The Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers , also known as the Interim Meeting of Foreign Ministers , was held in Moscow between the foreign ministers of the United States , the United Kingdom , and the Soviet Union from December 16 to 26, 1945. They discussed the problems of occupation, establishing peace, and other Far Eastern issues.
126-651: James F. Byrnes represented the United States, Ernest Bevin the United Kingdom, and Vyacheslav Molotov the Soviet Union. They issued a communiqué after the conference on December 27, 1945. The conference was one of a number of other Allied World War II conferences , including those at Cairo , Yalta and Potsdam . The result of the conference was the Soviet-Anglo-American Communiqué, which had
252-532: A haejangguk , which is any type of food eaten as a hangover cure, usually a warm soup. Another representative Pyongyang dish, Taedonggang sungeoguk , translates as "flathead grey mullet soup from the Taedong River ". The soup features flathead grey mullet (abundant in the Taedong River) along with black peppercorns and salt. Traditionally, it has been served to guests visiting Pyongyang. Therefore, there
378-480: A Siberian city during winter snowfall, although edifices of traditional Korean design somewhat soften this perception. In summer, it is notable for its rivers, willow trees, flowers and parkland. Since the end of the Korean War the city was planned strictly according to Socialist principles. According to the 1953 masterplan designed Kim Jung-hee the city was planned to reach one-million residents stretching from
504-400: A hot-summer continental monsoon climate ( Köppen : Dwa ), featuring warm to hot, humid summers and cold, dry winters. Cold, dry winds can blow from Siberia in winter, making conditions very cold; the low temperature is usually below freezing between November and early March, although the average daytime high is at least a few degrees above freezing in every month except January. The winter
630-517: A 76 member committee to oppose the trusteeship plan was formed, which included left wing leaders such as Pak Hon-yong of the Communist Party of Korea . Protests, leafletting, and discourse in the media continued the next few days. However, on January 3, 1946, the Communist Party reversed its position and issued a statement supporting the conference communiqué. This shift was not well received by
756-454: A Republican in a special election held in 1965 against Democrat Preston Callison . Watson secured $ 20,000 and the services of a Republican field representative in what he termed "quite a contrast" to his treatment from Democratic House colleagues. Following Byrnes's death at the age of 89, he was interred in the churchyard at Trinity Episcopal Church in Columbia, South Carolina . Byrnes
882-589: A capacity of 500 MW, East Pyongyang TPS with a capacity of 50 MW, and Kangdong TPS which is under construction. Pyongyang is home to several large department stores including the Pothonggang Department Store , Pyongyang Department Store No. 1 , Pyongyang Department Store No. 2, Kwangbok Department Store, Ragwon Department Store, Pyongyang Station Department Store, and the Pyongyang Children's Department Store. The city also has Hwanggumbol Shop,
1008-461: A cortege procession when his corpse moved through the streets with a hearse as people cried out in hysteria while watching the funeral. In 2001, North Korean authorities began a long-term modernisation programme. The Ministry of Capital City Construction Development was included in the Cabinet in that year. In 2006, Kim Jong Il's brother-in-law Jang Song Thaek took charge of the ministry. Throughout
1134-465: A decision that Byrnes vigorously criticized. The South Carolina Constitution then barred governors from immediate re-election and so Byrnes retired from active political life after the 1954 election . In his later years, Byrnes foresaw that the American South could play a more important role in national politics. To hasten that development, he sought to end the region's nearly-automatic support of
1260-457: A four-power trusteeship of up to five years would be needed before Korea attained independence. Both the political left and political right of Korea opposed this trusteeship plan, with it being suggested that such a plan made Korea a vassal of the four powers. Protests against the trusteeship plan, which had also occurred on December 27, intensified on December 28. On the right, these protests were led by Kim Gu . On December 29, at Gyeonggyojang ,
1386-411: A good working relationship with Byrnes and increasingly turned to him for support. Truman appointed Byrnes as US Secretary of State on July 3, 1945. Despite personally objecting to any guarantees of retaining Hirohito , Byrnes remained ambiguous on that point in a draft reply to Japan's offer of surrender of August 10. As Secretary of State, he was first in line to the presidency (until adoption of
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#17328523207531512-621: A hard diplomatic line against Japan . In this context he denounced isolationist Charles Lindbergh on several occasions. Byrnes played a key role in blocking anti-lynching legislation , notably the Castigan-Wagner bill of 1935 and the Gavagan bill of 1937. Byrnes said that "rape is responsible, directly and indirectly, for most of the lynching in America." Byrnes despised his fellow South Carolina Senator "Cotton Ed" Smith , who strongly opposed
1638-581: A hard line against the Axis powers . He also opposed some of the labor laws proposed by Roosevelt, such as the Fair Labor Standards Act , which established a minimum wage that hurt his state's competitive advantage of very low factory wages. Roosevelt appointed Byrnes to the Supreme Court in 1941 but asked him to join the executive branch after America's entry into World War II. During the war, Byrnes led
1764-554: A heavy price in the things that are real." Writing in 1947, the London Economist argued that the Moscow Conference "ended the phase of post-war in which the victors clung to the belief that they could work out agreed policies... Willy-nilly, world politics moves back towards the balance of power, and issues now tend to be determined by the relative strength or influence of the two groups." The 1947 Paris Peace Treaties were
1890-582: A joint statement announcing that they were combining the U.S. zone of Germany and the British zone of Germany into one new territory called " West Germany ." General Lucius D. Clay , who had been a top aide to Byrnes in 1944, heavily influenced Byrnes' famous September 1946 speech in Stuttgart, Germany. The speech, " Restatement of Policy on Germany ," marked the formal transition in American occupation policy away from
2016-437: A law office, and became a court stenographer . Notably, he transcribed the 1903 trial of South Carolina Lieutenant Governor James H. Tillman (nephew of Senator and former governor "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman ), for murdering a newspaper editor . In 1906, he married the former Maude Perkins Busch of Aiken, South Carolina ; they had no children. He was the godparent of James Christopher Connor. At this time, Byrnes converted from
2142-505: A liberal journalist, to investigate; Ethridge found conditions were indeed bad. Ethridge wrote a damning report, but Byrnes ignored it and instead endorsed a Soviet offer. Truman read Ethridge's report and decided that Byrnes's softline approach was a failure and that the US needed to stand up to the Kremlin. Personal relations between the two men grew strained, particularly when Truman felt that Byrnes
2268-481: A major city in old Joseon. Pyongyang was founded in 1122 BC on the site of the capital of the legendary king Dangun . Wanggeom-seong , which was in the location of Pyongyang, became the capital of Gojoseon from 194 to 108 BC. It fell in the Han conquest of Gojoseon in 108 BC. Emperor Wu of Han ordered four commanderies be set up, with Lelang Commandery in the center and its capital established as "Joseon" (朝鮮縣, 조선현) at
2394-620: A personal preference for US Supreme Court justice William O. Douglas . Byrnes was on Roosevelt's list but was hardly his first choice. In a July meeting at the White House, the party bosses pressed hard for Senator Harry S. Truman of Missouri , and Roosevelt issued a statement saying he would support either Truman or Douglas. Byrnes was regarded as too conservative for organized labor ; some big city bosses opposed him as an ex-Catholic who would offend Catholics; and blacks were wary of his opposition to racial integration . In short, Byrnes never had
2520-667: A political comeback. He narrowly defeated Blease in the 1930 Democratic primary and joined the Senate in 1931. Historian George E. Mowry called Byrnes "the most influential Southern member of Congress between John Calhoun and Lyndon Johnson ". In the Senate, Byrnes supported the policies of his longtime friend, President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Byrnes championed the New Deal and sought federal investment in South Carolina water projects. He also supported Roosevelt's foreign policy, calling for
2646-631: A population of 235,000. On 25 August 1945, the Soviet 25th Army entered Pyongyang and it became the temporary capital of the Provisional People's Committee for North Korea . A People's Committee was already established there, led by veteran Christian nationalist Cho Man-sik . Pyongyang became the de facto capital of North Korea upon its establishment in 1948. At the time, the Pyongyang government aimed to recapture Korea's official capital, Seoul. Pyongyang
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#17328523207532772-419: A professed endorsement of him. That group's leader was a Blease ally, and the "endorsement" was circulated in anti-Catholic areas. Blease won the runoff 51% to 49%. After his House term ended in 1925, Byrnes was out of office. He moved his law practice to Spartanburg , in the industrializing Piedmont region. Between his law practice and investment advice from friends such as Bernard Baruch , Byrnes became
2898-572: A realistic alternative to the desegregation of schools . Byrnes was born at 538 King Street in Charleston, South Carolina , and was reared in Charleston. Byrnes's father, James Francis Byrnes, died shortly after Byrnes was born. His father was Catholic of English, Irish, Welsh and Scottish ancestry. He was descended from Sir John Stawell , Ralph Hopton, 1st Baron Hopton and William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle , who all played significant roles in
3024-531: A recommendations on the use of the atomic bomb during and after the war. The committee, headed by War Secretary Henry L. Stimson , included Byrnes, Vannevar Bush , James Conant , Karl T. Compton , Under Secretary of the Navy Ralph Austin Bard , and Assistant Secretary of State William L. Clayton . The scientific panel of the committee consisted of J. Robert Oppenheimer , Arthur Compton , Enrico Fermi and Ernest Lawrence . A business leaders branch of
3150-638: A relative moderate on race issues. Recognizing that the South could not continue with its entrenched segregationist policies much longer but fearing that Congress would impose sweeping change upon the South, he opted for a course of change from within. To that end, he sought to fulfill at last the " separate but equal " policy that the South had put forward in Supreme Court civil rights cases, particularly in regard to public education. Byrnes poured state money into improving black schools, buying new textbooks and new buses, and hiring additional teachers. He also sought to curb
3276-510: A rift between the United Kingdom and United States. The conference also recognised the pro-Soviet governments in Romania and Bulgaria, granted the Soviet Union a role in post-war Japan, established international control of atomic energy, and achieved an agreement on a trusteeship in Korea - all were viewed as successes by the Soviet Union. Veteran American diplomat George F. Kennan , who was then serving in
3402-542: A serious chance at being nominated for vice president, and the nomination went instead to Truman. Roosevelt brought Byrnes to the Yalta Conference in early 1945 in which he seemed to favor Soviet plans. Written in shorthand, his notes comprise one of the most complete records of the "Big Three" Yalta meetings. At the same time, Byrnes did not participate in the foreign ministers' meetings or the direct meetings between Roosevelt, Winston Churchill , and Joseph Stalin . After
3528-467: A status equal to that of the North Korean provinces . Pyongyang is one of the oldest cities in Korea. It was the capital of two ancient Korean kingdoms, Gojoseon and Goguryeo , and served as the secondary capital of Goryeo . Following the establishment of North Korea in 1948, Pyongyang became its de facto capital. The city was again devastated during the Korean War , but was quickly rebuilt after
3654-569: A strong political machine in the state with him. On June 12, 1941, Roosevelt nominated Byrnes as an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court , and he was confirmed that same day. He served on the Court for only 15 months, from July 8, 1941, until October 3, 1942. His Supreme Court tenure is the shortest of any justice. Byrnes left the Supreme Court to head Roosevelt's Office of Economic Stabilization , which dealt with
3780-483: A stronghold of Christianity , namely Protestantism , especially during the Pyongyang Revival of 1907. After Kim Il Sung's death in 1994, some members of Kim Jong Il 's faction proposed changing the name of Pyongyang to "Kim Il Sung City" ( Korean : 김일성시 ; Hanja : 金日成市 ), but others suggested that North Korea should begin calling Seoul "Kim Il Sung City" instead and grant Pyongyang
3906-487: A subsequent letter to Byrnes, Truman took a harder line in reference to Iran: "Without these supplies furnished by the United States, Russia would have been ignominiously defeated. Yet now Russia stirs up rebellion and keeps troops on the soil of her friend and ally— Iran. .. Unless Russia is faced with an iron fist and strong language another war is in the making. Only one language do they understand.... I do not think we should play compromise any longer.... I am tired of babying
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4032-609: A wealthy man, but he never excluded himself from a return to politics. He cultivated the Piedmont textile workers, who were key Blease supporters. In 1930, he challenged Blease again. Blease again led the primary, with 46 percent to 38 percent for Byrnes, but this time, Byrnes won the runoff 51 to 49 percent. During his time in the Senate, Byrnes was regarded as the most influential South Carolinian since John C. Calhoun . He had long been friends with Franklin Roosevelt , whom he supported for
4158-699: Is a common saying, "How good was the trout soup?", which is used to greet people returning from Pyongyang. Another local specialty, Pyongyang onban (literally "warm rice of Pyongyang") comprises freshly cooked rice topped with sliced mushrooms, chicken, and a couple of bindaetteok (pancakes made from ground mung beans and vegetables). In 2018, there were many high-quality restaurants in Pyongyang with Korean and international food, and imported alcoholic beverages. Famous restaurants include Okryu-gwan and Ch'ongryugwan. Some street foods exist in Pyongyang, where vendors operate food stalls . Foreign foods like hamburgers, fries, pizza, and coffee are easily found. There
4284-596: Is an active nightlife with late-night restaurants and karaoke. The city has water parks, amusement parks , skating rinks, health clubs, a shooting range, and a dolphinarium. Pyongyang has a number of sports clubs, including the April 25 Sports Club and the Pyongyang City Sports Club . Pyongyang is North Korea's industrial center. Thanks to the abundance of natural resources like coal , iron and limestone , as well as good land and water transport systems, it
4410-527: Is borrowed from Korean "평양" (literally "flat land"), from McCune–Reischauer (MR) romanisation P'yŏngyang, a Sino-Korean word from 平壤. It indicates the geographical feature of the location to have a smooth terrain. In native Korean, the city was called "Buruna" ( 부루나 ) or less commonly "Barana" ( 바라나 ) which, using the idu system , was the pronunciation of the Chinese characters of "Pyongyang". "Buru" ( 부루 ) means "field" whereas "na" ( 나 ) means "land", therefore
4536-1000: Is constitutionally designated as the country's capital. The seat of the Workers' Party Central Committee and the Pyongyang People's Committee are located in Haebangsan-dong, Chung-guyok . The Cabinet of North Korea is located in Jongro-dong, Chung-guyok . Pyongyang is also the seat of all major North Korean security institutions. The largest of them, the Ministry of Social Security , has 130,000 employees working in 12 bureaus. These oversee activities including: police services, security of party officials, classified documents, census, civil registrations, large-scale public construction, traffic control , fire safety, civil defence , public health and customs . Another significant structure based in
4662-410: Is divided into 19 wards ( ku- or guyŏk ) (the city proper) , 2 counties ( kun or gun ), and 1 neighborhood ( dong ). Foreign media reports in 2010 stated that Kangnam-gun , Chunghwa-gun , Sangwŏn-gun , and Sŭngho-guyŏk had been transferred to the administration of neighboring North Hwanghae Province . However, Kangnam-gun was returned to Pyongyang in 2011. Panghyŏn-dong, a missile base,
4788-460: Is generally much drier than summer, with snow falling for 37 days on average. The transition from the cold, dry winter to the warm, wet summer occurs rather quickly between April and early May, and there is a similarly abrupt return to winter conditions in late October and November. Summers are generally hot and humid, with the East Asian monsoon taking place from June until September; these are also
4914-782: Is in the west-central part of North Korea; the city lies on a flat plain about 50 kilometres (31 mi) east of the Korea Bay , an arm of the Yellow Sea . The Taedong River flows southwestward through the city toward the Korea Bay. The Pyongyang plain, where the city is situated, is one of the two large plains on the Western coast of the Korean peninsula, the other being the Chaeryong plain. Both have an area of approximately 500 square kilometers. Pyongyang has
5040-665: Is memorialized at several South Carolina universities and schools: In 1948, Byrnes and his wife established the James F. Byrnes Foundation Scholarships, and since then, more than 1,000 young South Carolinians have been assisted in obtaining a college education. His papers are in Clemson University's Special Collections Library. Byrnes' portrait hangs in the South Carolina Senate chambers. Pyongyang Pyongyang ( Korean : 평양 ; Hancha : 平壤 )
5166-558: Is put on the production and supply of fresh produce and subsidiary crops in farms on the city's outskirts. Other crops include rice , sweetcorn and soybeans . Pyongyang aims to achieve self-sufficiency in meat production. High-density facilities raise pigs, chicken and other livestock. Until the late 2010s Pyongyang still experienced frequent shortages of electricity. To solve this problem, two power stations – Huichon Power Stations 1 and 2 – were built in Chagang Province and supply
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5292-469: Is the capital and largest city of North Korea , where it is sometimes labeled as the "Capital of the Revolution" ( 혁명의 수도 ). Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about 109 km (68 mi) upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea . According to the 2008 population census, it has a population of 3,255,288. Pyongyang is a directly administered city ( 직할시 ; 直轄市 ; chikhalsi ) with
5418-468: Is the de facto mayor . The supreme standing state organ is the Pyongyang People's Committee, responsible for everyday events in support of the city. This includes following local Party guidance as channeled through the Pyongyang Party Committee, the distribution of resources prioritised to Pyongyang, and providing support to KWP and internal security agency personnel and families. P'yŏngyang
5544-784: The 105th birthday of the founder and first leader, Kim Il Sung , 4,804 units were built in the new Ryomyong Street complex . The second decade of the 2000s saw the construction of residential projects in Songhwa Street near the Taedonggang Brewing Company in Sadong District (2022), in Taephyong area in Mangyongdae district, and in the Pothong Riverside Terraced Residential District located at
5670-594: The 1947 succession act ) since there was no Vice President during Truman's first term. He played a major role at the Potsdam Conference , the Paris Peace Conference , and other major postwar conferences. According to historian Robert Hugh Ferrell , Byrnes knew little more about foreign relations than Truman. He made decisions after consulting a few advisors, such as Donald S. Russell and Benjamin V. Cohen . Byrnes and his small group paid little attention to
5796-465: The 1950 gubernatorial election and served from 1951 to 1955. Supporting segregation in education, the Democratic governor stated in his inaugural address: Whatever is necessary to continue the separation of the races in the schools of South Carolina is going to be done by the white people of the state. That is my ticket as a private citizen. It will be my ticket as governor. Byrnes was initially seen as
5922-574: The Arch of Triumph and the Mansu Hill Grand Monument . The first of them is a 170-meter (560 ft) granite spire symbolizing the Juche ideology. It was completed in 1982 and contains 25,550 granite blocks, one for each day of Kim Il Sung's life up to that point. The most prominent building on Pyongyang's skyline is Ryugyong Hotel , the seventh highest building in the world terms of floor count,
6048-461: The Catholic Church to Episcopalianism . In 1900, Byrnes's cousin, Governor Miles B. McSweeney , appointed him as a clerk for Judge Robert Aldrich of Aiken. As he needed to be 21 to take this position, Byrnes, his mother, and McSweeney changed his date of birth to that of his older sister, Leonora. He later apprenticed to a lawyer, then a common practice, read for the law , and was admitted to
6174-551: The Democratic Party , he served in the U.S. Congress and on the U.S. Supreme Court , as well as in the executive branch, most prominently as the 49th U.S. Secretary of State under President Harry S. Truman . Byrnes was also the 104th governor of South Carolina . Born and raised in Charleston, South Carolina , Byrnes pursued a legal career with the help of his cousin, Governor Miles Benjamin McSweeney . Byrnes won election to
6300-571: The Democratic nomination in 1932 , and made himself Roosevelt's spokesman on the Senate floor, where he guided much of the early New Deal legislation to passage. He won an easy re-election in 1936 , promising: I admit I am a New Dealer, and if [the New Deal] takes money from the few who have controlled the country and gives it back to the average man, I am going to Washington to help the President work for
6426-572: The Forbidden City as well as various monuments and memorials, which together form an important axis of symbolic places which promotes the Ideology of the Workers' Party of Korea and North Korean cult of personality around Kim family with the epicentre and Kilometre zero of the central district located at Kim Il Sung Square . The 1953 masterplan set the basic layout from which the city's development
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#17328523207536552-532: The Great Depression , Byrnes managed to get the federal government to authorize a loan for the entire project, which was completed and put into operation in February 1942. The loan was later paid back to the federal government with full interest and at no cost to South Carolina taxpayers. Santee Cooper has continued to be a model for public-owned electrical utilities worldwide. In 1937, Byrnes supported Roosevelt on
6678-530: The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Pyongyang served as the provincial capital of South Pyongan Province until 1946, and Pyongyang cuisine shares the general culinary tradition of the Pyongan province. The most famous local food is Pyongyang raengmyŏn , or also called mul raengmyŏn or just simply raengmyŏn . Raengmyŏn literally means "cold noodles", while the affix mul refers to water because
6804-692: The Mansudae People's Theatre opened in 2012, the Munsu Water Park opened in 2013, and the renovated and expanded Sunan International Airport and Pyongyang Sci-Tech Complex , both completed in 2015, the Samjiyon Orchestra Theater, which was fitted out of the domed Korean People's Army Circus built in 1964, and the Pyongyang General Hospital , of which construction started in 2020. Additional re-development projects occurred in
6930-679: The March First Movement in 1919 and severe anti-Japanese socialist movement in 1920s due to economic exploitation. It was called Heijō (with the same Chinese characters 平壤 but read as へいじょう ) in Japanese. In July 1931, the city experienced anti-Chinese riots as a result of the Wanpaoshan Incident and the sensationalized media reports about it which appeared in Imperial Japanese and Korean newspapers. By 1938, Pyongyang had
7056-457: The Morgenthau Plan of economic dismantlement to one of economic reconstruction . Truman was rapidly moving toward a hardline position on Soviet intentions in Eastern Europe and Iran, but Byrnes was much more conciliatory. The distance between them grew and ties of personal friendship weakened. In late 1945, Byrnes argued with Soviet Foreign Minister Viacheslav Molotov over Soviet pressures on Bulgaria and Romania . Byrnes sent Mark Ethridge,
7182-428: The NAACP sued South Carolina to force the state to desegregate its schools . Byrnes requested Kansas , a Midwestern state that also segregated its schools, to provide an amicus curiae brief in supporting the right of a state to segregate its schools. That gave the NAACP's lawyer, Thurgood Marshall , the idea to shift the suit from South Carolina over to Kansas, which led directly to Brown v. Board of Education ,
7308-418: The Office of Economic Stabilization and the Office of War Mobilization . He was a candidate to replace Henry A. Wallace as Roosevelt's running mate in the 1944 election, but instead Harry S. Truman was nominated by the 1944 Democratic National Convention . After Roosevelt's death, Byrnes served as a close adviser to Truman and became U.S. Secretary of State in July 1945. In that capacity, Byrnes attended
7434-403: The Potsdam Conference and the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947 ; however, relations between Byrnes and Truman soured, and Byrnes resigned from the Cabinet in January 1947. He returned to elective politics in 1950 by winning election as the governor of South Carolina . As governor, he opposed the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education and sought to establish " separate but equal " as
7560-431: The Qing invasion of Joseon until peace arrangements were made between Korea and Qing China. While the invasions made Koreans suspicious of foreigners, the influence of Christianity began to grow after the country opened itself up to foreigners in the 16th century. Pyongyang became the base of Christian expansion in Korea. By 1880 it had more than 100 churches and more Protestant missionaries than any other Asian city, and
7686-432: The Taedong River to the Pothong River . The city center was planned as the main administrative district with main landscape structures constructed in between districts and are used as buffer zones so that they cannot expand freely. The city center was planned with wide avenues and streets and monumental structures and forms the central administrative district where many government and public buildings are located including
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#17328523207537812-465: The U.S. House of Representatives and served from 1911 to 1925. He became a close ally of President Woodrow Wilson and a protégé of Senator Benjamin Tillman . He sought election to the U.S. Senate in 1924 but narrowly lost a runoff election to Coleman Livingston Blease , who had the backing of the Ku Klux Klan , a white-supremacist domestic-terrorist organization. Byrnes then moved his law practice to Spartanburg, South Carolina and prepared for
7938-425: The diversion of resources to the army . The 2010s and 2020s saw renewed efforts in urbanization and increasing density with the reconstruction of streets and avenues located further from the center and transformation of former rural parts of the city into high density residential districts. The streets are laid out in a north–south, east–west grid, giving the city an orderly appearance. North Korean designers applied
8064-415: The 13th-century Samguk yusa . Historians deny this claim because earlier Chinese historiographical works such as the Guanzi , Classic of Mountains and Seas , Records of the Grand Historian , and Records of the Three Kingdoms , mention a much later "Joseon". The connection between the two therefore may have been asserted by North Korea for the use of propaganda. Nevertheless, Pyongyang became
8190-481: The 1920s, he was a champion of the " Good Roads Movement ", which attracted motorists and politicians to large-scale road building programs. In 1924, Byrnes declined renomination to the House and instead sought nomination for the Senate seat held by incumbent Nathaniel B. Dial though both were former allies of the now-deceased "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman. Anti-Tillmanite and extreme racist demagogue Coleman Blease , who had challenged Dial in 1918, also ran again. Blease led
8316-440: The 1953 master plan, it diverted from it in some aspects, such as the construction of high-rises along the central avenues, a step conflicted with the 1953 plan which called for more even distribution of the residential construction throughout the city in several multi-cores. The 90s saw a relative slowdown in the development of the urban structure due to the deep economic crisis and famine which swept through North Korea and led to
8442-466: The Conference, he was influential in convincing the U.S. Congress and the general public to accept the terms of the agreement. In 1945, Byrnes was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal by President Truman for his work in the Office of War Mobilization. As head of the wartime Office of War Mobilization, Byrnes provided oversight, material and financial resources for the high priority Manhattan Project . Byrnes served on an Interim committee making
8568-417: The Democratic Party in 1964 and to declare himself a Republican, but Byrnes himself remained a Democrat. In 1965, Byrnes spoke out against the "punishment" and the "humiliation" of South Carolina US Representative Albert Watson , who had been stripped of his congressional seniority by the House Democratic Caucus after endorsing Goldwater for president. Byrnes openly endorsed Watson's retention in Congress as
8694-427: The Democratic Party, which Byrnes believed had grown too liberal and took the " Solid South " for granted at election time but otherwise ignored the region and its needs. Byrnes endorsed Dwight Eisenhower in 1952 , segregationist candidate Harry Byrd in 1956 , Richard Nixon in 1960 and 1968 , and Barry Goldwater in 1964 . He gave his private blessing to US Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina to bolt
8820-449: The English civil war as well as the Irish aristocrats Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare and Margaret Butler, Countess of Ormond . His mother, Elizabeth McSweeney Byrnes, was a dressmaker who was born in 1859. In the 1880s, a widowed aunt and her three children came to live with them; one of the children was Frank J. Hogan , later president of the American Bar Association . At 14, Byrnes left St. Patrick's Catholic School to work in
8946-415: The Lelang Commandery was destroyed by an expanding Goguryeo in 313. Goguryeo moved its capital there in 427. According to Christopher Beckwith , Pyongyang is the Sino-Korean reading of the name they gave it in their language: Piarna , or "level land". In 668, Pyongyang became the capital of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East established by the Tang dynasty of China. However, by 676, it
9072-567: The New Deal. He privately sought to help his friend Burnet R. Maybank , then the Mayor of Charleston , defeat Smith in the 1938 Senate primary . During the primary, however, Olin Johnston , who was limited to one term as governor, decided to run for the Senate. Because Johnston was also a pro-Roosevelt New Dealer, he would have divided the New Deal vote with Maybank and ensured a victory for Smith. Johnston
9198-449: The Russian thesis of trusteeship." Domestic media adopted the story on December 27. The communiqué was officially announced in Korea on December 28. The section on Korea consisted of four paragraphs. The third paragraph called for the establishment of a Joint Commission, under the control of a consortium of the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and China, including the decision that
9324-533: The Soviet Union pressed for British withdrawal from Greece. Reiterating their position previously voiced at the Potsdam and London conferences, the Soviet Union once again made demands for a military base in the Dardanelles. James F. Byrnes James Francis Byrnes ( US : / ˈ b ɜːr n z / BURNZ ; May 2, 1882 – April 9, 1972) was an American judge and politician from South Carolina . A member of
9450-558: The Soviet Union was dominant. Both the far Eastern Commission and the Allied Council for Japan were dissolved following the Treaty of San Francisco in 1951. On December 25, 1945, prior to the announcement of the final decision of the conference, the United Press reported that "Secretary of State Byrnes went to Russia reportedly with instructions to urge immediate independence as opposed to
9576-616: The Soviets". That led to the Iran crisis of 1946 in which Byrnes took an increasingly hardline position in opposition to Stalin, culminating in a speech in Germany on September 6, 1946. The " Restatement of Policy on Germany ," also known as the "Speech of Hope", set the tone of future US policy by repudiating the Morgenthau Plan , an economic program that would permanently deindustrialize Germany. Byrnes
9702-592: The State Department experts and similarly ignored Truman. Because Byrnes had been part of the US delegation at Yalta, Truman assumed that he had accurate knowledge of what had transpired. It would be many months before Truman discovered that not to be the case. Nevertheless, Byrnes advised that the Soviets were breaking the Yalta Agreement and that Truman needed to be resolute and uncompromising with them. Byrnes and British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin issued
9828-549: The Swedish experience of self-sufficient urban neighbourhoods throughout the entire country, and Pyongyang is no exception. Its inhabitants are mostly divided into administrative units of 5,000 to 6,000 people ( dong ). These units all have similar sets of amenities including a food store, a barber shop, a tailor , a public bathhouse, a post office , a clinic, a library and others. Many residents occupy high-rise apartment buildings. One of Kim Il Sung's priorities while designing Pyongyang
9954-463: The US embassy in Moscow, observed the proceedings first hand, and wrote in his diary on US Secretary of State Byrnes: "The realities behind this agreement, since they concern only such people as Koreans, Rumanians, and Iranians, about whom he knows nothing, do not concern him. He wants an agreement for its political effect at home. The Russians know this. They will see that for this superficial success he pays
10080-685: The area around the Arch of Triumph where the Pyongyang People's Hospital no. 1 was demolished. Apartment blocks in the area of Inhŭng-dong, in Moranbong-guyok district and in the area of Sinwon-dong in Pothonggang district were demolished in 2018–2019 for the construction of new apartment buildings. Also in 2018 the Youth Park Open-Air Theatre in Sungri Street, used to host political rallies,
10206-417: The bar in 1903. In 1908, he was appointed solicitor for the second circuit of South Carolina and served until 1910. Byrnes was a protégé of "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman and often had a moderating influence on the fiery segregationist Senator. In 1910, he narrowly won the Democratic primary for US Representative from South Carolina's 2nd congressional district , which was then tantamount to election . He
10332-539: The city center next to the Pothong River on land previously used by the headquarters of the International Taekwon-Do Federation . Kim Jong Un ordered that the residential district be renamed "Kyongru-dong" meaning "beautiful bead terrace". From the 50s to the 70s the area was the location of the residence of Kim Il Sung and was known as "Mansion No. 5". Other recent public building projects include
10458-403: The city is the Ministry of State Security , whose 30,000 personnel manage intelligence, political prison systems, military industrial security and entry and exit management. The politics and management of the city is dominated by the Workers' Party of Korea , as they are in the national level. The city is managed by the Pyongyang Party Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea and its chairman
10584-581: The city through direct transmission lines. A second phase of the power expansion project was launched in January 2013, consisting of a series of small dams along the Chongchon River . The first two power stations have a maximum generating capacity of 300 megawatts (MW), while the 10 dams to be built under second phase are expected to generate about 120 MW. In addition, the city has several existing or planned thermal power stations . These include Pyongyang TPS with
10710-693: The committee included Walter S. Carpenter Jr . and James A. Rafferty . George C. Marshall was the US Military voice on the committee. Additional feedback was provided by the Committee on the Social and Political Implications of the Atomic Bomb, formed by Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago , chaired by James Franck with Leo Szilard and Glenn T. Seaborg . It was Byrnes who shared information with
10836-503: The country that used raw materials, civilian and military production, and transportation for United States Armed Forces personnel and was credited with providing the employment that was needed to bring an official end to the Great Depression. Thanks to his political experience, his probing intellect, his close friendship with Roosevelt, and in no small part his own personal charm, Byrnes was soon exerting influence over many facets of
10962-494: The dish is served in a cold broth. Raengmyŏn consists of thin and chewy buckwheat noodles in a cold meat-broth with dongchimi (watery kimchi) and topped with a slice of sweet Korean pear . Pyongyang raengmyŏn was originally eaten in homes built with ondol (traditional underfloor heating ) during the cold winter, so it is also called "Pyongyang deoldeori" (shivering in Pyongyang). Pyongyang locals sometimes enjoyed it as
11088-472: The entire war, involving 1,400 UN aircraft. Already during the war, plans were made to reconstruct the city. On 27 July 1953 – the day the armistice between North Korea and South Korea was signed – The Pyongyang Review wrote: "While streets were in flames, an exhibition showing the general plan of restoration of Pyongyang was held at the Moranbong Underground Theater", the air raid shelter of
11214-769: The final peace settlement for Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland. The Moscow Conference established the Far Eastern Commission , based in Washington, D.C. , which would oversee the Allied Council for Japan , replacing the Far Eastern Advisory Commission. The arrangement, which gave the United States a dominant position in Japan, was a mirror image to the situation in Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania, where
11340-543: The following articles: The Moscow Conference has been seen as advantageous for the Soviet Union. The conference was proposed by Byrnes, without an invitation offered to France or China and without first consulting with the United Kingdom . This was aligned with the goal the Soviet Union had previously wanted - that France and China would be excluded from peace settlements regarding the minor axis powers in Europe - and created
11466-459: The government under Moranbong . "On the way of victory... fireworks which streamed high into the night sky of the capital in a gun salute briefly illuminated the construction plan of the city which would rise soon with a new look". After the war, the city was quickly rebuilt with assistance from the Soviet Union , and many buildings were built in the style of Stalinist architecture . The plans for
11592-446: The highly-controversial court packing plan , but he voted against the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act , as a minimum wage would potentially make the textile mills in his state uncompetitive. He opposed Roosevelt's efforts to purge conservative Democrats in the 1938 primary elections. On foreign policy, Byrnes was a champion of Roosevelt's positions of helping the United Kingdom against Nazi Germany in 1939 to 1941 and of maintaining
11718-594: The hottest months, with average temperatures of 21 to 25 °C (70 to 77 °F), and daytime highs often above 30 °C (86 °F). Although largely transitional seasons, spring and autumn experience more pleasant weather, with average high temperatures ranging from 20 to 26 °C (68 to 79 °F) in May and 22 to 27 °C (72 to 81 °F) in September, coupled with relatively clear, sunny skies. Major government and other public offices are located in Pyongyang, which
11844-569: The latter's earliest days in the Senate. Indeed, Byrnes was one of the first people seen by Truman on the first day of his presidency. When Truman met Roosevelt's coffin in Washington, he asked Byrnes and former Vice President Wallace, the two other men who might well have succeeded Roosevelt, to join him at the train station. Truman originally intended for both men to play leading roles in his administration to signal continuity with Roosevelt's policies. Truman quickly fell out with Wallace but retained
11970-423: The location of Pyongyang. Several archaeological findings from the later, Eastern Han (20–220 AD) period in the Pyongyang area seems to suggest that Han forces later launched brief incursions around these parts. The area around the city was called Nanglang during the early Three Kingdoms period . As the capital of Nanglang ( 낙랑국 ; 樂浪國 ), Pyongyang remained an important commercial and cultural outpost after
12096-405: The masterplan, the 60s and 70s saw new wave of development which included expansion of the central boulevards, construction of high-density apartment buildings along the central boulevards, grandiose civic and cultural buildings and monumental statues and squares. This tendency included also the inclusion of traditional Korean architecture for some buildings. While the development generally followed
12222-478: The meaning of Pyongyang in native Korean would be "Land of the field". The city's other historic names include Ryugyong , Kisong , Hwangsong , Rakrang , Sŏgyong , Sodo , Hogyong , Changan , and Heijō (during Japanese rule in Korea ). There are several variants. During the early 20th century, Pyongyang came to be known among missionaries as being the " Jerusalem of the East", due to its historical status as
12348-478: The modern city of Pyongyang were first displayed for public viewing in a theatre building. Kim Jung-hee, one of the founding members of the Korean Architects Alliance, who had studied architecture in prewar Japan , was appointed by Kim Il Sung to design the city's master plan. Moscow Architectural Institute designed the "Pyongyang City Reconstruction and Construction Comprehensive Plan" in 1951, and it
12474-540: The moniker "Kim Jong Il City". In the end, neither proposal was implemented. In 1955, archaeologists excavated evidence of prehistoric dwellings in a large ancient village in the Pyongyang area, called Kŭmtan-ni, dating to the Jeulmun and Mumun pottery periods. North Koreans associate Pyongyang with the mythological city of " Asadal ", or Wanggeom-seong , the first second millennium BC capital of Gojoseon ("Old Joseon") according to Korean historiographies beginning with
12600-459: The new president on the atomic bomb project (until then, Truman had known nothing about the Manhattan Project). In the 2023 film Oppenheimer , directed by Christopher Nolan , Byrnes was portrayed by actor Pat Skipper . Upon his succession to the presidency after Roosevelt's death, on April 12, 1945, Truman relied heavily on Byrnes's counsel, Byrnes having been a mentor to Truman from
12726-573: The old apartments of the 1970s and '80s replaced by taller high rise buildings and leisure parks like the Kaesong Youth Park , as well as renovations of older buildings. In 2018, the city was described as unrecognizable compared to five years before. Notable landmarks in the city include: Pyongyang TV Tower is a minor landmark. Other visitor attractions include the Korea Central Zoo . The Reunification Highway stretches from Pyongyang to
12852-445: The people of South Carolina and the country. Since the colonial era , South Carolina's politicians had dreamed of an inland waterway system that would not only aid commerce but also control flooding. By the 1930s, Byrnes took up the cause for a massive dam-building project, Santee Cooper , that would not only accomplish those tasks but also electrify the entire state with hydroelectric power. With South Carolina financially strapped by
12978-455: The power of the Ku Klux Klan by passing a law that prohibited adults from wearing a mask in public on any day other than Halloween; he knew that many Klansmen feared exposure and would not appear in public in their robes unless their faces were hidden as well. Byrnes hoped to make South Carolina an example for other Southern states to follow in modifying their " Jim Crow " policies. Nonetheless,
13104-500: The primary with 42 percent. Byrnes was second with 34 percent. Dial finished third with 22 percent. Byrnes was opposed by the Ku Klux Klan , which preferred Blease. Byrnes had been raised as a Roman Catholic , and the Klan spread rumors that he was still a secret Catholic. Byrnes countered by citing his support by Episcopal clergy. Three days before the run-off vote, 20 Catholics who said that they had been altar boys with Byrnes published
13230-583: The public. The shift coincides with the arrival of Soviet general Andrei Alekseevich Romanenko to Pyongyang on December 30, lending credence to the theory that the shift was due to a Soviet directive. The shift of the left away from the anti-trusteeship movement led to intensified confrontation between the left and right. By January 23, unrest against the trusteeship plan had quietened somewhat, and right wing political groups stopped advocating for violence and for non-cooperation against military government. The Joint Commission convened throughout 1946 and 1947, but it
13356-605: The rule of Kim Jong Un a number of residential projects were constructed. In 2012, Changjon Street, a residential project with 2,784 units, was inaugurated in the heart of Pyongyang. 2013 and 2014 residential projects dedicated to scientists were completed in Unha Scientists Street and Wisong Scientists Street with more than 1,000 units each while in 2015 work took place on a residential project in Mirae Scientists Street with 2,584 units. In 2017, in dedication to
13482-690: The tallest unoccupied building in the world, and one of the tallest hotels in the world . It has yet to open. Pyongyang has a rapidly evolving skyline, dominated by high-rise apartment buildings. A construction boom began with the Changjon Street Apartment Complex, which was completed in 2012. Construction of the complex began after late leader Kim Jong Il described Changjon Street as "pitiful". Other housing complexes are being upgraded as well, but most are still poorly insulated, and lacking elevators and central heating. An urban renewal program continued under Kim Jong Un's leadership, with
13608-524: The vitally-important issues of prices and taxes. How powerful the new office would become depended entirely on Byrnes's political skills, and Washington insiders soon reported that he was fully in charge. In May 1943, he became head of the Office of War Mobilization , a new agency that supervised the Office of Economic Stabilization. Under the leadership of Byrnes, the program managed newly constructed factories across
13734-652: The war effort that were not technically under his departmental jurisdiction. Many in Congress and the press began referring to Byrnes as the "Assistant President." Many expected that Byrnes would be the Democratic nominee in 1944 for vice president in Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1944 reelection campaign , replacing Henry A. Wallace , who was strongly felt by party officials to be too eccentric to replace an ailing president who would likely die before his next term ended. Roosevelt refused to endorse anybody other than Wallace. He had
13860-479: The war with Soviet assistance. Pyongyang is the political, industrial and transport center of North Korea. It is estimated that 99% of those living in Pyongyang are members, candidate members, or dependents of members of the ruling Workers' Party of Korea (WPK). It is home to North Korea's major government institutions , as well as the WPK which has its headquarters in the so-called Forbidden City . The name Pyongyang
13986-577: Was administrated by Kusong , North Pyongan Province . It had been transferred to the administration of P'yŏngyang on February 10, 2018. After being destroyed during the Korean War, Pyongyang was entirely rebuilt according to Kim Il Sung's vision, which was to create a capital that would boost morale in the post-war years. The result was a city with wide, tree-lined boulevards and public buildings with terraced landscaping, mosaics and decorated ceilings. Its Soviet-style architecture makes it reminiscent of
14112-451: Was again severely damaged in the Korean War , during which it was briefly occupied by South Korean forces from 19 October to 6 December 1950. The city saw many refugees evacuate when advancing Chinese forces pushed southward towards Pyongyang. UN forces oversaw the evacuation of refugees as they retreated from Pyongyang in December 1950. In 1952, it was the target of the largest aerial raid of
14238-469: Was also supportive of the New Deal's labor legislation, but Byrnes's support was limited, and a series of labor strikes in the fall of 1937 made Byrnes withdraw consideration for potentially endorsing Johnston. Taking advice from Byrnes, Maybank decided to run for governor instead, and Byrnes made the reluctant decision to support Smith. Byrnes envisioned that Smith would retire in 1944 and that Maybank would successfully run for Smith's Senate seat and build
14364-500: Was attempting to set foreign policy by himself and to inform the President only afterward. An early instance of the friction was the Moscow Conference in December 1945. Truman considered the "successes" of the conference to be "unreal" and was highly critical of Byrnes's failure to protect Iran , which was not mentioned in the final communiqué. "I had been left in the dark about the Moscow conference," Truman told Byrnes bluntly. In
14490-632: Was called "the Jerusalem of the East". In 1890, the city had 40,000 inhabitants. It was the site of the Battle of Pyongyang during the First Sino-Japanese War , which led to the destruction and depopulation of much of the city. It was the provincial capital of South Pyeongan Province beginning in 1896. During the Japanese colonial rule , Japan tried to develop the city as an industrial center, but faced
14616-409: Was derived in the next decades with a unit district system which mixes residential and industrial zoning. Those districts are spread around the central administrative district and together with it they form the key axis of directionality for the city expansion. While in the 50s the major emphasis was placed on the reconstruction of Pyongyang from its ruins as carefully a socialist city in strict line with
14742-458: Was formally elected in the general election, and was re-elected six times, serving from 1911 to 1925. Byrnes proved a brilliant legislator, working behind the scenes to form coalitions, and avoiding the high-profile oratory that characterized much of Southern politics. He became a close ally of US President Woodrow Wilson , who often entrusted important political tasks to the capable young Representative, rather than to more experienced lawmakers. In
14868-641: Was founded on January 24, 1946, by the very first resolution of the United Nations General Assembly . The conference did not address outstanding issues regarding Iran , Spain , Greece , Libya , or the Dardanelles . The Soviet Union was unwilling to withdraw from Iran, citing the Russo-Persian Treaty of Friendship and claiming their presence was legal to protect Baku . As a counter to Anglo-American demands for their withdrawal from Iran,
14994-547: Was increasingly obstructed, mostly by the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union increased its military build-up in what would become North Korea and prevented the 1948 United Nations supervised election from occurring in the north. The failure of the Moscow Conference to peacefully settle the issue of Korea ultimately led to the Korean War in 1950. The anti-trusteeship victory protests are celebrated in South Korea annually on December 28. The United Nations Atomic Energy Commission
15120-511: Was initiated on the former territory of Kangdong Airfield which was demolished in 2019. In April 2024 the second stage of construction in the Hwasong area was completed in Rimhung Street with 10,000 apartments was marked with an extravagant ceremony. Pyongyang, alongside Seoul , launched a bid to host the 2032 Summer Olympics , but failed to make the joint city candidate list. Pyongyang
15246-521: Was named TIME Man of the Year . Truman and others believed that Byrnes had grown resentful that he had not been Roosevelt's running mate and successor and so was showing disrespect to Truman. Whether or not that was true, Byrnes felt compelled to resign from the Cabinet in 1947 with some feelings of bitterness. Byrnes was not yet ready to give up public service. At 68, he was elected Governor of South Carolina in
15372-452: Was officially adopted in 1953. The transformation into a modern, propaganda-designed city featuring Stalin-style architecture with a Korean-style arrangement (and other modernist architecture that was said to have been greatly influenced by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer ) began. The 1972 Constitution officially declared Pyongyang the capital. The funeral of Kim Il Sung was held in Pyongyang in 1994. Then on 19 July, it concluded with
15498-586: Was rebuilt. In 2021–2022 a major housing project was executed along Songhwa Street in southeast part of the city Hwasong Street in Hwasong District in northern Pyongyang with high-rises. In 2023 phase two of construction of housing in Hwasong district was launched, on the former territory of the Pyongyang Vegetable Science Institute. In addition, a complex of greenhouse farm and housing
15624-639: Was taken by Silla , but left on the border between Silla and Balhae . Pyongyang was left abandoned during the Later Silla period, until it was recovered by Wang Geon and decreed as the Western Capital of Goryeo . During the Imjin War , Pyongyang was captured by the Japanese and held the city wall until they were defeated in the Siege of Pyongyang . Later in the 17th century, it became temporarily occupied during
15750-460: Was the first industrial city to emerge in North Korea after the Korean War. Light and heavy industries are both present and have developed in parallel. Heavy manufactures include cement , industrial ceramics, munitions and weapons, but mechanical engineering remains the core industry. Light industries in Pyongyang and its vicinity include textiles , footwear and food, among others. Special emphasis
15876-466: Was to limit the population. Authorities maintain a restrictive regime of movement into the city, making it atypical of East Asia as it is silent, uncrowded and spacious. Structures in Pyongyang are divided into three major architectural categories: monuments, buildings with traditional Korean motifs and high-rises. Some of North Korea's most recognisable landmarks are monuments, like the Juche Tower ,
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