In mycology , a lamella ( pl. : lamellae ), or gill , is a papery hymenophore rib under the cap of some mushroom species, most often agarics . The gills are used by the mushrooms as a means of spore dispersal , and are important for species identification . The attachment of the gills to the stem is classified based on the shape of the gills when viewed from the side, while color, crowding and the shape of individual gills can also be important features. Additionally, gills can have distinctive microscopic or macroscopic features. For instance, Lactarius species typically seep latex from their gills.
68-424: A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore -bearing fruiting body of a fungus , typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. Toadstool generally denotes one poisonous to humans. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus ; hence, the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi ( Basidiomycota , Agaricomycetes ) that have
136-528: A basidia . The fertile portion of the Gasteromycetes , called a gleba , may become powdery as in the puffballs or slimy as in the stinkhorns . Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cells called paraphyses . Similar structures called cystidia often occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota. Many types of cystidia exist, and assessing their presence, shape, and size is often used to verify
204-457: A megasporangium that produces megaspores or a microsporangium that produces microspores. In flowering plants, these sporangia occur within the carpel and anthers, respectively. Fungi commonly produce spores during sexual and asexual reproduction. Spores are usually haploid and grow into mature haploid individuals through mitotic division of cells ( Urediniospores and Teliospores among rusts are dikaryotic). Dikaryotic cells result from
272-414: A multicellular gametophyte , which eventually goes on to produce gametes. Two gametes fuse to form a zygote , which develops into a new sporophyte. This cycle is known as alternation of generations . The spores of seed plants are produced internally, and the megaspores (formed within the ovules) and the microspores are involved in the formation of more complex structures that form the dispersal units,
340-467: A 100 grams (3.5 ounces) amount, raw mushrooms provide 22 calories and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value , DV) of B vitamins , such as riboflavin , niacin and pantothenic acid , selenium (37% DV) and copper (25% DV), and a moderate source (10–19% DV) of phosphorus , zinc and potassium (table). They have minimal or no vitamin C and sodium content. The vitamin D content of
408-437: A center pole. This shows that four spores shared a common origin and were initially in contact with each other forming a tetrahedron. A wider aperture in the shape of a groove may be termed a colpus . The number of colpi distinguishes major groups of plants. Eudicots have tricolpate spores (i.e. spores with three colpi). Envelope-enclosed spore tetrads are taken as the earliest evidence of plant life on land, dating from
476-600: A considerable growth in interest in mushroom cultivation, which is now seen as a potentially important economic activity for small farmers. China is a major edible mushroom producer. The country produces about half of all cultivated mushrooms, and around 2.7 kilograms (6.0 lb) of mushrooms are consumed per person per year by 1.4 billion people. In 2014, Poland was the world's largest mushroom exporter, reporting an estimated 194,000 tonnes (191,000 long tons; 214,000 short tons) annually. Separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there
544-548: A fine art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era , combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising-reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and allergens . Chemical tests are also used for some genera. In general, identification to genus can often be accomplished in
612-415: A mushroom depends on postharvest handling, in particular the unintended exposure to sunlight. The US Department of Agriculture provided evidence that UV-exposed mushrooms contain substantial amounts of vitamin D. When exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, even after harvesting, ergosterol in mushrooms is converted to vitamin D 2 , a process now used intentionally to supply fresh vitamin D mushrooms for
680-595: A putrid odour, for dispersal of fungal spores is yet another strategy, most prominently used by the stinkhorns . In Common Smoothcap moss ( Atrichum undulatum ), the vibration of sporophyte has been shown to be an important mechanism for spore release. In the case of spore-shedding vascular plants such as ferns, wind distribution of very light spores provides great capacity for dispersal. Also, spores are less subject to animal predation than seeds because they contain almost no food reserve; however they are more subject to fungal and bacterial predation. Their chief advantage
748-551: A role in various native medicine traditions in cultures all around the world. They have been used as sacrament in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the velada ceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is the shaman or curandera (priest-healer). Psilocybin mushrooms , also referred to as psychedelic mushrooms, possess psychedelic properties . Commonly known as "magic mushrooms" or " 'shrooms", they are openly available in smart shops in many parts of
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#1732852742669816-414: A small number of deadly species , several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render
884-406: A stem ( stipe ), a cap ( pileus ), and gills (lamellae, sing. lamella ) on the underside of the cap. "Mushroom" also describes a variety of other gilled fungi, with or without stems; therefore the term is used to describe the fleshy fruiting bodies of some Ascomycota . The gills produce microscopic spores which help the fungus spread across the ground or its occupant surface. Forms deviating from
952-697: A zygote before developing further. The main difference between spores and seeds as dispersal units is that spores are unicellular, the first cell of a gametophyte, while seeds contain within them a developing embryo (the multicellular sporophyte of the next generation), produced by the fusion of the male gamete of the pollen tube with the female gamete formed by the megagametophyte within the ovule. Spores germinate to give rise to haploid gametophytes, while seeds germinate to give rise to diploid sporophytes. Vascular plant spores are always haploid . Vascular plants are either homosporous (or isosporous) or heterosporous . Plants that are homosporous produce spores of
1020-435: Is an ongoing research in the field of genetic engineering aimed towards creation of the enhanced qualities of mushrooms for such domains as nutritional value enhancement, as well as medical use. Spore In biology , a spore is a unit of sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of
1088-416: Is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from psychological disorders, such as obsessive–compulsive disorder . Minute amounts have been reported to stop cluster and migraine headaches . A double-blind study, done by Johns Hopkins Hospital , showed psychedelic mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance. In the study, one third of
1156-434: Is considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments. Several varieties of A. bisporus are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello. Other cultivated species available at many grocers include Hericium erinaceus , shiitake , maitake (hen-of-the-woods), Pleurotus , and enoki . In recent years, increasing affluence in developing countries has led to
1224-465: Is for wild mushroom pickers to focus on collecting a small number of visually distinctive, edible mushroom species that cannot be easily confused with poisonous varieties. Common mushroom hunting advice is that if a mushroom cannot be positively identified, it should be considered poisonous and not eaten. Many mushroom species produce secondary metabolites that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or bioluminescent . Although there are only
1292-445: Is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as mushroom hunting , or simply "mushrooming". Even edible mushrooms may produce allergic reactions in susceptible individuals, from a mild asthmatic response to severe anaphylactic shock. Even
1360-428: Is not clear-cut, so a "mushroom" may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable. The word toadstool appeared first in 14th century England as a reference for a "stool" for toads , possibly implying an inedible poisonous fungus. Identifying what is and is not a mushroom requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most are basidiomycetes and gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores , are produced on
1428-452: Is now clear that this is a case of convergent evolution (i.e. gill-like structures evolved separately) rather than being an anatomic feature that evolved only once. The apparent reason that various basidiomycetes have evolved gills is that it is the most effective means of increasing the ratio of surface area to mass, which increases the potential for spore production and dispersal. Other groups of fungi to bear gills include: Members of
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#17328527426691496-592: Is similar to Z-drugs in that it includes CNS depressant and sedative - hypnotic effects, but also dissociation and delirium in high doses. Some mushrooms are used in folk medicine . In a few countries, extracts , such as polysaccharide-K , schizophyllan , polysaccharide peptide , or lentinan , are government-registered adjuvant cancer therapies , but clinical evidence for efficacy and safety of these extracts in humans has not been confirmed. Although some mushroom species or their extracts may be consumed for therapeutic effects, some regulatory agencies, such as
1564-430: Is sporulating). The color of the powdery print, called a spore print , is useful in both classifying and identifying mushrooms. Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and creamy, but almost never blue, green, or red. While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into
1632-478: Is that spores were an adaptation of early land plant species, such as embryophytes , that allowed for plants to easily disperse while adapting to their non-aquatic environment. This is particularly supported by the observation of a thick spore wall in cryptospores . These spore walls would have protected potential offspring from novel weather elements. The second more recent hypothesis is that spores were an early predecessor of land plants and formed during errors in
1700-451: Is that, of all forms of progeny, spores require the least energy and materials to produce. In the spikemoss Selaginella lepidophylla , dispersal is achieved in part by an unusual type of diaspore , a tumbleweed . Spores have been found in microfossils dating back to the mid-late Ordovician period. Two hypothesized initial functions of spores relate to whether they appeared before or after land plants. The heavily studied hypothesis
1768-708: The Cantharellales , false chanterelles such as Gomphus are in the Gomphales , milk-cap mushrooms ( Lactarius , Lactifluus ) and russulas ( Russula ), as well as Lentinellus , are in the Russulales , while the tough, leathery genera Lentinus and Panus are among the Polyporales , but Neolentinus is in the Gloeophyllales , and the little pin-mushroom genus, Rickenella , along with similar genera, are in
1836-552: The Hymenochaetales . Within the main body of mushrooms, in the Agaricales, are common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom , shiitake , enoki , oyster mushrooms , fly agarics and other Amanitas , magic mushrooms like species of Psilocybe , paddy straw mushrooms , shaggy manes , etc. An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom , which is a fruitbody of a Russula or Lactarius mushroom that has been deformed by
1904-477: The United States is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older, and spans an estimated 2,200 acres (8.9 km). Most of the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dying tree roots in the form of white mycelia combined with black shoelace-like rhizomorphs that bridge colonized separated woody substrates. Raw brown mushrooms are 92% water, 4% carbohydrates , 2% protein and less than 1% fat . In
1972-669: The functional food grocery market. In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vitamin D in fresh mushrooms, researchers showed that artificial UV light technologies were equally effective for vitamin D production as in mushrooms exposed to natural sunlight , and that UV light has a long record of safe use for production of vitamin D in food. Mushrooms are used extensively in cooking , in many cuisines (notably Chinese , Korean , European , and Japanese ). Humans have valued them as food since antiquity. Most mushrooms sold in supermarkets have been commercially grown on mushroom farms . The most common of these, Agaricus bisporus ,
2040-455: The life cycles of many plants , algae , fungi and protozoa . They were thought to have appeared as early as the mid-late Ordovician period as an adaptation of early land plants. Bacterial spores are not part of a sexual cycle, but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions. Myxozoan spores release amoeboid infectious germs ("amoebulae") into their hosts for parasitic infection, but also reproduce within
2108-491: The meiosis of algae , a hypothesized early ancestor of land plants. Whether spores arose before or after land plants, their contributions to topics in fields like paleontology and plant phylogenetics have been useful. The spores found in microfossils, also known as cryptospores, are well preserved due to the fixed material they are in as well as how abundant and widespread they were during their respective time periods. These microfossils are especially helpful when studying
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2176-586: The parasitic fungus Hypomyces lactifluorum . This gives the affected mushroom an unusual shape and red color that resembles that of a boiled lobster . Other mushrooms are not gilled, so the term "mushroom" is loosely used, and giving a full account of their classifications is difficult. Some have pores underneath (and are usually called boletes ), others have spines, such as the hedgehog mushroom and other tooth fungi , and so on. "Mushroom" has been used for polypores , puffballs , jelly fungi , coral fungi , bracket fungi , stinkhorns , and cup fungi . Thus,
2244-529: The primordia . Similarly, there are other mushrooms, like Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis ), that grow rapidly overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall. The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatch and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse. Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruiting bodies by growing from
2312-408: The seeds and pollen grains. The term spore derives from the ancient Greek word σπορά spora , meaning " seed , sowing", related to σπόρος sporos , "sowing", and σπείρειν speirein , "to sow". In common parlance, the difference between a "spore" and a " gamete " is that a spore will germinate and develop into a sporeling , while a gamete needs to combine with another gamete to form
2380-461: The US Food and Drug Administration , regard such use as a dietary supplement , which does not have government approval or common clinical use as a prescription drug . Mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool and other natural fibers. The chromophores of mushroom dyes are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before
2448-460: The absorption of fluids. The cultivated mushroom , as well as the common field mushroom , initially form a minute fruiting body , referred to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded, they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its mycelium and expand, mainly by inflating preformed cells that took several days to form in
2516-516: The cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the partial veil , covers the bladelike gills that bear spores . As the cap expands the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial veil may remain as a ring, or annulus , around the middle of the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap. The ring may be skirt-like as in some species of Amanita , collar-like as in many species of Lepiota , or merely
2584-503: The cultivated A. bisporus contains small amounts of hydrazines , the most abundant of which is agaritine (a mycotoxin and carcinogen ). However, the hydrazines are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking. A number of species of mushrooms are poisonous ; although some resemble certain edible species, consuming them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should only be undertaken by individuals knowledgeable in mushroom identification. Common best practice
2652-473: The early periods of earth as macrofossils such as plants are not common nor well preserved. Both cryptospores and modern spores have diverse morphology that indicate possible environmental conditions of earlier periods of Earth and evolutionary relationships of plant species. Lamella (mycology) It was originally believed that all gilled fungi were Agaricales , but as fungi were studied in more detail, some gilled species were demonstrated not to be. It
2720-477: The edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae . For example, Pleurotus nebrodensis grows slowly, and because of this combined with human collection, it is now critically endangered . Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying mycelium can itself be long-lived and massive. A colony of Armillaria solidipes (formerly known as Armillaria ostoyae ) in Malheur National Forest in
2788-423: The faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the genus Cortinarius . Mushrooms lacking partial veils do not form an annulus. The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center or lateral, as in species of Pleurotus and Panus . In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in
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2856-526: The field using a local field guide . Identification to species , however, requires more effort. A mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for colored spored prints. Typical mushrooms are
2924-569: The fluids of the ascus that lead to explosive discharge of the ascospores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of water ( Buller's drop ), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g . Other fungi rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces, exemplified by puffballs . Attracting insects, such as flies, to fruiting structures, by virtue of their having lively colours and
2992-432: The fruit bodies of members of the order Agaricales , whose type genus is Agaricus and type species is the field mushroom, Agaricus campestris . However in modern molecularly defined classifications , not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the class Agaricomycetes . For example, chanterelles are in
3060-545: The fruiting bodies called mushrooms, or the species itself. The terms "mushroom" and "toadstool" go back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on application. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the terms mushrom, mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns were used. The term "mushroom" and its variations may have been derived from the French word mousseron in reference to moss ( mousse ). Delineation between edible and poisonous fungi
3128-735: The fusion of two haploid gamete cells. Among sporogenic dikaryotic cells, karyogamy (the fusion of the two haploid nuclei) occurs to produce a diploid cell. Diploid cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores. Spores can be classified in several ways such as by their spore producing structure, function, origin during life cycle, and mobility. Below is a table listing the mode of classification, name, identifying characteristic, examples, and images of different spore species. Under high magnification , spores often have complex patterns or ornamentation on their exterior surfaces. A specialized terminology has been developed to describe features of such patterns. Some markings represent apertures, places where
3196-412: The genus Amanita , most recognizably A. muscaria , but also A. pantherina , among others, contain the psychoactive compound muscimol . The muscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of Amanitas contains no amatoxins or phallotoxins , and as such are not hepatoxic , though if not properly cured will be non-lethally neurotoxic due to the presence of ibotenic acid . The Amanita intoxication
3264-404: The gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level, the basidiospores are shot off basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruit body
3332-426: The hosts through the pairing of two nuclei within the plasmodium, which develops from the amoebula. In plants, spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the sporangium of a diploid sporophyte . In some rare cases, diploid spore is also produced in some algae, or fungi. Under favourable conditions, the spore can develop into a new organism using mitotic division, producing
3400-543: The hypha emerges when the spore germinates. Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the English language including "to mushroom" or "mushrooming" (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and "to pop up like a mushroom" (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In reality, all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by
3468-406: The identification of a mushroom. The most important microscopic feature for identification of mushrooms is the spores. Their color, shape, size, attachment, ornamentation, and reaction to chemical tests often can be the crux of an identification. A spore often has a protrusion at one end, called an apiculus, which is the point of attachment to the basidium, termed the apical germ pore , from which
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#17328527426693536-489: The inner surfaces of the tubes of boletes and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine fungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota, spores develop within microscopic elongated, sac-like cells called asci , which typically contain eight spores in each ascus. The Discomycetes , which contain the cup, sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi, develop an exposed layer of asci, as on the inner surfaces of cup fungi or within
3604-455: The invention of synthetic dyes , mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes. Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as tinder fungi ). Mushrooms and other fungi play a role in the development of new biological remediation techniques (e.g., using mycorrhizae to spur plant growth) and filtration technologies (e.g. using fungi to lower bacterial levels in contaminated water). There
3672-426: The mass of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a "button". The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil , that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a cup, or volva , at the base of the stalk , or as warts or volval patches on
3740-527: The mid-Ordovician (early Llanvirn, ~ 470 million years ago ), a period from which no macrofossils have yet been recovered. Individual trilete spores resembling those of modern cryptogamic plants first appeared in the fossil record at the end of the Ordovician period. In fungi, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores of many fungal species are actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of
3808-427: The mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal (see emetics ), or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to the propensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals , including those that are radioactive, as late as 2008, European mushrooms may have included toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and continued to be studied. Mushrooms with psychoactive properties have long played
3876-427: The pits of morels . The Pyrenomycetes , tiny dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, dung, leaf litter , and decaying wood, as well as other fungi, produce minute, flask-shaped structures called perithecia , within which the asci develop. In the basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on the tips of thin projections called sterigmata , which extend from club-shaped cells called
3944-516: The polypores that form shelf-like brackets. Puffballs lack a stalk, but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms including truffles , jellies , earthstars , and bird's nests usually do not have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary exists to describe their parts. The way the gills attach to the top of the stalk is an important feature of mushroom morphology. Mushrooms in the genera Agaricus , Amanita , Lepiota and Pluteus , among others, have free gills that do not extend to
4012-399: The same size and type. Heterosporous plants, such as seed plants , spikemosses , quillworts , and ferns of the order Salviniales produce spores of two different sizes: the larger spore (megaspore) in effect functioning as a "female" spore and the smaller (microspore) functioning as a "male". Such plants typically give rise to the two kind of spores from within separate sporangia, either
4080-407: The spores from the reproductive structures as well as travelling through the air over long distances. Many fungi thereby possess specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms as well as spore-surface structures, such as hydrophobins , for spore ejection. These mechanisms include, for example, forcible discharge of ascospores enabled by the structure of the ascus and accumulation of osmolytes in
4148-409: The standard morphology usually have more specific names, such as " bolete ", " puffball ", " stinkhorn ", and " morel ", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called " agarics " in reference to their similarity to Agaricus or their order Agaricales . By extension, the term "mushroom" can also refer to either the entire fungus when in culture, the thallus (called mycelium ) of species forming
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#17328527426694216-490: The subjects reported ingestion of psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritually significant event of their lives. Over two-thirds reported it among their five most meaningful and spiritually significant events. On the other hand, one-third of the subjects reported extreme anxiety . However the anxiety went away after a short period of time. Psilocybin mushrooms have also shown to be successful in treating addiction, specifically with alcohol and cigarettes. A few species in
4284-399: The term is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning. Approximately 14,000 species of mushrooms are described. A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium , which is typically found on or near the surface of the substrate . It is formed within the mycelium ,
4352-426: The top of the stalk. Others have decurrent gills that extend down the stalk, as in the genera Omphalotus and Pleurotus . There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attached gills. Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the types of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely to the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they join
4420-409: The top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions between attached gills are sometimes difficult to interpret, since gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or with different environmental conditions. A hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells that covers the surface of gills. In the nongilled mushrooms, the hymenium lines
4488-418: The tough outer coat of the spore can be penetrated when germination occurs. Spores can be categorized based on the position and number of these markings and apertures. Alete spores show no lines. In monolete spores , there is a single narrow line (laesura) on the spore. Indicating the prior contact of two spores that eventually separated. In trilete spores , each spore shows three narrow lines radiating from
4556-450: The two related genera of chanterelles, Cantharellus and Craterellus , have rudimentary lamellar structures which are sometimes referred to as "false gills". They are distinguished from "true gills" because the structure of the fertile surface (" hymenium ") continues uninterrupted over the gill edge, so they are little more than folds, wrinkles or veins. The genus Gomphus also has false gills. These primitive lamellae indicate how
4624-459: The world, or on the black market in those countries which have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported to facilitate profound and life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences . Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences. Psilocybin , a naturally occurring chemical in certain psychedelic mushrooms such as Psilocybe cubensis ,
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