Lebanese diaspora :
113-493: LNRF Victory [REDACTED] Lebanese National Resistance Front [REDACTED] Amal Movement [REDACTED] Palestinian National Salvation Front Supported by : [REDACTED] Syria [REDACTED] Lebanese Armed Forces [REDACTED] Kataeb Party Supported by : Multinational Force in Lebanon The Mountain War ( Arabic : حرب الجبل | Harb al-Jabal) , also known as
226-497: A ceasefire was called in from outside the country before Hezbollah could call in artillery support. Releases from Hezbollah leaders in 2016 stated that bombing the mountain with close-range artillery from the South and longer-ranged artillery from Syria were both an option and greatly considered. A number of the Druze embraced Christianity , such as some of Shihab dynasty members, as well as
339-538: A cornerstone for the Cedar Revolution in 2005. Jumblatt's post-2005 position diverged sharply from the tradition of his family. He also accused Damascus of being behind the 1977 assassination of his father, Kamal Jumblatt, expressing for the first time what many knew he privately suspected. The BBC describes Jumblatt as "the smartest leader of Lebanon's most powerful Druze clan and heir to a leftist political dynasty". The second largest political party supported by Druze
452-602: A determined enemy now equipped with four Soviet-made T-55A tanks, wheeled BTR-152V1 APCs, technicals armed with HMGs and recoilless rifles, Gun trucks equipped with AA autocannons, heavy mortars, ZiS-2 57mm anti-tank guns , long-range artillery, and MBRLs supplied on loan by the PLO and Syria . Bhamdoun fell on the 7th, followed two days later by Kabr Chmoun, forcing the Lebanese Forces troops' to fall back to Deir el-Qamar, which held 10,000 Christian residents and refugees and
565-466: A lifestyle of isolation where no conversion is allowed, neither out of, or into, the religion. When Druze live among people of other religions, they try to blend in, in order to protect their religion and their own safety. They can pray as Muslims, or as Christians, depending on where they are. This system is apparently changing in modern times, where more security has allowed Druze to be more open about their religious belonging." The Tanukhids inaugurated
678-510: A national reconciliation conference under the auspices of Saudi Arabia and Syria , and chaired by President Gemayel to discuss political reform and the May 17 Agreement . For its part, the United States found itself carrying on Israel's role of shoring up the precarious Lebanese government. An emergency arms shipment had been dispatched earlier on 14 September to beleaguered LAF units fighting in
791-613: A second U.S., French and Italian (soon joined by a small British contingent) peacekeeping Multinational Force (MNF II) be deployed in and around the Greater Beirut area to maintain order, although the political objectives of this deployment were not clearly defined. President Amin Gemayel and Lieutenant general Ibrahim Tannous , the newly appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF), also succeeded in persuading
904-425: A single E-2C Hawkeye , two EA-6B Prowlers and two F-14A fighter jets, took off from the aircraft carriers USS Independence and USS John F. Kennedy , flashed inland over Beirut and headed for eight Syrian Army and Druze PLA installations, anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) sites and weapons' depots near Falougha-Khalouat and Hammana , within an eight-mile (12.87 km) corridor 20 miles (32.29 km) east of
1017-508: A solid majority, adopted a resolution declaring the 1973 War Powers Resolution to apply to the situation in Lebanon and sanctioned the U.S. military presence for an eighteen-month period. U.S. vice-president George H. W. Bush made clear the position of the Reagan administration by demanding that Syria "get out from the Lebanon". A large naval task-force of more than a dozen vessels was assembled off
1130-459: A suicide truck bomb struck the U.S. Marines' Battalion Landing Team 1/8 (BLT, part of the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit or MAU) building at Beirut international airport, killing 245 American servicemen and wounding another 130 marines and U.S. Navy personnel, followed a few minutes later by the mysterious implosion of the French 3rd company, 1er RCP Paratrooper's Barracks at the 'Drakkar' apartment bloc in
1243-608: Is the Lebanese Democratic Party led by Prince Talal Arslan , the son of Lebanese independence hero Emir Majid Arslan . On May 10, 2008, Hezbollah forces clashed with Druze militias resulting in casualties on both sides. The clashes started in Aytat, near Kayfoun and soon expanded to cover many spots in Mount Lebanon including Baysur, Shuweifat and Aley. Most of the fighting was concentrated on Hill 888. After negotiations
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#17328442366491356-525: The Beirut International Airport in Khalde . Diplomatic tensions between Syria and the United States escalated to direct confrontation in early December when, despite numerous warnings from Washington, Syrian anti-aircraft batteries fired on a pair of U.S. Navy Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS)‑equipped Grumman F-14A Tomcat fighter jets of Fighter Squadron 31 (VF-31) from
1469-594: The Chouf District and on 18 October, his troops began to reassert their presence in the region. However, they were unable to stop the ongoing Christian-Druze clashes, mostly due to Israeli presence in the area, which tended to restrict Lebanese government' forces activity. In November, fighting in the Chouf spread into the south-western suburbs of Beirut and friction in the Lebanese Capital increased after 1 December, when
1582-531: The Easter Sundays of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christian traditions. It is a day on which the souls of the dead are honoured. A popular day among women in the region, it underscores the shared culture between Arab Christians and Druze in Lebanon. The baptism of children in accordance with Christian custom was usually in large, well-known Lebanese Druze families. In the period of Egyptian rule in
1695-687: The Eleventh Brigade – totaling roughly some 30,000 men, placed under the overall command of Lt. Gen. Tannous and the Lebanese Armed Forces Chief-of-Staff, the Druze General Nadim al-Hakim . Deployed in the western Chouf, and at both the western and eastern sectors of Beirut, the army brigades benefited from aerial, artillery, and logistical support lent by U.S. and French forces of the MNF contingent. In this post-Israeli period in
1808-771: The Internal Security Forces (ISF), ostensibly to carry out the pacification of the Muslim-populated districts of the Capital city. Acting in collusion with the Lebanese Forces , they arrested 1,441 Muslims (other sources indicate a higher number, some 2,000) who were either members or supporters of Leftist political groups and subsequently disappeared; none was heard of again. After the Lebanese Army regained control of west Beirut, Lt. Gen. Tannous turned his attention to
1921-786: The Israeli Occupation . The pro-Syrian Arab Democratic Party (ADP) and the Lebanese Armed Revolutionary Factions (LARF) rallied to the LNRF banner, which gained support of Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) leftist and Marxist factions based in Lebanon, mainly from the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP). The LNRF did not have
2034-633: The Khiam detention center . Several others were killed in assassinations against leftist activists in Beirut and southern Lebanon in the late 1980s. The last recorded Jammoul operation in the south occurred in 1999. Druze in Lebanon Europe Overseas Middle East The Lebanese Druze ( Arabic : دروز لبنان , romanized : durūz lubnān ) are an ethnoreligious group constituting about 5.2 percent of
2147-458: The Lebanese Forces (LF) militia of the Kataeb Party commanded by Bashir Gemayel sought to expand its area of influence in Lebanon. The LF tried to take advantage of Israel Defense Forces (IDF) advances to begin deploying troops in areas where they had not been present before. This territorial expansion policy was focused on regions known to harbor a large Christian rural population, such as
2260-622: The Lebanese Front that was mainly constituted of Christians. After the assassination of Kamal Jumblatt on 16 March 1977, his son Walid Jumblatt took the leadership of the party and played an important role in preserving his father's legacy after winning the Mountain War and sustained the existence of the Druze community during the sectarian bloodshed that lasted until 1990. In August 2001, Maronite Catholic Patriarch Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir toured
2373-726: The National Pact between the various political and religious leaders of Lebanon, the Chief of the General Staff must be a Druze. The Druze faith does not follow the Five Pillars of Islam , such as fasting during the month of Ramadan , and making a pilgrimage to Mecca . The Druze beliefs incorporate elements of Ismailism , Gnosticism , Neoplatonism and other philosophies. The Druze call themselves Ahl al-Tawhid "People of Unitarianism or Monotheism " or " al-Muwaḥḥidūn ." "The Druze follow
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#17328442366492486-828: The Organization of Communist Action – Lebanon (OCAL) Muhsin Ibrahim , the Arab Socialist Action Party – Lebanon (ASAP-L) secretary general Hussein Hamdan, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region , and the Syrian Social Nationalist Party in Lebanon (SSNP) issued that day a joint communiqué calling for the Lebanese people to raise up in arms and unite into a "Lebanese National Resistance Front" against
2599-648: The Progressive Socialist Party (PSP), allied with the Palestinian National Salvation Front (PNSF) and backed by Syria . Hostilities began when the LF and the LAF entered the predominantly Druze Chouf District to bring back the region under government control, only to be met with fierce resistance from local Druze militias and their allies. The PSP leader Walid Jumblatt 's persistence to refuse join
2712-639: The Ramlet al-Baida quarter of Bir Hassan , Ouza'i district , which claimed the lives of 58 French paratroopers. Again, the Shi'ite Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility for the bombing of the BLT building at the airport (but not of the 'Drakkar' apartment bloc) and warned of further attacks. The French promptly responded to the bombings with air strikes against Islamic Jihad targets in the Beqaa Valley . French Super Etendards from
2825-668: The Shia Amal militia in West Beirut over a dispute involving the eviction of Shi'ite squatters from a schoolhouse. On 23 July, Jumblatt announced the formation of a Syrian-backed coalition, the Lebanese National Salvation Front (LNSF) that rallied several Lebanese Muslim and Christian parties and militias opposed to 17 May Agreement, and fighting between the Druze PLA and LF and between the Druze and LAF, intensified during
2938-482: The Shia Fatimid Caliphate , Sunni Ottoman Empire , and Egypt Eyalet . The persecution of the Druze included massacres , demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places and forced conversion to Islam. Those were no ordinary killings in the Druze's narrative, they were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative. The Druze community in Lebanon played an important role in
3051-496: The United States Government to assist Lebanon in rebuilding its depleted army. As early as October 1978, plans were drawn to create a system of light mechanized infantry brigades, and although the nuclei of eight brigades, plus a Headquarters' Brigade and a Republican Guard Brigade had been created by mid-1982, most were well below strength. Under the auspices of the U.S.-funded Lebanese Army Modernization Program (LAMP),
3164-787: The War of the Mountain , was a subconflict between the 1982–83 phase of the Lebanese Civil War and the 1984–89 phase of the Lebanese Civil War , which occurred at the mountainous Chouf District located south-east of the Lebanese Capital Beirut . It pitted the Lebanese Forces Militia (LF) and the official Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) against a coalition of the Lebanese National Resistance Front (LNRF) led by
3277-626: The Abi-Lamma clan, During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Protestant missionaries established schools and churches in Druze strongholds, with some Druze converting to Protestant Christianity ; yet they did not succeed to convert Druze to Christianity en masse. On the other hand, many Druze immigrants to the United States converted to Protestantism , becoming communicants of the Presbyterian or Methodist Churches. According to scholar Colbert C. Held of University of Nebraska, Lincoln ,
3390-1023: The Aley and Chouf districts towards the symbolic town of Deir el-Qamar, site of the Christian population massacres in 1860. For their part, the LF garrison forces were completely caught by surprise by the ferocity of the assault and were outnumbered. Supported by obsolescent 25-pounder field guns , ZiS-3 76.2mm anti-tank guns mounted on GAZ-66 trucks, four French DEFA D921/GT-2 90mm anti-tank guns mounted on M3/M9 half tracks , TOW and MILAN Jeeps, Gun trucks and technicals armed with Heavy machine guns (HMGs) and recoilless rifles , and anti-aircraft autocannons mounted on wheeled BTR-152 armored personnel carriers (APCs), plus two armored companies provided with Israeli-supplied Tiran 4 and captured T-54/55 Tanks, backed by mechanized infantry on M3/M9 Zahlam half-tracks and M113 armored personnel carriers , they tried desperately to hold their ground at Bhamdoun against
3503-466: The Americans refused but eventually agreed when they were told that this strategically valuable town was in danger of being overrun. The United States Navy nuclear-powered missile cruiser USS Virginia , the destroyer USS John Rodgers , the frigate USS Bowen , and the destroyer USS Arthur W. Radford fired 338 rounds from their 5-inch (127 mm) naval guns at the Druze PLA positions, and helped
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3616-585: The Chouf mountains. In any event, the cease-fire in the Chouf barely held for a week, and triggered another round of brutal fighting which caused Walid Jumblatt to declare on 1 September that the Druze community of Lebanon was now formally at war with the Christian-dominated Gemayel government in east Beirut. The "Mountain War" had begun. On 3 September, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) commenced
3729-462: The Chouf spilled over again into Beirut, this time in the form of further artillery shelling by the Druze PLA between 5 and 8 May. After six months of prolonged U.S.-mediated secret negotiations, representatives of the Lebanese, Israeli, and American governments signed a withdrawal agreement on 17 May 1983, which became known as the ' May 17 Agreement ', that provided for the evacuation of all foreign armed forces from Lebanon. However, implementation of
3842-455: The Chouf, mostly tied up in static garrison duties throughout the region's main towns whereas another 2,000 fighters were deployed alongside LAF ground units at west Beirut. The Lebanese Army committed nine newly formed mechanized infantry brigades – the Third Brigade , Fourth Brigade , Fifth Brigade , Sixth Brigade , Seventh Brigade , Eighth Brigade , Ninth Brigade , Tenth Brigade and
3955-503: The Chouf, tensions continued to mount at Muslim-populated west Beirut. They finally exploded in mid-August when a general strike called on the 15th quickly escalated into open warfare, which pitted the Shia Amal militia led by Nabih Berri against the Lebanese Armed Forces. Although Amal had managed to seize control of much of west Beirut after two weeks of street-fighting, hostilities resumed on 28 August near MNF positions in
4068-569: The Chouf, the Druze launched on 5 September a full-scale offensive on Lebanese Forces' and Lebanese Army positions at Deir el-Qamar , Kabr Chmoun and Bhamdoun . A garrison of just 250 Lebanese Forces' fighters commanded by Paul Andari , the LF Deputy Field Commander of the Mountain District, were defending Bhamdoun, with orders to hold their positions for 12 hours until being replaced by Lebanese Army units. However, 72 hours later
4181-409: The Chouf, the Lebanese Forces and the regular army occasionally fought side-by-side, but at other times were opponents. This lack of coordination between the LF and the government was due to the deep distrust that LF senior commanders felt towards President Amine Gemayel, its moderate political posture and relations with Lebanese Muslim and Palestinian leaders. As soon as the last Israeli units left
4294-469: The Chouf, which were backed by air strikes and naval gunfire from the battleship USS New Jersey . On 29 September, the U.S. Ambassador's residence in east Beirut was hit by shell-fire and in response, the U.S. Marines' contingent stationed at Beirut International Airport was ordered to use their M198 155mm howitzers in support of the Lebanese Army. That same day, the United States Congress , by
4407-596: The Druze PSP leader Walid Jumblatt was injured in an assassination attempt by a car-bomb explosion outside his residence. On 20 December fighting broke out again between the Christian LF and the Druze PSP/PLA militias at the town of Aley which rumbled on until 7 February 1983, when the Druze overrun the town and drove out the Christian garrison. On 18 April a suicide bomber drove a delivery van packed with explosives into
4520-549: The Druze PSP/PLA. The delivery of arms shipments was complemented by naval artillery barrages. Steaming to within two miles of the Lebanese coast, the battleship USS New Jersey , the destroyer USS John Rodgers and the nuclear-powered cruiser USS Virginia fired from their 5-inch naval guns some six-hundred 70 lb shells into the wooded hills above Beirut. Unfortunately, the U.S. Navy eschewed proper reconnaissance and without sending Forward air controllers to help spot accurately Druze PLA and Syrian Army positions, most of
4633-532: The Druze and Christians in Lebanon has been characterized by harmony and coexistence . Historian Ray Jabre Mouawad finds religious symbiosis between Druze and Christians in Mount Lebanon during the Ottoman period . Numerous cultural interactions occurred in Mount Lebanon, producing overlapped symbolism, veneration of shared saints , and use of common words to designate God , the traces of which are discovered in
Mountain War (Lebanon) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4746-475: The Druze community in Lebanon when most of them accepted and adopted the new message that was being preached in the 11th century, due to their leadership's close ties with then Fatimid ruler Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah . The relationship between the Druze and Christians in Lebanon has been characterized by harmony and coexistence , with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with
4859-417: The Druze military build-up in the Chouf by doing nothing to impede Syrian arms shipments' convoys bound for the Druze militias from passing through their checkpoints in the region. The first engagement between the Druze PSP/PLA and the LAF occurred on 14 July, when a Lebanese Army unit accompanying an IDF patrol was ambushed by Druze guerrillas. Fourteen Lebanese soldiers and two Druze militiamen were killed in
4972-408: The Druze moved forward to fill the gap. This allowed their artillery point-blank line of sight to the U.S. Marines position at Beirut International Airport, overlooked by mountains of strategic value on three sides – designated the 'three 8' hills or Hill 888 – and on 15 September, Druze forces and their allies massed on the threshold of Souk El Gharb , a mountain resort town that controlled a ridge to
5085-438: The Druze positions in the Chouf with 155mm high-explosive rounds. This incident marked the beginning of the shooting war for the U.S. military forces in Lebanon. Although President Gemayel accused Syria of being behind the Druze shelling and threatened to respond accordingly, artillery duels between the LAF and Druze militias continued sporadically until a ceasefire came in effect on late August. As these events were unfolding in
5198-559: The Druze were long-standing enemies since the 1860s – when a bloody civil war tore apart the Mount Lebanon Emirate , on which thousands of Christians were massacred by the Druzes – and old enmities were rearoused when Geagea's Maronite troops tried to pay old historic debts by imposing their authority on the Chouf by force. Some 145 Druze civilians were reportedly killed by the Lebanese Forces at Kfarmatta (although other sources allege that
5311-480: The Front's underground cells at west Beirut , Sidon , Tyre and Nabatiyeh in southern Lebanon. Most observers believe that the Front was a pro-Syrian organization whose membership was primarily Lebanese. However, the PLO stated that the actions claimed by the LNRF were actually carried out by isolated Palestinian guerrilla cells and some radical Lebanese leftists who supported them. The LNRF carried out attacks against
5424-513: The IDF and Israeli-related targets in Beirut, Mount Lebanon and the South in June, July and August 1983. At this point it was known as the Lebanese National Salvation Front and was backed by Syria. A considerable number of LNRF fighters were killed in combat while fighting Israeli and South Lebanese Army (SLA) troops, whereas militants such as Anwar Yassin and Soha Bechara were taken prisoner and held in
5537-494: The Iranian-backed Lebanese Shia Islamic Jihad and not the PLO. On 10 November, a French Super Etendard narrowly escaped from being shot down by an SA-7 near Bourj el-Barajneh refugee camp in southwest Beirut while flying over Druze PSP/PLA positions. The Israelis conducted additional retaliatory air strikes on 16 November, hitting a training camp in the eastern Beqaa Valley . The next day, French Super Etendards carried out similar strikes against another Islamic Amal camp in
5650-419: The Israelis and practically treated Lebanon as a defeated country. Although the agreement was approved by the Lebanese Parliament, President Amin Gemayel refused to ratify it, a decision that irritated the Israeli Prime-Minister Menahem Begin . Lebanese Sunni and Shia Muslims also felt both threatened and marginalized when their President, confident of U.S. political and military support, avoided implementing
5763-442: The Israelis decided on 31 August to withdraw unilaterally from the region and the area around Beirut to new positions further south along the Awali River , ostensibly to allow the Lebanese Army to resume control over the area. This unexpected move effectively removed the buffer made by the IDF between the Druze and Christian militias, which now maneuvered toward an inevitable confrontation. Some international analysts have argued that
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#17328442366495876-405: The Israelis had deliberately provoked the conflict so that their Christian LF allies could establish themselves in the area. New recordings of a phone call between the U.S. President Ronald Reagan and the Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin released by the New York Post in November 2014 revealed a request made by Reagan to the Israeli Prime-minister to delay the withdrawal of Israeli troops from
5989-451: The LF to protect, the Druze implemented a 'territorial cleansing' policy to drain the Christian population from the region. It is estimated that between 31 August and 13 September, Jumblatt's PLA militia forces overran thirty-two villages killing 1,500 people and drove another 50,000 out of their homes in the mountainous areas east and west of Beirut. In retaliation, some 127 Druze civilians were killed by LF militiamen between 5–7 September at
6102-485: The LNSF included the PFLP-GC led by Ahmed Jibril and the Fatah al-Intifada led by Colonel Said al-Muragha (a.k.a. 'Abu Musa'), who fielded a few thousand hardened fighters. Both Amal and the PSP-led LNSF coalition received the discreet, yet fundamental backing of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the Syrian Army , who provided crucial logistical and artillery support. The Lebanese Forces militia had about 2,500 lightly equipped Christian militiamen in
6215-472: The Lebanese Air Force Hunters flew another combat sortie against Druze positions in the Chouf, and on the following day, 19 September, a Lebanese Scottish Aviation Bulldog two-seat training aircraft flying on a reconnaissance mission over the Chouf was hit by ground fire and crashed near Aley, killing its two pilots. Lt. Gen. Tannous then requested urgent military support from the United States to its beleaguered LAF units fighting at Souk El Gharb. At first,
6328-588: The Lebanese Air Force were flown on 16 September, when three Lebanese Hunters, backed by a squadron of French Navy 's Super Etendards from the aircraft carrier Clemenceau made an attempt to bomb and strafe Druze PLA and Syrian Army gun emplacements in the Chouf. However, the Druze were awaiting for them with an array of Syrian-supplied air defense systems, comprising SA-7 Grail surface-to-air missiles , M1939 (61-K) 37mm and AZP S-60 57mm anti-aircraft guns, and Zastava M55 A2 20mm , ZPU-1, ZPU-2 and ZPU-4 14.5mm and ZU-23-2 23mm autocannons . One Hunter
6441-403: The Lebanese Armed Forces. A few days later, the Druze LAF Chief-of-Staff and commander of the Seventh Brigade , General Nadim al-Hakim, returned to the Saïd el-Khateeb Barracks at Hammana along with the 800 Officers, NCOs and enlisted men who had deserted previously from the predominately Druze Eleventh Brigade , and announced his decision to remain in the Chouf, while his troops took sides with
6554-428: The Lebanese Army hold the town until an informal ceasefire was declared on 25 September at Damascus , the day the battleship USS New Jersey arrived at the scene. Although the Lebanese Army had beaten the Druze forces on the battlefield, it remains an open question whether they would have held Souk El Garb without the American naval support. Moreover, it was a pyrrhic victory for the Lebanese Armed Forces, for it marked
6667-689: The Lebanese Capital. The list of selected targets included a Syrian-operated Stentor battlefield surveillance radar , Syrian tanks, three artillery sites (which had 28 gun emplacements between them) manned by the Syrian Army's 27th Artillery Brigade dug in near the village of Hammana and positions held by the pro-Syrian As-Sa'iqa Palestinian guerrilla faction in the Beqaa Valley, close to the Syrian border. Lebanese National Resistance Front The Lebanese National Resistance Front ( LNRF ; Arabic : جبهة المقاومة الوطنية اللبنانية , romanized : Jabhat al-Muqawama al-Wataniyya al-Lubnaniyya ), best known by its Arabic acronym, ‘ Jammoul ’ (جمول),
6780-433: The Lebanese Civil War , in the form of a squadron of ten refurbished British-made Hawker Hunter fighter jets sent to support the beleaguered Lebanese Army units in the Chouf. Since their main air base at Rayak had been shelled by the Syrian Army , the Hunters had to operate from an improvised airfield at Halat , near Byblos , built by the Americans by using part of the coastal highway. The first two combat sorties of
6893-434: The Lebanese Government proceeded to re-organize the LAF brigades – combined with the manpower provided by conscription, which allowed their rapid expansion – with material help from Jordan , the United States and France , whose MNF contingents ( U.S. Marines and French Foreign Legion Paratroopers) began training Lebanese soldiers, followed by the end of the year of the arrival of arms shipments. This stance however, eroded
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#17328442366497006-409: The Lebanese coast and an additional contingent of 2,000 U.S. Marines was sent to the country. The United States Department of Defense (DoD) stated that the increase of its military forces in the eastern Mediterranean had been carried out to "send a message to Syria". Many international observers believed that these measures implemented by the U.S. government were meant to reshape the power balance in
7119-442: The Levant in the 1830s, many Druze converted to Christianity to avoid enlistment into the Egyptian army, according to historian Aharon Layish there is also explicit evidence of Druze in Lebanon under the Ottoman rule posing as Christians for practical reasons. Due to the Christian influence on the Druze faith , two Christian saints become the Druze 's favorite venerated figures: Saint George and Saint Elijah . Thus, in all
7232-443: The Shahhar region, Kfarmatta, Al-Bennay , Ain Ksour , and Abey , where the LF also desecrated the tomb of a prominent Druze religious man. It is estimated that these 'tit-for-tat' massacres and ethnic cleansing ultimately led to the displacement of 20,000 Druze and 163,670 Christian villagers from the Chouf. When the Lebanese Army was forced to pull back on 12 September, in order to strengthen their position around Souk El Gharb,
7345-416: The United States) then rushed south to occupy Khalde and the road adjacent to Beirut International Airport, but ran into difficulties near Aley, where heavy fighting between the Druze and LF militias persisted. At this point, Jumblatt's 17,000-strong PSP/PLA militia was now part of a military coalition under the LNSF banner that gathered 300 Druze fighters sent by its Druze rival Majid Arslan and head of
7458-413: The Withdrawal Agreement depended entirely upon the cooperation of Syria who, incensed for being neither invited to the negotiations nor consulted prior to the signature of the agreement, rejected it by refusing to withdraw its 30,000 troops stationed in Lebanon. Many Lebanese, both Christian and Muslim, were not in favour of a U.S.-sponsored agreement either, which included severe security terms imposed by
7571-534: The aircraft carrier Foch retaliated by striking Nebi Chit , thought to house the Islamic Amal (a splinter faction of the Amal movement), and also the Iranian Revolutionary Guards ' base at Ras el-Ain near Baalbek , but failed to hit the facilities and did only minor damage. They also struck at Syrian Army 's and Druze PLA positions in the Chouf region while U.S. warships kept up their artillery barrages against Syrian and Druze gun emplacements overlooking Beirut. These retaliatory measures failed to put an end to
7684-413: The aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy flying on a reconnaissance mission over a section of the Beirut-Damascus Highway in the Syrian-controlled Beqaa Valley . Determined to send a clear message to Syrian President Hafez al-Assad , the Americans retaliated with an hastily devised air raid on 4 December, when twenty-eight Grumman A-6E Intruder and Vought A-7E Corsair II fighter-bombers, supported by
7797-408: The area, to act as a buffer between the LF and the PSP. This was objected by the Druze leader Walid Jumblatt, who accused the LAF of primarily serving the Kataeb interests, and began to re-organize and re-arm his PLA militia with Syrian material help. As relations between Lebanese President Gemayel and Israeli Defense Minister Ariel Sharon deteriorated, the IDF was accused of turning a blind eye to
7910-566: The area. Despite the heavy presence of IDF units in the region, the Israelis had little interest at getting involved in the Lebanese inter-sectarian strife, and made no attempt to intervene in the behalf of their LF allies. During the summer of 1983 the situation in Lebanon degenerated into a vicious power struggle between Lebanese rival factions, with the MNF caught in the middle. Both the Israelis and Syrians withdrew to more defensive positions and tried to outmaneuver each other by playing their local proxies, with mixed results. Seemingly oblivious to
8023-400: The attack, and in response the artillery units of Jumblatt's PLA shelled on 18th, 20th, 22nd and 23rd the Christian-held neighborhoods of east Beirut (in which over 30 people were killed and 600 injured, mostly civilians) and U.S. Marines positions at Beirut International Airport in Khalde , wounding three Marines. In between, the Lebanese Army engaged for the first time between 15 and 17 July
8136-543: The beginning of a confessional split in their ranks. Just prior to the cease-fire, Gen. al-Hakim, LAF Chief-of-Staff and commander of the predominantly Druze Seventh Brigade , fled into PSP-held territory but he would not admit he had actually defected. In response to a request from Walid Jumblatt to neutralize the Army, some 800 Druze regular soldiers from the primarily Druze Eleventh Brigade deserted their command at Hammana and Beiteddine , whilst another 1,000 Druze soldiers from
8249-663: The bomb attacks however, and on 4 November the Israeli Military Governor's Headquarters in Tyre was destroyed by a suicide truck-bombing, which cost the lives of 46 Israeli soldiers. Later that day, the Israeli Air Force (IAF) retaliated with air strikes against Palestinian positions near Baalbek in the Syrian-controlled Beqaa Valley , despite the fact that responsibility for the attack had been claimed by
8362-576: The brunt of the attacks, fighting desperately to retain control of Souk El Gharb, Kaifun and Bsous , while the Fourth Brigade held on at Shahhar , Kabr Chmoun and Aramoun , and the 72nd Infantry Battalion from the Seventh Brigade held Dahr al-Wahsh facing Aley . The revived Lebanese Air Force (FAL in the French acronym) was also thrown into the fray for the first time since the 1975-77 phase of
8475-489: The central government and his instigation of a wider opposition faction led to disintegration of the already fragile LAF and the eventual collapse of the government under President Amine Gemayel . Second phase: 1977–1982 Third phase: 1982–1984 Fourth phase: 1984–1990 Cantons and puppet states In the wake of the June 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon , the main Maronite Christian ally of Israel ,
8588-536: The death toll mounted to 200 people), followed by other killings at Sayed Abdullah, Salimeh and Ras el-Matn in the Baabda District , and sporadic fighting soon broke out between the LF and the main Druze militia, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) of the Progressive Socialist Party (PSP). The new Lebanese President Amin Gemayel – brother of the late Bashir, elected as his successor on 21 September – requested that
8701-473: The deteriorating political and military situation, the U.S. government did nothing to demonstrate its neutrality. In June, rather than cancelling or descaling the training and arming of the LAF ground forces, the U.S. Marines began joint patrols with them, whilst the French, Italian and British contingents of the Multinational Force refrained from doing so, fearing that such a partisan move would compromise
8814-503: The exception of some periods, including 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war . Historically the relationship between the Druze and Muslims has been characterized by intense persecution. The Druze faith is often classified as a branch of Isma'ili . Even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam , most Druze do not identify as Muslims , and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam . The Druze have frequently experienced persecution by different Muslim regimes such as
8927-405: The expected reinforcements failed to arrive, and it became clear that the LF counter-offensive in the coastal town of Kfarmatta aimed at opening the road to Bhamdoun had stalled. Warned at the last minute by the PLO of the eminent Druze offensive, Samir Geagea, the LF supreme commander in the Mountain region, issued a general evacuation order of all Christian civilians from the towns and villages of
9040-553: The first part of a phased withdrawal plan codenamed Operation Millstone , by quickly pulling out its troops from their positions on the southern edge of Beirut and from a section of the Beirut -Aley- Damascus Highway, and within twenty-four hours Israeli units had completed its redeployment south of the Awali River line. Surprised by this unexpected Israeli move, the largely unprepared Lebanese Armed Forces brigades (still being trained by
9153-587: The formation of the modern state of Lebanon, and even though they are a minority they play an important role in the Lebanese political scene. Before and during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–90), the Druze were predominantly in favor of Pan-Arabism and Palestinian resistance represented by the PLO . Most of the community supported the Progressive Socialist Party formed by their leader Kamal Jumblatt and they fought alongside other leftist and Palestinian parties against
9266-514: The formation of the modern state of Lebanon. Contact between Christians (members of the Maronite, Eastern Orthodox , Melkite , and other churches) and the Unitarian Druze led to the presence of mixed villages and towns in Mount Lebanon ( Aley District , Baabda District , and Chouf District ), Rashaya District , Hasbaya , Matn District , and Marjeyoun District . The relationship between
9379-475: The lobby of the U.S. Embassy at west Beirut , killing 63 people – among the dead were Robert Ames , a senior Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) analyst, and six personnel from the CIA station in Lebanon. Responsibility was claimed by the hitherto unknown Islamic Jihad Organization (IJO), a Lebanese Shi'ite militia supported by Iran and based near Baalbek in the Syrian-controlled Beqaa Valley . This attack inaugurated
9492-480: The local Druze community , who viewed the LF as intruders on their territory. Historically the relationship between the Druze and Maronite Christians in the Chouf Mountains has been characterized by harmony and peaceful coexistence , with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war . The Maronites and
9605-673: The majority of the population Aley , Baakleen , Hasbaya and Rashaya . The Druze make up more than half of the population of the Aley District , and they constitute about a third of the residents of the Rachaya District , and they constitute about the quarter of residents of the Chouf District and the Matn District . Lebanese Christians and Druze became a genetic isolate in the predominantly Islamic world . The Druzite and Maronite community in Lebanon played an important role in
9718-543: The month of August. Intense Druze PLA artillery shelling forced the Beirut International Airport to close between 10 and 16 August, and the Druze PSP/PLA leadership made explicit their opposition to the deployment of LAF units in the Chouf. The U.S. Marines compound came under further Druze PLA shell-fire on 28 August, this time killing two Marines, which led the Marines to retaliate with their own artillery, shelling
9831-490: The mountainous Chouf District , located south-east of Beirut . Following the assassination of their leader – and President-elected of Lebanon – Bashir Gemayel in September 1982, the LF command council decided late that month to enter the Chouf. The head of LF intelligence, Elie Hobeika , voiced his opposition to the entry, but was overruled by his fellow senior commanders of the council, Fadi Frem and Fouad Abou Nader . With
9944-402: The much-needed political reforms to which the mainly Muslim Political Parties and militias felt entitled. As a result, internal political and armed opposition to the weak Gemayel administration grew intensively throughout the country. On 22 May, a number of clashes occurred in the Chouf Mountains, as the Druze PSP/PLA militia moved to expel the Lebanese Forces from their remaining positions in
10057-584: The neutrality of the MNF at the eyes of the Lebanese Muslims, since they did not perceive the LAF as a true national defense force that would protect the interests of all factions. Indeed, the LAF was almost wholly controlled by the Christians. Between 2 and 15 October 1982, the newly-raised 6th Defence Brigade under the command of Colonel Michel Aoun re-entered west Beirut alongside other Lebanese Army units and
10170-464: The neutrality of the MNF. At the same time, the Lebanese central government was planning to re-impose its authority over the Chouf District, and on 9–10 July, LAF troops occupied an observation post recently abandoned by the IDF, located on the hills to the east of Beirut. President Gemayel and Lt. Gen. Tannous wanted to step up full deployment of combat units of the reformed Lebanese Armed Forces to
10283-580: The number of Druze people worldwide is around one million, with about 45% to 50% in Syria, 35% to 40% in Lebanon, and less than 10% in Israel. The Druze are concentrated in the rural, mountainous areas east and south of Beirut . The Lebanese Druze are estimated to constitute 5.2 percent of Lebanon's population. They live in 136 villages in Hasbaya , Rashaya , Chouf , Aley , Marjeyoun and Beirut , and they constitute
10396-468: The palaces and mausoleums of Druze lords, as well as in Maronite and Greek Orthodox churches. Druze and Christians in Lebanon celebrate each other's births, weddings, funerals, and celebrations such as Christmas , Maundy Thursday and Easter , especially before and after the Lebanese Civil War . Thursday of the Dead is a feast day shared by Christians and Druze in the Lebanon . It falls sometime between
10509-451: The population of Lebanon . They follow the Druze faith, which is an esoteric Abrahamic religion originating from the Near East , and self identify as unitarians ( Arabic : موحدين , romanized : muwaḥḥidīn ). There are estimated to be less than 1 million Druze worldwide. The Druze, who refer to themselves as al-Muwahhideen, or "believers in one God," are concentrated in
10622-706: The powerful Yazbaki clan, 2,000 Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP) militiamen under Inaam Raad , 3,000 Nasserite fighters of the Al-Mourabitoun led by the Sunni Muslim Ibrahim Kulaylat and some 5,000 Popular Guards ' militiamen of the Lebanese Communist Party (LCP) under Elias Atallah . In addition, the Shia Amal militia (not part of the alliance) at West Beirut was later able to mobilize 10,000 fighters. Their Palestinian allies of
10735-399: The predominantly Druze Chouf region of Mount Lebanon and visited Mukhtara , the ancestral stronghold of Druze leader Walid Jumblatt. The tumultuous reception that Sfeir received not only signified a historic reconciliation between Maronites and Druze, who fought a bloody war in 1983–84, but underscored the fact that the banner of Lebanese sovereignty had broad multi-confessional appeal and was
10848-575: The region in favor of the Amin Gemayel administration, to the detriment of the Syrians and their Lebanese allies. The United States was now perceived in many circles as another foreign power attempting to assert its influence in Lebanese affairs by force, just as Israel and Syria had done. Alarmed by this American posture (which compromised the neutrality of the Multinational Force ) and fearing for
10961-462: The region. The IAF continued to carry air strikes on hostile targets in the Chouf on 20–21 November, striking at Bhamdoun , Soufar , Falougha-Khalouat , Ras el Haref , Ras el Matn , Baalechmay and Kobbeyh , losing a Kfir fighter-bomber jet , most probably to an SA-7, near Bhamdoun (the pilot was rescued by the Lebanese Army). On 30 November, renewed artillery bombardments forced the closure of
11074-436: The rural, mountainous areas east and south of Beirut . Lebanon has the world's second largest Druze population, after Syria . Under the Lebanese political division (Parliament of Lebanon Seat Allocation) the Druze community is designated as one of the five Lebanese Muslim communities in Lebanon ( Sunni , Shia , Druze, Alawi , and Ismaili ), even though the Druze are no longer considered Muslim. Lebanon's constitution
11187-515: The safety of their own MNF contingents in Lebanon, the British, French and Italian governments expressed their concerns, insisting with the Reagan administration to restrict its activities in the region to the protection of Lebanese civilians and to stop supporting what they considered an ongoing assault of the Gemayel government on his own people. However, President Reagan refused to modify his intransigent position and on 1 October, another shipment of arms
11300-421: The saga of suicide car- and truck-bombings in Lebanon. On 28 April, the fighting between Christian LF and Druze PSP/PLA militias resumed in the Chouf and in the northern part of the Matn District , spilling over into the southern suburbs of east Beirut, which were bombarded by Druze artillery batteries positioned at Dhour El Choueir , Arbaniyeh , Salimeh and Maaroufiyeh in the Baabda District . Fighting in
11413-695: The same unit refused to leave their barracks by order of their own commander, Colonel Amin Qadi . The 25 September cease-fire temporarily stabilized the situation. The Gemayel government maintained its jurisdiction over west Beirut districts, the Shia Amal movement had not yet fully committed itself in the fighting, and Jumblatt's PSP/PLA remained landlocked in the Chouf Mountains . The Lebanese government and opposition personalities agreed to meet in Geneva , Switzerland , for
11526-458: The shells missed their targets and fell in Shia- and Druze-populated sub-urban areas located on the edge of west Beirut and the western Chouf, causing hundreds of civilian casualties. For many Lebanese Muslims, this was the last straw – any illusion of U.S. neutrality had been dispelled by these recent developments and the MNF soon found itself exposed to hostile fire. Early in the morning of 23 October,
11639-536: The south-east of Beirut overlooking the Presidential Palace at Baabda and the Lebanese Ministry of Defense complex at Yarze . At Souk El Gharb and Shahhar however, the Lebanese Army was able to relieve the LF garrison units who had repulsed the first wave of Druze PLA ground assaults and were running out of supplies. For the next three days the army's Eighth Brigade led by Colonel Michel Aoun bore
11752-603: The southern edge of Beirut which caused several casualties. Response was not long in coming, and two days later, LAF troops assisted by MNF detachments backed by artillery and U.S. Marines ' Bell AH-1 SeaCobra attack helicopters , made successful counterattacks and regained control of the Muslim quarters. No longer able to sustain the casualties that the IDF was taking in policing the Chouf District , and increasingly despairing of President Gemayel's ability to work out an understanding with his mounting Druze and Muslim Shia opposition,
11865-502: The strength of other larger militant groups in Lebanon. It was estimated at some 200–500 or so fighters drawn from the LCP, OCAL, LABP, ADP, LARF, PFLP and DFLP, placed under the overall command of Elias Atallah . A joint operational HQ was established at the village of Kfar Rumman in the Jabal Amel region of southern Lebanon , with Hawi and Ibrahim meeting daily to coordinate the activities of
11978-679: The tacit backing of the IDF, Lebanese Forces ' units under the command of Samir Geagea (appointed Commander of all LF forces in the Chouf- Aley sector of Mount Lebanon in January 1983) moved into the Christian-populated areas of the western Chouf. By early 1983, the Lebanese Forces' managed to establish garrisons at a number of key towns in the Chouf, namely Aley , Deir el-Qamar , Souk El Gharb , Kfarmatta , Bhamdoun , Kabr Chmoun and others. However, this brought them into confrontation with
12091-422: The vicinity of Baalbek . Persistent and occasionally heavy fighting in the southwestern suburbs of Beirut between the Lebanese Army and the Shia Amal militia continued throughout November. As the month ended, the Chouf District continued to be the scene of frequent artillery and mortar exchanges between the LAF and Druze PSP/PLA forces, complemented by violent clashes at Souk El Gharb, Aytat and other places in
12204-419: The villages inhabited by Druze and Christians in central Mount Lebanon a Christian church or Druze maqam is dedicated to either one of them. According to Ray Jabre Mouawad the Druze admire the two saints for their bravery: Saint George because he confronted the dragon and Saint Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests of Baal and won over them. In both cases the explanations provided by Christians
12317-535: Was a leftist alliance active in Lebanon in the 1980s. It acted as a successor to the Lebanese National Movement , which ceased to exist after the Israeli invasion of Lebanon . This organization was founded on September 16, 1982, the same day the Israeli army entered West Beirut . The secretary general of the central committee of the Lebanese Communist Party (LCP) George Hawi , the secretary general of
12430-411: Was defended by 1,000 LF militiamen; the two LF armored companies managed to hold their ground at Souk El Gharb and Shahhar , and later spearheaded LF counterattacks at nearby Druze-held towns. The Lebanese Forces Command in east Beirut later accused the Druze PSP of both ransacking Bhamdoun and of committing "unprecedented massacres" in the Chouf; in order to deny support, cover or a visible community for
12543-412: Was delivered to the Lebanese Army, which included M48A5 main battle tanks (MBTs), additional M113 armored personnel carriers (APCs) and M198 155mm long-range howitzers . That same day, Walid Jumblatt announced the formation of a separate governmental administration for the Chouf, the "Civilian Administration of the Mountain" (CAM or CAOM), and called for the mass defection of all Druze elements from
12656-508: Was intended to guarantee political representation for each of the nation's ethno-religious groups. Wadi al-Taym is generally considered the "birthplace of the Druze faith". The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate . Under the terms of an unwritten agreement known as
12769-456: Was shot down by a SA-7 and the pilot barely managed to eject himself into the sea, being rescued by a U.S. Navy vessel. The second Hunter was heavily damaged by ground fire and made a forced landing at Halat. The third did not return to the base but flew straight to the RAF airbase at Akrotiri , Cyprus , where the pilot eventually requested political asylum upon arrival. Two days later, on 18 September,
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