences between two varieties would be measured, assuming that linguists would apply objective criteria. A standard linguistic criterion

1276-483: The fact that no country applied for Bavarian to be entered into the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . The difference between Bavarian and Standard German is larger than the difference between Danish and some varieties of Norwegian or between Czech and Slovak . The word Bavarian is derived from the name of the people who settled Bavaria along with their tribal dialect. The origin of

1320-440: The family name coming first (like da Stoiber Ede instead of Edmund Stoiber ). The use of the article is considered mandatory when using this linguistic variation. In addition, nicknames different from the family name exist for almost all families, especially in small villages. They consist largely of their profession, names or professions of deceased inhabitants of their homes or the site where their homes are located. This nickname

1364-455: The former two cases, scholars do not always agree on the best classification, as they always partake, inadvertently, in the "language making" and "language unmaking" process. The concept of a One Standard German Axiom in that language is a case in point that illustrates the contested nature of the first two types of ausbau languages, occasionally also the third, varying with the degree with which sociolinguistic processes are assigned relevance in

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1408-570: The largest of all German dialects . In 2008, 45 percent of Bavarians claimed to use only dialect in everyday communication. Bavarian is commonly considered to be a dialect of German , but some sources classify it as a separate language : the International Organization for Standardization has assigned a unique ISO 639-3 language code ( bar ), and the UNESCO lists Bavarian in the Atlas of

1452-642: The nonstandard dialects from that part of the dialect continuum which are heteronomous with respect to it i.e. dependent on it. Kloss described an ausbau language as providing a "roof" (German: Dach ) over dependent varieties, whereas non-standard varieties without a reference standard were "roofless dialects". He used the term "near-dialectized sister languages" for varieties roofed by a standard variety with which they are related but not mutually intelligible, such as Low Saxon (roofed by Standard German ), Occitan and Haitian Creole (roofed by French ), and Sardinian (roofed by Italian ). Muljačić introduced

1496-463: The question of where the one language ends and the other starts is often a question more of ausbau than of abstand. In some instances, ausbau languages have been created out of dialects for purposes of nation-building . This applies, for instance, to Luxembourgish vis-a-vis German (the vernaculars in Luxembourg are varieties of Moselle Franconian , which is also spoken in the German sections of

1540-461: The roof of Standard German . Local Low German dialects spoken in the Netherlands have come under the roof of Dutch. This happened despite the effect of notable migration streams in both directions between the Western (Dutch) and Eastern (Prussian, now mainly Polish and Russian) areas of the region of the Low German languages, motivated by both religious intolerance and labour need. In several spots along

1584-418: The same way. Perhaps the most widely used Dachsprache is Modern Standard Arabic , which links together the speakers of many different, often mutually unintelligible varieties of Arabic . Kloss recognized three degrees of separation between ausbau languages. When two standards are based on identical or near-identical dialects, he considered them as splits of the same standard into two or more, constituting

1628-499: The speakers of the language has been coined from the verb mòchen "to make", often used to build compound predicates in the language. According to the census of 2001, the first in which data on native languages were recorded, Mòcheno was spoken by a majority in the following municipalities (numbers of members of the Mòcheno linguistic group): Fierozzo /Florutz/Vlarotz (423 people, 95.92%), Palù /Palai/Palae (184 people, 95.34%), Frassilongo /Gereut/Garait (340 people, 95.24%, including

1672-418: The statement that a variety is an ausbau language corresponding to the statement that it is used "autonomously" with respect to other related languages. Such a language has an independent cultural status, even though it may be mutually intelligible with other ausbau languages from the same continuum. This typically means that it has its own standardized form independent of neighbouring standard languages, it

1716-407: The term Dachsprache , or "roofing language", for a dialect that serves as a standard language for other dialects. These dialects would usually be in a dialect continuum , but may be so different that mutual intelligibility is not possible between all dialects, particularly those separated by significant geographical distance. In 1982, "Rumantsch Grischun" was developed by Heinrich Schmid as such

1760-426: The variety for humour or folklore , followed by lyrics and then narrative prose. The next phase, which he considered crucial, was use of the variety for serious non-fiction. From this point, the variety could be further developed for use in technical, scientific or government domains. A standard variety developed in this way can be mutually intelligible with other standard varieties. A commonly cited example occurs in

1804-401: The very northern dialects of Bavarian. The possessive pronouns Deina and Seina inflect in the same manner. Oftentimes, -nige is added to the nominative to form the adjective form of the possessive pronoun, like mei(nige), dei(nige), and the like. Just like the possessive pronouns listed above, the indefinite pronouns koana , "none", and oana , "one" are inflected the same way. There

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1848-522: The village of Roveda/Eichleit/Oachlait). In other municipalities of Trentino 1,329 persons declared themselves members of the Mòcheno linguistic group, a total of 2,276 in Trentino. In the 2011 census, the total number of speakers in the Province decreased to 1,660. Mòcheno is officially recognised in Trentino by provincial and national law. Starting in the 1990s, various laws and regulations have been passed by

1892-435: The word is disputed. The most common theory traces the word to Bajowarjōz , meaning 'inhabitants of Bojer land'. In turn, Bojer ( Latin : Boii , German : Boier ) originated as the name for former Celtic inhabitants of the area, with the name passing to the mixed population of Celts, Romans , and successive waves of German arrivals during the early medieval period. The local population eventually established

1936-414: Was Bavarian-speaking. Alternatively, there are four main dialects: Bavarian differs sufficiently from Standard German to make it difficult for native speakers to adopt standard pronunciation. Educated Bavarians and Austrians can almost always read, write and understand Standard German, but they may have very little opportunity to speak it, especially in rural areas. In those regions, Standard German

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