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63-598: Basidiomycota ( / b ə ˌ s ɪ d i . oʊ m aɪ ˈ k oʊ t ə / ) is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota , constitute the subkingdom Dikarya (often referred to as the " higher fungi ") within the kingdom Fungi . Members are known as basidiomycetes . More specifically, Basidiomycota includes these groups: agarics , puffballs , stinkhorns , bracket fungi , other polypores , jelly fungi , boletes , chanterelles , earth stars , smuts , bunts , rusts , mirror yeasts , and Cryptococcus ,

126-470: A bipolar ( unifactorial ) or a tetrapolar ( bifactorial ) mating system. This results in the fact that following meiosis , the resulting haploid basidiospores and resultant monokaryons, have nuclei that are compatible with 50% (if bipolar) or 25% (if tetrapolar) of their sister basidiospores (and their resultant monokaryons) because the mating genes must differ for them to be compatible. However, there are sometimes more than two possible alleles for

189-408: A dikaryon . The hyphae are then said to be dikaryotic. Conversely, the haploid mycelia are called monokaryons . Often, the dikaryotic mycelium is more vigorous than the individual monokaryotic mycelia, and proceeds to take over the substrate in which they are growing. The dikaryons can be long-lived, lasting years, decades, or centuries. The monokaryons are neither male nor female. They have either

252-474: A basidium). In some smuts such as Mycosarcoma maydis the nuclei migrate into the promycelium that becomes septate (i.e., divided into cellular compartments separated by cell walls called septa ), and haploid yeast-like conidia/basidiospores sometimes called sporidia, bud off laterally from each cell. In various smuts, the yeast phase may proliferate, or they may fuse, or they may infect plant tissue and become hyphal. In other smuts, such as Tilletia caries ,

315-447: A century earlier). The definition was posited because extinct organisms are hardest to classify: they can be offshoots that diverged from a phylum's line before the characters that define the modern phylum were all acquired. By Budd and Jensen's definition, a phylum is defined by a set of characters shared by all its living representatives. This approach brings some small problems—for instance, ancestral characters common to most members of

378-442: A dikaryon. The dikaryon is long lasting but ultimately gives rise to either fruitbodies with basidia or directly to basidia without fruitbodies. The paired dikaryon in the basidium fuse (i.e. karyogamy takes place). The diploid basidium begins the cycle again. Coprinopsis cinerea is a basidiomycete mushroom. It is particularly suited to the study of meiosis because meiosis progresses synchronously in about 10 million cells within

441-435: A given locus, and in such species, depending on the specifics, over 90% of monokaryons could be compatible with each other. The maintenance of the dikaryotic status in dikaryons in many Basidiomycota is facilitated by the formation of clamp connections that physically appear to help coordinate and re-establish pairs of compatible nuclei following synchronous mitotic nuclear divisions. Variations are frequent and multiple. In

504-619: A large degree in academic mycology as well, identification of higher fungi is based on the features of the sporocarp. The largest known fruitbody is a specimen of Phellinus ellipsoideus (formerly Fomitiporia ellipsoidea ) found on Hainan Island , part of China . It measures up to 10.85 metres ( 35 + 1 ⁄ 2 feet) in length and is estimated to weigh between 450 and 760 kilograms (990 and 1,680 pounds). A wide variety of animals feed on epigeous and hypogeous fungi. The mammals that feed on fungi are as diverse as fungi themselves and are called mycophages. Squirrels and chipmunks eat

567-477: A level of the Linnean hierarchy without referring to (evolutionary) relatedness is unsatisfactory, but a phenetic definition is useful when addressing questions of a morphological nature—such as how successful different body plans were. The most important objective measure in the above definitions is the "certain degree" that defines how different organisms need to be members of different phyla. The minimal requirement

630-422: A phylum may have been lost by some members. Also, this definition is based on an arbitrary point of time: the present. However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record. A greater problem is that it relies on a subjective decision about which groups of organisms should be considered as phyla. The approach is useful because it makes it easy to classify extinct organisms as " stem groups " to

693-689: A phylum, other phylum-level ranks appear, such as the case of Bacillariophyta (diatoms) within Ochrophyta . These differences became irrelevant after the adoption of a cladistic approach by the ISP, where taxonomic ranks are excluded from the classifications after being considered superfluous and unstable. Many authors prefer this usage, which lead to the Chromista-Protozoa scheme becoming obsolete. Currently there are 40 bacterial phyla (not including " Cyanobacteria ") that have been validly published according to

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756-461: A role in a three-way symbiotic relationship with small marsupials and Australian Eucalyptus forests. In Eucalyptus forests, hypogeous sporocarp dispersal is positively affected by fires. After a fire, most if not all epigeous sporocarps are wiped out, leaving hypogeous sporocarps to be the primary source of fungi for small marsupials. The ability of hypogeous fungi to resist disasters, such as fire, could be due to their evolved ability to survive

819-437: A separate compatible thallus being involved. These fungi are said to be homothallic, versus the normal heterothallic species with mating types. Others are secondarily homothallic, in that two compatible nuclei following meiosis migrate into each basidiospore, which is then dispersed as a pre-existing dikaryon. Often such species form only two spores per basidium, but that too varies. Following meiosis, mitotic divisions can occur in

882-555: A survival benefit for these fungi by promoting successful infection. A characteristic central feature of meiosis is recombination between homologous chromosomes. This process is associated with repair of DNA damage, particularly double-strand breaks . The ability of C. neoformans and M. maydis to undergo meiosis may contribute to their virulence by repairing the oxidative DNA damage caused by their host's release of reactive oxygen species . Many variations occur: some variations are self-compatible and spontaneously form dikaryons without

945-413: A typical Basidiomycota lifecycle the long lasting dikaryons periodically (seasonally or occasionally) produce basidia , the specialized usually club-shaped end cells, in which a pair of compatible nuclei fuse ( karyogamy ) to form a diploid cell. Meiosis follows shortly with the production of 4 haploid nuclei that migrate into 4 external, usually apical basidiospores. Variations occur, however. Typically

1008-467: Is a paraphyletic taxon, which is less acceptable to present-day biologists than in the past. Proposals have been made to divide it among several new kingdoms, such as Protozoa and Chromista in the Cavalier-Smith system . Protist taxonomy has long been unstable, with different approaches and definitions resulting in many competing classification schemes. Many of the phyla listed below are used by

1071-420: Is a wider distribution of mycelia underground than sporocarps above ground. Hypogeous fungi are usually called truffles or false truffles . There is evidence that hypogeous fungi evolved from epigeous fungi. During their evolution , truffles lost the ability to disperse their spores by air currents, and propagate instead by animal consumption and subsequent defecation. In amateur mushroom hunting , and to

1134-548: Is an example. By convention, the stages and spore states are numbered by Roman numerals . Typically, basidiospores infect host one, also known as the alternate or sexual host, and the mycelium forms pycnidia , which are miniature, flask-shaped, hollow, submicroscopic bodies embedded in the host tissue (such as a leaf). This stage, numbered "0", produces single-celled spores that ooze out in a sweet liquid and that act as nonmotile spermatia , and also protruding receptive hyphae . Insects and probably other vectors such as rain carry

1197-472: Is generally included in kingdom Fungi, though its exact relations remain uncertain, and it is considered a protozoan by the International Society of Protistologists (see Protista , below). Molecular analysis of Zygomycota has found it to be polyphyletic (its members do not share an immediate ancestor), which is considered undesirable by many biologists. Accordingly, there is a proposal to abolish

1260-492: Is not yet placed in a subdivision, but recent genomic evidence suggests that it is a sister group of Agaricomycotina . The Pucciniomycotina include the rust fungi, the insect parasitic/symbiotic genus Septobasidium , a former group of smut fungi (in the Microbotryomycetes , which includes mirror yeasts), and a mixture of odd, infrequently seen, or seldom recognized fungi, often parasitic on plants. The eight classes in

1323-459: Is that all organisms in a phylum should be clearly more closely related to one another than to any other group. Even this is problematic because the requirement depends on knowledge of organisms' relationships: as more data become available, particularly from molecular studies, we are better able to determine the relationships between groups. So phyla can be merged or split if it becomes apparent that they are related to one another or not. For example,

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1386-446: Is that the composition of fungi in the diet of Tasmanian bettong was positively correlated with body condition and growth rates of pouch young. Ectomycorrhizal or hypogeous fungi form a symbiotic relationship with small mycophagous mammals. Hypogeous sporocarps depend on small fungivorous mammals to disperse their spores since they are underground and cannot utilize wind dispersal like epigeous sporocarps. Underground fungi also play

1449-639: The Bacteriological Code Currently there are 2 phyla that have been validly published according to the Bacteriological Code Other phyla that have been proposed, but not validly named, include: Sporocarp (fungus) The sporocarp of a basidiomycete is known as a basidiocarp or basidiome , while the fruitbody of an ascomycete is known as an ascocarp . Many shapes and morphologies are found in both basidiocarps and ascocarps; these features play an important role in

1512-552: The Catalogue of Life , and correspond to the Protozoa-Chromista scheme, with updates from the latest (2022) publication by Cavalier-Smith . Other phyla are used commonly by other authors, and are adapted from the system used by the International Society of Protistologists (ISP). Some of the descriptions are based on the 2019 revision of eukaryotes by the ISP. The number of protist phyla varies greatly from one classification to

1575-726: The Gasteromycetes (another obsolete class that included species mostly lacking hymenia and mostly forming spores in enclosed fruitbodies ), as well as most of the jelly fungi . This sub-phyla also includes the "classic" mushrooms, polypores, corals, chanterelles, crusts, puffballs and stinkhorns. The three classes in the Agaricomycotina are the Agaricomycetes , the Dacrymycetes , and the Tremellomycetes . The class Wallemiomycetes

1638-447: The Rust ( Pucciniales )) tend to have mutually indistinguishable, compatible haploids which are usually mycelia being composed of filamentous hyphae . Typically haploid Basidiomycota mycelia fuse via plasmogamy and then the compatible nuclei migrate into each other's mycelia and pair up with the resident nuclei. Karyogamy is delayed, so that the compatible nuclei remain in pairs, called

1701-459: The bearded worms were described as a new phylum (the Pogonophora) in the middle of the 20th century, but molecular work almost half a century later found them to be a group of annelids , so the phyla were merged (the bearded worms are now an annelid family ). On the other hand, the highly parasitic phylum Mesozoa was divided into two phyla ( Orthonectida and Rhombozoa ) when it was discovered

1764-484: The Basidiomycota that are 1) poorly known, 2) have not been subjected to DNA analysis, or 3) if analysed phylogenetically do not group with as yet named or identified families, and have not been assigned to a specific family (i.e., they are incertae sedis with respect to familial placement). These include: Unlike animals and plants which have readily recognizable male and female counterparts, Basidiomycota (except for

1827-512: The Basidiomycota were divided into two classes, now obsolete: Nonetheless these former concepts continue to be used as two types of growth habit groupings, the "mushrooms" (e.g. Schizophyllum commune ) and the non-mushrooms (e.g. Mycosarcoma maydis ). The Agaricomycotina include what had previously been called the Hymenomycetes (an obsolete morphological based class of Basidiomycota that formed hymenial layers on their fruitbodies ),

1890-871: The Basidiomycota. As now classified, the subphyla join and also cut across various obsolete taxonomic groups (see below) previously commonly used to describe Basidiomycota. According to a 2008 estimate, Basidiomycota comprise three subphyla (including six unassigned classes) 16 classes, 52 orders, 177 families, 1,589 genera, and 31,515 species. Wijayawardene et al. 2020 produced an update that recognized 19 classes ( Agaricomycetes , Agaricostilbomycetes , Atractiellomycetes , Bartheletiomycetes , Classiculomycetes , Cryptomycocolacomycetes , Cystobasidiomycetes , Dacrymycetes , Exobasidiomycetes , Malasseziomycetes , Microbotryomycetes , Mixiomycetes , Monilielliomycetes , Pucciniomycetes , Spiculogloeomycetes , Tremellomycetes , Tritirachiomycetes , Ustilaginomycetes and Wallemiomycetes ) with multiple orders and genera. Traditionally,

1953-495: The Greek phylon ( φῦλον , "race, stock"), related to phyle ( φυλή , "tribe, clan"). Haeckel noted that species constantly evolved into new species that seemed to retain few consistent features among themselves and therefore few features that distinguished them as a group ("a self-contained unity"): "perhaps such a real and completely self-contained unity is the aggregate of all species which have gradually evolved from one and

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2016-510: The Orthonectida are probably deuterostomes and the Rhombozoa protostomes . This changeability of phyla has led some biologists to call for the concept of a phylum to be abandoned in favour of placing taxa in clades without any formal ranking of group size. A definition of a phylum based on body plan has been proposed by paleontologists Graham Budd and Sören Jensen (as Haeckel had done

2079-815: The Pucciniomycotina are Agaricostilbomycetes , Atractiellomycetes , Classiculomycetes , Cryptomycocolacomycetes , Cystobasidiomycetes , Microbotryomycetes , Mixiomycetes , and Pucciniomycetes . The Ustilaginomycotina are most (but not all) of the former smut fungi and the Exobasidiales . The classes of the Ustilaginomycotina are the Exobasidiomycetes , the Entorrhizomycetes, and the Ustilaginomycetes . There are several genera classified in

2142-491: The Zygomycota phylum. Its members would be divided between phylum Glomeromycota and four new subphyla incertae sedis (of uncertain placement): Entomophthoromycotina , Kickxellomycotina , Mucoromycotina , and Zoopagomycotina . Kingdom Protista (or Protoctista) is included in the traditional five- or six-kingdom model, where it can be defined as containing all eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi. Protista

2205-475: The absence of dikaryon formation, diploid nuclei, and meiosis. A rare few number of taxa have extended diploid lifecycles, but can be common species. Examples exist in the mushroom genera Armillaria and Xerula , both in the Physalacriaceae . Occasionally, basidiospores are not formed and parts of the "basidia" act as the dispersal agents, e.g. the peculiar mycoparasitic jelly fungus, Tetragoniomyces or

2268-533: The basidiospores are ballistic , hence they are sometimes also called ballistospores . In most species, the basidiospores disperse and each can start a new haploid mycelium, continuing the lifecycle. Basidia are microscopic but they are often produced on or in multicelled large fructifications called basidiocarps or basidiomes, or fruitbodies , variously called mushrooms, puffballs , etc. Ballistic basidiospores are formed on sterigmata which are tapered spine-like projections on basidia, and are typically curved, like

2331-633: The basidium. Multiple numbers of basidiospores can result, including odd numbers via degeneration of nuclei, or pairing up of nuclei, or lack of migration of nuclei. For example, the chanterelle genus Craterellus often has six-spored basidia, while some corticioid Sistotrema species can have two-, four-, six-, or eight-spored basidia, and the cultivated button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus . can have one-, two-, three- or four-spored basidia under some circumstances. Occasionally, monokaryons of some taxa can form morphologically fully formed basidiomes and anatomically correct basidia and ballistic basidiospores in

2394-523: The coffee leaf parasite, Mycena citricolor , and its Decapitatus flavidus propagules called gemmae. Division (mycology) In biology , a phylum ( / ˈ f aɪ l əm / ; pl. : phyla ) is a level of classification or taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class . Traditionally, in botany the term division has been used instead of phylum, although the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants accepts

2457-420: The core expression program of meiosis has been conserved in these fungi for over half a billion years of evolution since these species diverged. Cryptococcus neoformans and Mycosarcoma maydis are examples of pathogenic basidiomycota. Such pathogens must be able to overcome the oxidative defenses of their respective hosts in order to produce a successful infection. The ability to undergo meiosis may provide

2520-468: The digestive systems of animals in order to distribute. Sporocarps can also serve as a food source for other fungi. Sporocarps can be hosts to diverse communities of fungicolous fungi. Short-lived sporocarps are more often hosts to fungicolous fungi than are long-lived sporocarps, which may have evolved more investment in defense mechanisms and tend to have less water content than their short-lived counterparts. Resupinate sporocarps, sporocarps that have

2583-510: The elongated haploid basidiospores form apically, often in compatible pairs that fuse centrally resulting in H-shaped diaspores which are by then dikaryotic. Dikaryotic conidia may then form. Eventually the host is infected by infectious hyphae. Teliospores form in host tissue. Many variations on these general themes occur. Smuts with both a yeast phase and an infectious hyphal state are examples of dimorphic Basidiomycota. In plant parasitic taxa,

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2646-863: The entire "basidium" acts as a "spore", e.g. in some false puffballs ( Scleroderma ). In the human pathogenic genus Cryptococcus , four nuclei following meiosis remain in the basidium, but continually divide mitotically, each nucleus migrating into synchronously forming nonballistic basidiospores that are then pushed upwards by another set forming below them, resulting in four parallel chains of dry "basidiospores". Other variations occur: some as standard lifecycles (that themselves have variations within variations) within specific orders. Rusts ( Pucciniales , previously known as Uredinales ) at their greatest complexity, produce five different types of spores on two different host plants in two unrelated host families. Such rusts are heteroecious (requiring two hosts) and macrocyclic (producing all five spores types). Wheat stem rust

2709-504: The first publication of the APG system in 1998, which proposed a classification of angiosperms up to the level of orders , many sources have preferred to treat ranks higher than orders as informal clades. Where formal ranks have been provided, the traditional divisions listed below have been reduced to a very much lower level, e.g. subclasses . Wolf plants Hepatophyta Liver plants Coniferophyta Cone-bearing plant Phylum Microsporidia

2772-423: The formation of a distinctive anatomical feature (the clamp connection ), cell wall components, and definitively by phylogenetic molecular analysis of DNA sequence data. A 2007 classification, adopted by a coalition of 67 mycologists recognized three subphyla (Pucciniomycotina, Ustilaginomycotina, Agaricomycotina) and two other class level taxa ( Wallemiomycetes , Entorrhizomycetes ) outside of these, among

2835-468: The four embranchements of Georges Cuvier . Informally, phyla can be thought of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization of body plan . At its most basic, a phylum can be defined in two ways: as a group of organisms with a certain degree of morphological or developmental similarity (the phenetic definition), or a group of organisms with a certain degree of evolutionary relatedness (the phylogenetic definition). Attempting to define

2898-490: The greatest variety of fungi, but there are many other mammals that also forage on fungi, such as marsupials , mice , rats , voles , lemmings , deer , shrews , rabbits , weasels , and more. Some animals feed on fungi opportunistically, while others rely on them as a primary source of food. Hypogeous sporocarps are a highly nutritious primary food source for some small mammals like the Tasmanian bettong . Evidence of this

2961-702: The horns of a bull. In some Basidiomycota the spores are not ballistic, and the sterigmata may be straight, reduced to stubs, or absent. The basidiospores of these non-ballistosporic basidia may either bud off, or be released via dissolution or disintegration of the basidia. In summary, meiosis takes place in a diploid basidium. Each one of the four haploid nuclei migrates into its own basidiospore. The basidiospores are ballistically discharged and start new haploid mycelia called monokaryons. There are no males or females, rather there are compatible thalli with multiple compatibility factors. Plasmogamy between compatible individuals leads to delayed karyogamy leading to establishment of

3024-541: The human pathogenic yeast. Basidiomycota are filamentous fungi composed of hyphae (except for basidiomycota-yeast ) and reproduce sexually via the formation of specialized club-shaped end cells called basidia that normally bear external meiospores (usually four). These specialized spores are called basidiospores . However, some Basidiomycota are obligate asexual reproducers. Basidiomycota that reproduce asexually (discussed below) can typically be recognized as members of this division by gross similarity to others, by

3087-536: The idea that each of the phyla represents a distinct body plan. A classification using this definition may be strongly affected by the chance survival of rare groups, which can make a phylum much more diverse than it would be otherwise. Total numbers are estimates; figures from different authors vary wildly, not least because some are based on described species, some on extrapolations to numbers of undescribed species. For instance, around 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes have been described, while published estimates of

3150-408: The identification and taxonomy of fungi. Fruitbodies are termed epigeous if they grow on the ground, while those that grow underground are hypogeous . Epigeous sporocarps that are visible to the naked eye, especially fruitbodies of a more or less agaricoid morphology, are often called mushrooms . Epigeous sporocarps have mycelia that extend underground far beyond the mother sporocarp. There

3213-570: The infection process, rather it remains dormant for a period and then germinates to form basidia (stage "IV"), sometimes called a promycelium . In the Pucciniales, the basidia are cylindrical and become 3- septate after meiosis, with each of the 4 cells bearing one basidiospore each. The basidiospores disperse and start the infection process on host 1 again. Autoecious rusts complete their life-cycles on one host instead of two, and microcyclic rusts cut out one or more stages. The characteristic part of

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3276-703: The influential (though contentious) Cavalier-Smith system in equating "Plantae" with Archaeplastida , a group containing Viridiplantae and the algal Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta divisions. The definition and classification of plants at the division level also varies from source to source, and has changed progressively in recent years. Thus some sources place horsetails in division Arthrophyta and ferns in division Monilophyta, while others place them both in Monilophyta, as shown below. The division Pinophyta may be used for all gymnosperms (i.e. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes), or for conifers alone as below. Since

3339-405: The life-cycle of smuts is the thick-walled, often darkly pigmented, ornate, teliospore that serves to survive harsh conditions such as overwintering and also serves to help disperse the fungus as dry diaspores . The teliospores are initially dikaryotic but become diploid via karyogamy. Meiosis takes place at the time of germination. A promycelium is formed that consists of a short hypha (equated to

3402-402: The mushroom cap, and the meiotic prophase stage is prolonged. Burns et al. studied the expression of genes involved in the 15-hour meiotic process, and found that the pattern of gene expression of C. cinerea was similar to two other fungal species, the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe . These similarities in the patterns of expression led to the conclusion that

3465-411: The next. The Catalogue of Life includes Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta in kingdom Plantae, but other systems consider these phyla part of Protista. In addition, less popular classification schemes unite Ochrophyta and Pseudofungi under one phylum, Gyrista , and all alveolates except ciliates in one phylum Myzozoa , later lowered in rank and included in a paraphyletic phylum Miozoa . Even within

3528-436: The phyla with which they bear the most resemblance, based only on the taxonomically important similarities. However, proving that a fossil belongs to the crown group of a phylum is difficult, as it must display a character unique to a sub-set of the crown group. Furthermore, organisms in the stem group of a phylum can possess the "body plan" of the phylum without all the characteristics necessary to fall within it. This weakens

3591-700: The pleiomorphic rusts are examples of fungi with anamorphs , which are the asexual stages. Some Basidiomycota are only known as anamorphs. Many are called basidiomycetous yeasts, which differentiates them from ascomycetous yeasts in the Ascomycota . Aside from yeast anamorphs and uredinia, aecia, and pycnidia, some Basidiomycota form other distinctive anamorphs as parts of their life cycles. Examples are Collybia tuberosa with its apple-seed-shaped and coloured sclerotium , Dendrocollybia racemosa with its sclerotium and its Tilachlidiopsis racemosa conidia, Armillaria with their rhizomorphs , Hohenbuehelia with their Nematoctonus nematode infectious, state and

3654-436: The primary host a repeating spore stage is formed, numbered "II", the urediospores in dry pustules called uredinia . Urediospores are dikaryotic and can infect the same host that produced them. They repeatedly infect this host over the growing season. At the end of the season, a fourth spore type, the teliospore , is formed. It is thicker-walled and serves to overwinter or to survive other harsh conditions. It does not continue

3717-411: The same common original form, as, for example, all vertebrates. We name this aggregate [a] Stamm [i.e., stock] ( Phylon )." In plant taxonomy , August W. Eichler (1883) classified plants into five groups named divisions, a term that remains in use today for groups of plants, algae and fungi. The definitions of zoological phyla have changed from their origins in the six Linnaean classes and

3780-492: The saprotrophic phase is normally the yeast while the infectious stage is hyphal. However, there are examples of animal and human parasites where the species are dimorphic but it is the yeast-like state that is infectious. The genus Filobasidiella forms basidia on hyphae but the main infectious stage is more commonly known by the anamorphic yeast name Cryptococcus , e.g. Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii . The dimorphic Basidiomycota with yeast stages and

3843-448: The spermatia from spermagonium to spermagonium, cross inoculating the mating types. Neither thallus is male or female. Once crossed, the dikaryons are established and a second spore stage is formed, numbered "I" and called aecia , which form dikaryotic aeciospores in dry chains in inverted cup-shaped bodies embedded in host tissue. These aeciospores then infect the second host, known as the primary or asexual host (in macrocyclic rusts). On

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3906-416: The terms as equivalent. Depending on definitions, the animal kingdom Animalia contains about 31 phyla, the plant kingdom Plantae contains about 14 phyla, and the fungus kingdom Fungi contains about 8 phyla. Current research in phylogenetics is uncovering the relationships among phyla within larger clades like Ecdysozoa and Embryophyta . The term phylum was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel from

3969-420: The total number of nematode species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 million. The kingdom Plantae is defined in various ways by different biologists (see Current definitions of Plantae ). All definitions include the living embryophytes (land plants), to which may be added the two green algae divisions, Chlorophyta and Charophyta , to form the clade Viridiplantae . The table below follows

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