Black-figure pottery painting, also known as the black-figure style or black-figure ceramic ( Ancient Greek : μελανόμορφα , romanized : melanómorpha ), is one of the styles of painting on antique Greek vases . It was especially common between the 7th and 5th centuries BCE, although there are specimens dating in the 2nd century BCE. Stylistically it can be distinguished from the preceding orientalizing period and the subsequent red-figure pottery style.
196-664: Figures and ornaments were painted on the body of the vessel using shapes and colors reminiscent of silhouettes . Delicate contours were incised into the paint before firing, and details could be reinforced and highlighted with opaque colors, usually white and red. The principal centers for this style were initially the commercial hub Corinth , and later Athens . Other important production sites are known to have been in Laconia , Boeotia , eastern Greece, and Italy. Particularly in Italy individual styles developed which were at least in part intended for
392-490: A capacitance discharge to eliminate oxides before direct current heating, was patented by G. F. Taylor in 1932. This originated sintering methods employing pulsed or alternating current , eventually superimposed to a direct current. Those techniques have been developed over many decades and summarized in more than 640 patents. Of these technologies the most well known is resistance sintering (also called hot pressing ) and spark plasma sintering , while electro sinter forging
588-648: A Corinthian invention which was for that reason called a korinthios in the rest of Greece, was modified. Shortening the volutes above the handles gave rise to the Chalcidic krater. The main image field it was decorated with various representations of daily life or mythological scenes, the secondary field contained an animal frieze. The back often showed two large animals. Cups had become deeper already in Mid-Corinthian times and this trend continued. They became just as popular as kotyles. Many of them have mythological scenes on
784-468: A black-figure style on a white ground. The white ground of the vases was quite thick and no longer painted directly on the clay foundation, a technique which became the standard for all white-ground vases. The Sappho Painter specialized in funerary lekythos. The workshop of the Haimon Painter was especially productive; over 600 of their vases have survived. The Athena Painter (who is perhaps identical with
980-406: A bust some 3 to 5 inches high was typical, with half- or full-length portraits proportionately larger. In America, silhouettes were highly popular from about 1790 to 1840. The physionotrace apparatus invented by Frenchman Gilles-Louis Chrétien in 1783-84 facilitated the production of silhouette portraits by deploying the mechanics of the pantograph to transmit the tracing (via an eyepiece) of
1176-793: A commission for producing the vases. This also explains the existence of many prize amphoras by excellent vase painters. In addition to superior black-figure painters like the Euphiletos Painter, Exekias, Hypereides and the Leagros Group, many red-figure master craftsmen are known as creators of prize amphoras. These include the Eucharides Painter, the Kleophrades Painter, the Berlin Painter, the Achilleus Painter and Sophilos, who
1372-554: A common method of manufacture: after the vase was made, it was first dried before being painted. The workshops were under the control of the potters, who as owners of businesses had an elevated social position. The extent to which potters and painters were identical is uncertain. It is likely that many master potters themselves made their main contribution in the production process as vase painters, while employing additional painters. It is, however, not easy to reconstruct links between potters and painters. In many cases, such as Tleson and
1568-462: A complicated, three-phase firing process which generated the red color of the body clay and the black of the applied slip. The vessel was fired in a kiln at a temperature of about 800 °C, with the resultant oxidization turning the vase a reddish-orange color. The temperature was then raised to about 950 °C with the kiln's vents closed and green wood added to remove the oxygen. The vessel then turned an overall black. The final stage required
1764-408: A creative alternative. Many photographers use the technique of photographing people, objects or landscape elements against the light, to achieve an image in silhouette. The background light might be natural, such as a cloudy or open sky, mist or fog, sunset or an open doorway (a technique known as contre-jour ), or it might be contrived in a studio; see low-key lighting . Silhouetting requires that
1960-485: A dinos. He only seldom adhered to traditional patterns of depicting customary mythological subjects. His depiction of the suicide of Ajax is also significant. Exekias does not show the act itself, which was in the tradition, but rather Ajax’ preparations. About as famous as the Dionysus cup is an amphora with his visualization of Ajax and Achilles engaged in a board game. Not only is the portrayal detailed, Exekias even conveys
2156-439: A dubbed voice. This is done when the individuals may be endangered if it is known they were interviewed. Computer vision researchers have been able to build computational models for perception that are capable of generating and reconstructing 3D shapes from single or multi-view depth maps or silhouettes Silhouettes have also been used to create images that serve as business documents. Slave owners have had silhouettes made of
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#17328511119912352-615: A few painters took care with them, and they were generally moved from the center of attention to less important areas of vases. This new style is especially represented by the François vase, signed by both the potter Ergotimos and the painter Kleitias (570–560 BC). This krater is considered to be the most famous Greek painted vase. It is the first known volute krater made of clay. Mythological events are depicted in several friezes, with animal friezes being shown in secondary locations. Several iconographic and technical details appear on this vase for
2548-551: A flask and a pinax . A second artist's name, Milonidas, also appears on a pinax. The Corinthian olpe wine jug was replaced by an Attic version of the oinochoe with a cloverleaf lip. In Middle Corinthian time, depictions of people again became more common. The Eurytios Krater , dated around 600 BC, is considered to be of particularly high quality; it shows a symposium in the main frieze with Heracles, Eurytios, and other mythical figures. In Late Corinthian times (sometimes designated Late Corinthian I, 575–550 BC) Corinthian vases had
2744-602: A form of hot pressing, to enable lower temperatures and taking less time than typical sintering. For a number of years, it was speculated that the existence of sparks or plasma between particles could aid sintering; however, Hulbert and coworkers systematically proved that the electric parameters used during spark plasma sintering make it (highly) unlikely. In light of this, the name "spark plasma sintering" has been rendered obsolete. Terms such as field assisted sintering technique (FAST), electric field assisted sintering (EFAS), and direct current sintering (DCS) have been implemented by
2940-498: A glass of water adhere to each other, which is driven by the temperature difference between the water and the ice. Examples of pressure-driven sintering are the compacting of snowfall to a glacier, or the formation of a hard snowball by pressing loose snow together. The material produced by sintering is called sinter . The word sinter comes from the Middle High German sinter , a cognate of English cinder . Sintering
3136-452: A graphic art, but a large number of average quality and mass-market products were also produced. The outstanding significance of Attic pottery comes from their almost endless repertoire of scenes covering a wide range of themes. These provide rich testimonials especially in regard to mythology, but also to daily life. On the other hand, there are virtually no images referring to contemporary events. Such references are only occasionally evident in
3332-602: A great range of material properties. Changes in density, alloying , and heat treatments can alter the physical characteristics of various products. For instance, the Young's modulus E n of sintered iron powders remains somewhat insensitive to sintering time, alloying, or particle size in the original powder for lower sintering temperatures, but depends upon the density of the final product: E n / E = ( D / d ) 3.4 {\displaystyle E_{n}/E=(D/d)^{3.4}} where D
3528-443: A high foot. As with classic band cups the rim is left black, but the area below it is decorated with ornaments like leaves, buds, palmettes, dots, nimbuses or animals on the cup exterior. Kassel cups are a small form, squatter than other Little Masters cups, and the entire exterior is decorated. As in the case of Droop cups, primarily ornaments are painted. Famous Little Masters are the potters Phrynos, Sokles , Tleson and Ergoteles ,
3724-408: A high relative density and a small grain size. Therefore, being able to control these properties during processing is of high technical importance. Since densification of powders requires high temperatures, grain growth naturally occurs during sintering. Reduction of this process is key for many engineering ceramics. Under certain conditions of chemistry and orientation, some grains may grow rapidly at
3920-460: A higher rim than previously and a trumpet-shaped base on a relatively short hollow stem. For the first time in Attic vase painting the inside of the cup was decorated with framed images ( tondo ). There were two types of decoration. In the "double-decker" style the cup body and the lip each have separate decorations. In the "overlap" style the image extends over both body and lip. After the second quarter of
4116-516: A large role in the development of Little-master cups and the Type A belly amphora mentioned above, and he possibly invented the calyx krater, at least the oldest existing piece is from his workshop. In contrast to many other comparable craftsmen, as a painter he attached great importance to the careful elaboration of ornaments. The details of his images—horses’ manes, weapons, clothing—are also outstandingly well executed. His scenes are usually monumental and
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#17328511119914312-409: A lower affinity for water and a lower plasticity index than clay , requiring organic additives in the stages before sintering. Sintering begins when sufficient temperatures have been reached to mobilize the active elements in the ceramic material, which can start below their melting point (typically at 50–80% of their melting point ), e.g. as premelting . When sufficient sintering has taken place,
4508-471: A massive reduction in the Laconian production of black-figure vases, which came to an end around 500 BC. The pottery was very widely distributed, from Marseille to Ionian Greece. On Samos, Laconian pottery is more common than Corinthian pottery because of the close political alliance with Sparta. Silhouettes A silhouette ( English: / ˌ s ɪ l u ˈ ɛ t / , French: [silwɛt] )
4704-432: A modified sintering method which combined electric current with pressure . The benefits of this method were proved for the sintering of refractory metals as well as conductive carbide or nitride powders. The starting boron – carbon or silicon –carbon powders were placed in an electrically insulating tube and compressed by two rods which also served as electrodes for the current. The estimated sintering temperature
4900-444: A particle size around the penetration depth of microwaves in the particular material. The sintering process and side-reactions run several times faster during microwave sintering at the same temperature, which results in different properties for the sintered product. This technique is acknowledged to be quite effective in maintaining fine grains/nano sized grains in sintered bioceramics . Magnesium phosphates and calcium phosphates are
5096-404: A potter and vase painter is likely to be unique in antiquity and is evidence of the high reputation of this artist. The tablets show grieving for a dead Athenian woman as well as her lying in state and being transported to a gravesite. Exekias conveys both the grief and the dignity of the figures. One special feature, for example, is that the leader of the funeral procession turns his face to look at
5292-515: A rare vase form known as a lydion . The most important of the two painters was The Affecter , whose name comes from the exaggeratedly artificial impression made by his figures. These small-headed figures do not seem to be acting as much as posing. His early work shows scenes of daily life; later he turned to decorative scenes in which figures and attributes are recognizable, but hardly actions. If his figures are clothed they look as if they were padded; if they are naked they are very angular. The Affecter
5488-563: A red background. Incised rosettes continued to be put on vases; they are lacking on only a few kraters and cups. The most outstanding piece of art in this period is the Amphiaraos Krater , a column krater created around 560 BC as the major work of the Amphiaraos Painter. It shows several events from the life of the hero Amphiaraos . Around 550 BC the production of figured vases came to an end. The following Late Corinthian Style II
5684-542: A red coating to enhance the contrast between the large white areas and the rather pale color of the clay vessel. This put the Corinthian craftsmen in competition with Attic pottery painters, who had in the meantime taken over a leading role in the pottery trade. Attic vase forms were also increasingly copied. Oinochoes, whose form had remained basically unchanged up until that time, began to resemble Attic forms; lekythos also started to be increasingly produced. The column krater,
5880-541: A reflection of the overall evolution of black-figure Attic vase painting at that time. His early work shows his affinity to the painters of Siana cups. Advances can be most easily recognized in how he draws the folds of clothing. His early female figures wear clothes without folds. Later he paints flat, angular folds, and in the end he is able to convey the impression of supple, flowing garments. Drawings of garments were one of his chief characteristics; he liked to depicted patterned and fringed clothing. The groups of figures which
6076-515: A relative density higher than 75% of theoretical sample density. This will remove supercritical pores from the body. The sample will then be cooled down and held at the second sintering temperature until densification is completed. Grains of cubic zirconia and cubic strontium titanate were significantly refined by TSS compared to CRH. However, the grain size changes in other ceramic materials, like tetragonal zirconia and hexagonal alumina, were not statistically significant. In microwave sintering, heat
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6272-548: A series of white dots. The aryballos became larger and were given a flat base. The Pholoe Painter is well-known, his most famous work being a skyphos with a picture of Heracles. The Dodwell Painter continued to paint animal friezes, although other painters had already given up this tradition. His creative period extended into the Late Corinthian period (575–550 BC), and his influence cannot be overestimated on vase painting of that time. Likewise of exceptional reputation were
6468-404: A short time, the style went out of fashion already toward the end of the century. At the beginning of the 5th century BC until 480 BC at the latest, all painters of repute were using the red-figure style. But black-figure vases continued to be produced for some 50 additional years, with their quality progressively decreasing. The last painters producing acceptable quality images on large vases were
6664-437: A significant number of identifiable artists. Some are known by their true names, others only by the pragmatic names they were given in the scientific literature. Attica especially was the home of well-known artists. Some potters introduced a variety of innovations which frequently influenced the work of the painters; sometimes it was the painters who inspired the potters’ originality. Red- as well as black-figure vases are some of
6860-405: A silhouette appears as a solid shape. Silhouette images may be created in any visual artistic medium, but were first used to describe pieces of cut paper, which were then stuck to a backing in a contrasting colour, and often framed. Cutting portraits, generally in profile, from black card became popular in the mid-18th century, though the term silhouette was seldom used until the early decades of
7056-424: A sinterisation cycle of a particular ceramic's formulation (i.e., tails and frits) can be easily obtained by observing the expansion-temperature curves during optical dilatometer thermal analysis. In fact, sinterisation is associated with a remarkable shrinkage of the material because glass phases flow once their transition temperature is reached, and start consolidating the powdery structure and considerably reducing
7252-412: A softer transition between the body and the rim. The decoration is in the form of a band circling the cup exterior and can frequently be a very elaborate frieze. In the case of this form the rim is coated with a glossy black slip. The interior retains the color of the clay, except for a black dot painted in the center. Variations include Droop cups and Kassel cups . Droop cups have black, concave lips and
7448-404: A solid piece. Since the sintering temperature does not have to reach the melting point of the material, sintering is often chosen as the shaping process for materials with extremely high melting points, such as tungsten and molybdenum . The study of sintering in metallurgical powder-related processes is known as powder metallurgy . An example of sintering can be observed when ice cubes in
7644-514: A studio on the Strand in London. He advertised "three minute sittings", and the cost might be as low as half a crown around 1800. Miers' superior products could be in grisaille , with delicate highlights added in gold or yellow, and some examples might be painted on various backings, including gesso , glass or ivory . The size was normally small, with many designed to fit into a locket , but otherwise
7840-435: A stylistic sequence for Corinthian vase painting. In contrast to Attic painting, for example, the proportions of the pottery foundation did not evolve much. It is also often difficult to date Corinthian vases; one frequently has to rely on secondary dates, such as the founding of Greek colonies in Italy. Based on such information an approximate chronology can be drawn up using stylistic comparisons, but it seldom has anywhere near
8036-597: A very good artist, but his figures are unintentionally humorous because of the figures with their large heads, strange noses and frequently clenched fists. The work of the Rycroft Painter bears a resemblance to red-figure vase painting and the new forms of expression. He liked to depict Dionysian scenes, horses and chariots, and the adventures of Heracles. He often uses outline drawings. The approximately 50 usually large-size vessels attributed to him are elegantly painted. The Class of C.M. 218 primarily decorated variations of
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8232-588: A well-known movie poster . Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 contains an animated sequence in silhouette illustrating a short story The Tale of the Three Brothers that is embedded in the film. The sequence was produced by Ben Hibon for Framestore , with artwork by Alexis Lidell . Silhouettes have also been used by recording artists in music videos . One example is the video for " Buttons " by The Pussycat Dolls , in which Nicole Scherzinger
8428-448: A wicking structure in certain types of heat pipe construction, where the porosity allows a liquid agent to move through the porous material via capillary action . For materials that have high melting points such as molybdenum , tungsten , rhenium , tantalum , osmium and carbon , sintering is one of the few viable manufacturing processes. In these cases, very low porosity is desirable and can often be achieved. Sintered metal powder
8624-434: Is a determining factor for properties such as strength and electrical conductivity. To yield the desired bond area, temperature and initial grain size are precisely controlled over the sintering process. At steady state, the particle radius and the vapor pressure are proportional to (p 0 ) and to (p 0 ) , respectively. The source of power for solid-state processes is the change in free or chemical potential energy between
8820-456: Is affected by the change in pressure and differences in free energy across the curved surface. If the size of the particle is small (and its curvature is high), these effects become very large in magnitude. The change in energy is much higher when the radius of curvature is less than a few micrometers, which is one of the main reasons why much ceramic technology is based on the use of fine-particle materials. The ratio of bond area to particle size
9016-425: Is an electric current assisted sintering (ECAS) technology originated from capacitor discharge sintering . It is used for the production of diamond metal matrix composites and is under evaluation for the production of hard metals, nitinol and other metals and intermetallics. It is characterized by a very low sintering time, allowing machines to sinter at the same speed as a compaction press. Pressureless sintering
9212-431: Is called hot isostatic pressing . To allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and to prevent parts sticking together, many manufacturers separate ware using ceramic powder separator sheets. These sheets are available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are additionally categorized by fine, medium and coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and particle size to
9408-456: Is characterized by vases only with ornaments, usually painted with a silhouette technique. It was succeeded by the red-figure style, which however did not attain a particularly high quality in Corinth. With over 20,000 extant pieces, Attic black-figure vases comprise the largest and at the same time most significant vase collection, second only to Attic red-figure vases. Attic potters benefitted from
9604-406: Is commonly used. Materials for which liquid phase sintering is common are Si 3 N 4 , WC , SiC , and more. Liquid phase sintering is the process of adding an additive to the powder which will melt before the matrix phase. The process of liquid phase sintering has three stages: For liquid phase sintering to be practical the major phase should be at least slightly soluble in the liquid phase and
9800-618: Is considered to be the most important anonymous group producing black-figure Attic pottery. It rigorously broke with the stylistic tradition of Lydos both as to image and vessel. Egg-shaped neck amphoras were completely given up, column kraters almost entirely abandoned. Instead, this group introduced Type A belly amphoras, which then became an index form. Neck amphoras were usually produced only in customized versions. The group had no interest in small formats. Many scenes, especially those originating in myths, were reproduced again and again. Thus several amphoras of this group show Heracles with Geryon or
9996-482: Is generally considered successful when the process reduces porosity and enhances properties such as strength, electrical conductivity , translucency and thermal conductivity . In some special cases, sintering is carefully applied to enhance the strength of a material while preserving porosity (e.g. in filters or catalysts, where gas adsorption is a priority). During the sintering process, atomic diffusion drives powder surface elimination in different stages, starting at
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#173285111199110192-582: Is inferior compared with the orientalizing period. The most distinguished artists of the time were the Shambling Bull Painter , whose most famous work is an aryballos with a hunting scene, the Painter of Palermo 489 , and his disciple, the Columbus Painter . The latter's personal style can be most easily recognized in his images of powerful lions. Beside the aryballos, the kotyle and the alabastron are
10388-547: Is nevertheless considered by today's art historians to be an accomplished artist whose work can be compared with "major" paintings ( murals and panel paintings) of that period. His contemporaries apparently recognized this as well. The Berlin Collection of Classical Antiquities in the Altes Museum contains the remnants of a series of his votive tablets. The complete series probably had 16 individual panels. Placing such an order with
10584-477: Is one of the rare depictions on Greek pottery of current events or people. The subjects suggest Attic influence. A reddish purple was the main opaque color. At present over 360 Laconian vases are known, with almost a third of them, 116 pieces, being attributed to the Naucratis Painter. The decline around 550 BC of Corinthian black-figure vase painting, which had an important influence on Laconian painting, led to
10780-475: Is quite homogenous, but the pieces vary considerably in quality. The drawings are not always carefully produced. Lydos was probably a foreman in a very productive workshop in Athens’pottery district. He was presumably the last Attic vase painter to put animal friezes on large vases. Still in the Corinthian tradition, his figure drawings are a link in the chain of vase painters extending from Kleitias via Lydos and
10976-439: Is seen in silhouette. Michael Jackson used his own distinctive silhouette both on stage and in videos such as " You Rock My World ". Early iPod commercials portrayed silhouetted dancers wearing an iPod and earbuds. The cult television program, Mystery Science Theater 3000 features the three main characters of the series watching a movie as silhouettes at the bottom of the screen. The discipline of architecture that studies
11172-429: Is sometimes generated internally within the material, rather than via surface radiative heat transfer from an external heat source. Some materials fail to couple and others exhibit run-away behavior, so it is restricted in usefulness. A benefit of microwave sintering is faster heating for small loads, meaning less time is needed to reach the sintering temperature, less heating energy is required and there are improvements in
11368-429: Is still considered part of powder metallurgy) is liquid-state sintering in which at least one but not all elements are in a liquid state. Liquid-state sintering is required for making cemented carbide and tungsten carbide . Sintered bronze in particular is frequently used as a material for bearings , since its porosity allows lubricants to flow through it or remain captured within it. Sintered copper may be used as
11564-403: Is strongly linked to the silhouette. Recent research at Stanford University indicates that where previous studies of face recognition have been based on frontal views, studies with silhouettes show humans are able to extract accurate information about gender and age from the silhouette alone. This is an important concept for artists who design characters for visual media, because the silhouette
11760-514: Is the Hearst Hydria. The Burgon Group is also significant, being the source of the first totally preserved Panathenaic amphora . The Siana cup evolved from the komast cup around 575 BC. While the Komast Group produced shapes other than cups, some craftsmen specialized in cup production after the time of the first important exemplifier of Siana cups, the C Painter (575-555 BC). The cups have
11956-437: Is the density, E is Young's modulus and d is the maximum density of iron. Sintering is static when a metal powder under certain external conditions may exhibit coalescence, and yet reverts to its normal behavior when such conditions are removed. In most cases, the density of a collection of grains increases as material flows into voids, causing a decrease in overall volume. Mass movements that occur during sintering consist of
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#173285111199112152-519: Is the fertile ground from which the art of Exekias sprouts, the tradition which he takes up and surpasses on his way from an excellent craftsman to a true artist". Exekias (545-520 BC) is generally considered to be the absolute master of the black-figure style, which reaches its apex with him. His significance is not only due to his masterful vase painting, but also to his high quality and innovative pottery. He signed 12 of his surviving vessels as potter, two as both painter and potter. Exekias probably had
12348-497: Is the first large Greek vase showing a single myth in several interrelated segments. A special feature of the dinos is the painter's application of the opaque white paint designating women directly on the clay foundation, and not as usual on the black gloss. The figure's interior details and contours are painted in a dull red. This particular technique is rare, only found in vases painted in Sophilos' workshop and on wooden panels painted in
12544-406: Is the image of a person, animal, object or scene represented as a solid shape of a single colour, usually black, with its edges matching the outline of the subject. The interior of a silhouette is featureless, and the silhouette is usually presented on a light background, usually white, or none at all. The silhouette differs from an outline , which depicts the edge of an object in a linear form, while
12740-410: Is the latest advancement in this field. In spark plasma sintering (SPS), external pressure and an electric field are applied simultaneously to enhance the densification of the metallic/ceramic powder compacts. However, after commercialization it was determined there is no plasma, so the proper name is spark sintering as coined by Lenel. The electric field driven densification supplements sintering with
12936-417: Is the most immediately recognisable and identifiable shape of the character. A silhouette portrait can be painted or drawn. However, the traditional method of creating silhouette portraits is to cut them from lightweight black cardboard and mount them on a pale (usually white) background. This was the work of specialist artists, often working out of booths at fairs or markets, whose trade competed with that of
13132-400: Is the process of compacting and forming a solid mass of material by pressure or heat without melting it to the point of liquefaction . Sintering happens as part of a manufacturing process used with metals , ceramics , plastics , and other materials. The atoms/molecules in the sintered material diffuse across the boundaries of the particles, fusing the particles together and creating
13328-677: Is the sintering of a powder compact (sometimes at very high temperatures, depending on the powder) without applied pressure. This avoids density variations in the final component, which occurs with more traditional hot pressing methods. The powder compact (if a ceramic) can be created by slip casting , injection moulding , and cold isostatic pressing . After presintering, the final green compact can be machined to its final shape before being sintered. Three different heating schedules can be performed with pressureless sintering: constant-rate of heating (CRH), rate-controlled sintering (RCS), and two-step sintering (TSS). The microstructure and grain size of
13524-399: Is thought to have promoted the art. The 18th century silhouette artist August Edouart cut thousands of portraits in duplicate. His subjects included French and British nobility and US presidents. Much of his personal collection was lost in a shipwreck. In England, the best known silhouette artist, a painter not a cutter, was John Miers , who travelled and worked in different cities, but had
13720-548: Is used to make frangible shotgun shells called breaching rounds , as used by military and SWAT teams to quickly force entry into a locked room. These shotgun shells are designed to destroy door deadbolts, locks and hinges without risking lives by ricocheting or by flying on at lethal speed through the door. They work by destroying the object they hit and then dispersing into a relatively harmless powder. Sintered bronze and stainless steel are used as filter materials in applications requiring high temperature resistance while retaining
13916-467: The James Bond films. The opening sequence of the television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents features a silhouetted profile of Alfred Hitchcock stepping into a caricatured outline of himself, and in his movie Psycho , the killer in the shower scene manifests as a terrifying silhouette. A scene from E.T. showing the central characters on a flying bicycle silhouetted against the full moon became
14112-646: The Anagyrus Painter , the Painter of the Dresden Lekanis and the Polos Painter . The last significant representative of the first generation of painters was Sophilos (580–570 BC), who is the first Attic vase painter known by name. In all, he signed four surviving vases, three as painter and one as potter, revealing that at this date potters were also painters of vases in the black-figure style. A fundamental separation of both crafts seems to have occurred only in
14308-548: The Andokides Painter , more and more painters went over to the red-figure style, which provided many more possibilities for adding details within the figure contours. The new style also permitted many more promising experiments with foreshortening, perspective views and new designs for arrangements. Scene contents, as always, reflected trends in taste and the spirit of the times, but the red-figure style created better preconditions for presenting more elaborate scenes by exploiting
14504-588: The Castellani Painter and the Goltyr Painter . The period between 560 and the inception of red-figure pottery painting around 530/520 BC is considered to be the absolute pinnacle of black-figure vase painting. In this period the best and most well-known artists exploited all the possibilities offered by this style. The first important painter of this time was the Amasis Painter (560–525 BC), named after
14700-537: The Euphiletos Painter , the Madrid Painter and the imaginative Priam Painter . Particularly cup painters like Oltos, Epiktetos, Pheidippos and Skythes painted vases in both red- and black-figure styles ( Bilingual Pottery ), primarily eye cups. The interior was usually in the black-figure style, the exterior in the red-figure style. There are several cases of amphoras whose front and back sides are decorated in
14896-522: The Gorgon Painter are associated with the horse-head amphoras. The Corinthian influence was not only maintained, but even intensified. The animal frieze was recognized as generally obligatory and customarily used. This had economic as well as stylistic reasons, because Athens competed with Corinth for markets. Attic vases were sold in the Black Sea area, Libya, Syria, lower Italy and Spain, as well as within
15092-545: The Hesperides . The Cassandra Painter , who decorated mid-sized cups with high bases and lips, marks the end of the development of the Siana cup. He is primarily significant as the first known painter to belong to the so-called Little Masters , a large group of painters who produced the same range of vessels, known as Little-master cups . So-called Merrythought cups were produced contemporaneously with Siana cups. Their handles are in
15288-592: The Nemean Lion , and increasingly Theseus and the Minotaur , as well as the birth of Athena. The particular significance of the group is, however, in the influence it exerted on Exekias. Most Attic artists of the period copied the styles of Group E and Exekias. The work of Lydos and the Amasis Painter was, by contrast, not imitated as frequently. Beazley describes the importance of the group for Exekias as follows: "Group E
15484-629: The Piraeus Painter , the Bellerophon Painter and the Lion Painter . The black-figure style became generally established in Athens around 600 BC. An early Athenian development was the horse-head amphora, the name coming from the depiction of horse heads in an image window. Image windows were frequently used in the subsequent period and were later adopted even in Corinth. The Cerameicus Painter and
15680-489: The Rider Painter (550–530) are considered to be the more important representatives of the style, while other painters are regarded as craftsmen of lesser ability. The images are usually angular and stiff, and contain animal friezes, scenes of daily life, especially symposia, and many mythological subjects. Of the latter, Poseidon and Zeus are depicted especially frequently, but also Heracles and his twelve labors as well as
15876-444: The Six's technique was developed, in which figures were painted in reddish brown or white atop a black glossy slip. It is not clear whether Nikosthenes also painted vases, in which case he is usually presumed to be identical with Painter N. The BMN Painter and the red-figure Nikosthenes Painter are also named after Nikosthenes. In his workshop he employed many famous vase painters, including
16072-564: The Theban and Trojan legend cycles. Especially on the early vases, a gorgon grimace is placed in a cup tondo. A depiction of the nymph Cyrene and a tondo with a rider with a scrolling tendril growing from his head (name vase of the Rider Painter) are exceptional. Also important is a cup with an image of Arcesilaus II . The Arcesilas cup supplied the pragmatic name for the Arcesilas Painter. It
16268-419: The 18th and 19th centuries. In late 19th-century Paris, shadow theatre was particularly associated with the cabaret Le Chat Noir , where Henri Rivière was the designer. Since their pioneering use by Lotte Reiniger in silent films, silhouettes have been used for a variety of iconic, graphic, emotional, or conversely for distancing, effects in many movies. These include many of the opening credit sequences of
16464-472: The 19th century, and the tradition has continued under this name into the 21st century. They represented a cheap but effective alternative to the portrait miniature , and skilled specialist artists could cut a high-quality bust portrait, by far the most common style, in a matter of minutes, working purely by eye. Other artists, especially from about 1790, drew an outline on paper, then painted it in, which could be equally quick. From its original graphic meaning,
16660-514: The 6th century BC there was more interest in decorating especially cups with pictures of athletes. Another important Siana cup painter was the Heidelberg Painter . He, too, painted almost exclusively Siana cups. His favorite subject was the hero Heracles. The Heidelberg Painter is the first Attic painter to show him with the Erymanthian boar , with Nereus , with Busiris and in the garden of
16856-399: The 7th and 5th centuries BCE, employs the silhouette and characteristic profile views of figures and objects on pottery forms. The pots themselves exhibit strong forms in outline that are indicators of their purpose, as well as being decorative. For the depiction of portraits, the profile image has marked advantage over a full-face image in many circumstances, because it depends strongly upon
17052-414: The Amasis Painter shows were carefully drawn and symmetrically composed. Initially they were quite static, later figures convey an impression of motion. Although the Amasis Painter often depicted mythological events—he is known for his pig-faced satyrs , for example—he is better known for his scenes of daily life. He was the first painter to portray them to a significant extent. His work decisively influenced
17248-613: The Amasis Painters to Exekias. Along with them he participated in the evolution of this art in Attica and had a lasting influence. A special form of Attic vases of this period was the Tyrrhenian amphora (550-530 BC). These were egg-shaped neck amphora with decorations atypical of the usual Attic design canon of the period. Almost all of the c. 200 surviving vases were found in Etruria. The body of
17444-537: The Beldam Painter, worked from around 470 BC until 450 BC. Except for the Panathenaic prize amphoras, the black-figure style came to a close in Attica at this time. Among black-figure Attic vases, the Panathenaic prize amphoras play a special role. After 566 BC—when the Panathenaic celebrations were introduced or reorganized—they were the prize for the winners of sport competitions and were filled with olive oil, one of
17640-481: The Corinthian style in the 6th century BC. Sophilos also painted one of the rare chalices (a variety of goblet) and created the first surviving series of votive tablets. He himself or one of his successors also decorated the first marriage vase (known as a lebes gamikos ) to be found. Starting around the second third of the 6th century BC, Attic artists became interested in mythological scenes and other representations of figures. Animal friezes became less important. Only
17836-518: The Etruscan market. Greek black-figure vases were very popular with the Etruscans , as is evident from frequent imports. Greek artists created customized goods for the Etruscan market which differed in form and decor from their normal products. The Etruscans also developed their own black-figure ceramic industry oriented on Greek models. Black-figure painting on vases was the first art style to give rise to
18032-595: The Eucharides Painter and the Kleophrades Painter. Only workshops which produced smaller shapes like olpes, oenochoes, skyphos, small neck amphoras and particular lekythos increasingly used the old style. The Phanyllis Painter used the Six technique, among other methods, and both the Edinburgh Painter and the Gela Painter decorated the first cylindrical lekythos. The former primarily produced casual, clear and simple scenes using
18228-635: The Greek homeland. In addition to following Corinthian models, Athens vases also showed local innovations. Thus at the beginning of the 6th century BC a "Deianaira type" of lekythos arose, with an elongated, oval form. The most important painter of this early time was the Gorgon Painter (600–580 BC). He was a very productive artist who seldom made use of mythological themes or human figures, and when he did, always accompanied them with animals or animal friezes. Some of his other vases had only animal representations, as
18424-554: The Nikosthenic amphoras. The Hypobibazon Class worked with a new type of belly amphora with rounded handles and feet, whose decoration is characterized by a key meander above the image fields. A smaller variant of neck amphora was decorated by the Three Line Group . The Perizoma Group adopted around 520 BC the newly introduced form of the stamnos . Toward the end of the century, high quality productions were still being produced by
18620-451: The Spartan drinking cup, the lakaina , were painted. But the index form and most frequent find is the cup. In Lakonia the deep bowl was usually put on a high foot; cups on low feet are rare. The exterior is typically decorated with ornaments, usually festoons of pomegranates, and the interior scene is quite large and contains figures. In Laconia earlier than in the rest of Greece the tondo became
18816-533: The Tleson Painter, Amasis and the Amasis Painter or even Nikosthenes and Painter N, it is impossible to make unambiguous attributions, although in much of the scientific literature these painters and potters are assumed to be the same person. But such attributions can only be made with confidence if the signatures of potter and painter are at hand. The painters, who were either slaves or craftsmen paid as pottery painters, worked on unfired, leather-dry vases. In
19012-431: The ability to regenerate the filter element. For example, sintered stainless steel elements are employed for filtering steam in food and pharmaceutical applications, and sintered bronze in aircraft hydraulic systems. Sintering of powders containing precious metals such as silver and gold is used to make small jewelry items. Evaporative self-assembly of colloidal silver nanocubes into supercrystals has been shown to allow
19208-409: The additive should melt before any major sintering of the solid particulate network occurs, otherwise rearrangement of grains will not occur. Liquid phase sintering was successfully applied to improve grain growth of thin semiconductor layers from nanoparticle precursor films. These techniques employ electric currents to drive or enhance sintering. English engineer A. G. Bloxam registered in 1906
19404-453: The advent of photography, silhouette profiles cut from black card were the cheapest way of recording a person's appearance. The term silhouette , although existing from the 18th century, was not applied to the art of portrait-making until the 19th century. In the 18th and early 19th century, "profiles" or "shades" as they were called were made by one of three methods: Pliny the Elder recounts
19600-499: The amphora is usually subdivided into several parallel friezes. The upper or shoulder frieze usually shows a popular scene from mythology. There are sometimes less common subjects, such as a unique scene of the sacrificing of Polyxena . The first known erotic images on Attic vases are also found at this vase location. The painters frequently put annotations on Tyrrhenian amphora which identify the persons shown. The other two or three friezes were decorated with animals; sometimes one of them
19796-528: The back side. His drawings are seldom really precise, but neither are they excessively careless. Stylistically, the painter Psiax is closely related to the Antimenes Painter, although the former also used the red-figure technique. As the teacher of the painters Euphronius and Phintias , Psiax had a great influence on the early development of the red-figure style. He frequently shows horse and chariot scenes and archers. The last important group of painters
19992-463: The beginning of this period is the first identified individual painter. The first artist with a unique style was the Nessos Painter . With his Nessos amphora he created the first outstanding piece in the Attic black-figure style. At the same time he was an early master of the Attic animal frieze style. One of his vases was also the first known Attic vase exported to Etruria. He was also responsible for
20188-437: The best and most influential artists of their time characterized classical Greek pottery painting. The further development and quality of the vessels as image carrier are the subjects of this section. The black-figure technique was developed around 700 BC in Corinth and used for the first time in the early 7th century BC by Proto-Corinthian pottery painters, who were still painting in the orientalizing style . The new technique
20384-439: The case of black-figure production the subject was painted on the vase with a clay slurry (a slip , in older literature also designated as varnish) which turned black and glossy after firing. This was not "paint" in the usual sense, since this surface slip was made from the same clay material as the vase itself, only differing in the size of the component particles, achieved during refining the clay before potting began. The area for
20580-427: The ceramic body will no longer break down in water; additional sintering can reduce the porosity of the ceramic, increase the bond area between ceramic particles, and increase the material strength. Industrial procedures to create ceramic objects via sintering of powders generally include: All the characteristic temperatures associated with phase transformation, glass transitions, and melting points, occurring during
20776-413: The ceramics may vary depending on the material and method used. Constant-rate of heating (CRH), also known as temperature-controlled sintering, consists of heating the green compact at a constant rate up to the sintering temperature. Experiments with zirconia have been performed to optimize the sintering temperature and sintering rate for CRH method. Results showed that the grain sizes were identical when
20972-424: The city's main export goods. On the front they routinely bore the image of the goddess Athena standing between two pillars on which roosters perched; on the back there was a sports scene. The shape was always the same and was only modified slightly over the long period of its production. The belly amphora was, as its name suggests, originally especially bulbous, with a short neck and a long, narrow foot. Around 530 BC
21168-557: The course of the development of the red-figure style, although prior specialization cannot be ruled out. Sophilos makes liberal use of annotations. He apparently specialized in large vases, since especially dinos and amphoras are known to be his work. Much more frequently than his predecessors, Sophilos shows mythological scenes like the funeral games for Patroclus . The decline of the animal frieze begins with him, and plant and other ornaments are also of lower quality since they are regarded as less important and thus receive scant attention from
21364-483: The cup retained much of the clay background and typically bore only a few small images, sometimes only inscriptions, or in some cases the entire cup was only minimally decorated. Also in the area of the handles there are seldom more than palmettes or inscriptions near the attachment points. These inscriptions can be the potter's signature, a drinker's toast, or simply a meaningless sequence of letters. But lip cup interiors are often also decorated with images. Band cups have
21560-462: The development of Attic cups. Important painters in this group were the elder KX Painter and the somewhat less talented KY Painter , who introduced the column krater to Athens. These vessels were designed for use at banquets and were thus decorated with relevant komos scenes, such as komast performers komos scenes. Other significant painters of the first generation were the Panther Painter ,
21756-497: The early 1970s, French artist Philippe Derome uses the black cut silhouette in his portraits of black people. In the 21st century, American artist Kara Walker develops this use of silhouette to present racial issues in confronting images. Originating in Asia with traditions such as the shadow theatres ( wayang ) of Indonesia , the shadow play became a popular entertainment in Paris during
21952-539: The early 20th century in conjunction with colour plates. (The colour plates were expensive to produce and each one was glued into the book by hand.) Illustrators who produced silhouette pictures at this time include Arthur Rackham and William Heath Robinson . In breaking with literal realism, artists of the Vorticist, Futurist and Cubist movements employed the silhouette. Illustrators of the late 20th century to work in silhouette include Jan Pienkowski and Jan Ormerod . In
22148-493: The effect in the darkroom. With digital processing the contrast may be enhanced through the manipulation of the contrast curve for the image. In media the term "to silhouette" is used for the process of separating or masking a portion of an image (such as the background) so that it does not show. Traditionally silhouettes have often been used in advertising, particularly in poster design, because they can be cheaply and effectively printed. The word "silhouette", because it implies
22344-469: The elderly Lydos, Oltos and Epiktetos . The workshop tradition was continued by Nikosthenes’ successor, Pamphaios . Two black-figure vase painters are considered to be mannerists (540-520 BC). The painter Elbows Out decorated primarily Little Masters cups. The extended elbows of his figures are conspicuous, a characteristic responsible for his pragmatic name. He only seldom depicted mythological scenes; erotic scenes are much more common. He also decorated
22540-403: The entire inside of the cup for his picture of Dionysus, reclining on a ship from which grapevines sprout. At this time it was in fact customary to decorate the inside surface merely with a gorgon face. The cup is probably one of the experiments undertaken in the pottery district to break new ground before the red-figure style was introduced. He was the first to paint a ship sailing along the rim of
22736-455: The examples which have been processed through the microwave sintering technique. Sintering in practice is the control of both densification and grain growth . Densification is the act of reducing porosity in a sample, thereby making it denser. Grain growth is the process of grain boundary motion and Ostwald ripening to increase the average grain size. Many properties ( mechanical strength , electrical breakdown strength, etc.) benefit from both
22932-427: The excellent, iron-rich clay found in Attica. High quality Attic black-figure vases have a uniform, glossy, pitch-black coating and the color-intensive terra cotta clay foundation has been meticulously smoothened. Women's skin is always indicated with a white opaque color, which is also frequently used for details such as individual horses, clothing or ornaments. The most outstanding Attic artists elevated vase painting to
23128-478: The exceptional status of Exekias which singles him out from traditional vase painters: "The people depicted by earlier artist are elegant dolls at best. Amasis (the Amasis Painter) was able to visualize people as people. But Exekias could envision them as gods and thereby give us a foretaste of classical art". Acknowledging that vase painters in ancient Greece were regarded as craftsmen rather than artists, Exekias
23324-410: The expense of their neighbours during sintering. This phenomenon, known as abnormal grain growth (AGG), results in a bimodal grain size distribution that has consequences for the mechanical, dielectric and thermal performance of the sintered material. For densification to occur at a quick pace it is essential to have (1) an amount of liquid phase that is large in size, (2) a near complete solubility of
23520-460: The exposure be adjusted so that there is no detail (underexposure) within the desired silhouette element, and overexposure for the background to render it bright; so, a lighting ratio of 16:1 or greater is the ideal. The Zone System was an aid to film photographers in achieving the required exposure ratios. High contrast film, adjustment of film development, and/or high contrast photographic paper may be used in chemical-based photography to enhance
23716-433: The famous potter Amasis , with whom he primarily worked. Many researchers regard them as the same person. He began his painting career at about the same time as Lydos but was active over a period almost twice as long. Whereas Lydos showed more the abilities of a skilled craftsman, the Amasis Painter was an accomplished artist. His images are clever, charming and sophisticated and his personal artistic development comes close to
23912-410: The figures emanate a dignity previously unknown in painting. In many cases he broke with Attic conventions. For his most famous vessel, the Dionysus cup, he was the first to use a coral-red interior coating instead of the customary red color. This innovation, as well as his placing of two pairs of eyes on the exterior, connects Exekias with the classic eye cups. Probably even more innovative was his use of
24108-498: The figures was first painted with a brush-like implement. The internal outlines and structural details were incised into the slip so that the underlying clay could be seen through the scratches. Two other earth-based pigments giving red and white were used to add details such as ornaments, clothing or parts of clothing, hair, animal manes, parts of weapons and other equipment. White was also frequently used to represent women's skin. The success of all this effort could only be judged after
24304-415: The firing process used in the manufacture of pottery and other ceramic objects. Sintering and vitrification (which requires higher temperatures) are the two main mechanisms behind the strength and stability of ceramics. Sintered ceramic objects are made from substances such as glass , alumina , zirconia , silica , magnesia , lime , beryllium oxide , and ferric oxide . Some ceramic raw materials have
24500-405: The first patent on sintering powders using direct current in vacuum . The primary purpose of his inventions was the industrial scale production of filaments for incandescent lamps by compacting tungsten or molybdenum particles. The applied current was particularly effective in reducing surface oxides that increased the emissivity of the filaments. In 1913, Weintraub and Rush patented
24696-529: The first depiction of the birth of Athena or of the Dance on Crete. Nearchos (565–555 BC) signed as potter and painter. He favored large figures and was the first to create images showing the harnessing of a chariot. Another innovation was to place a tongue design on a white background under the vase lip. Other talented painters were the Painter of Akropolis 606 and the Ptoon Painter , whose most well-known piece
24892-442: The first representations of harpies and Sirens in Attic art. In contrast to the Corinthian painters he used double and even triple incised lines to better depict animal anatomy. A double-scored shoulder line became a characteristic of Attic vases. The possibilities inherent in large pieces of pottery such as belly amphoras as carriers for images were also recognized at an early date. Other important painters of this pioneer time were
25088-449: The first time. Many are unique, such as the representation of a lowered mast of a sailing ship; others became part of the standard repertoire, such as people sitting with one leg behind the other, instead of with the traditional parallel positioning of the legs. Four other, smaller vases were signed by Ergotimos and Kleitias, and additional vases and fragments are attributed to them. They provide evidence for other innovations by Kleitias, like
25284-519: The form of a two-pronged fork and end in what looks like a button. These cups do not have a delineated rim. They also have a deeper bowl with a higher and narrower foot. The last outstanding painter of the Pre-Classical Archaic Period was Lydos (560-540 BC), who signed two of his surviving pieces with ho Lydos (the Lydian). He or his immediate ancestors probably came from Asia Minor but he
25480-483: The form of annotations, for example when kalos inscriptions are painted on a vase. Vases were produced for the domestic market on the one hand, and were important for celebrations or in connection with ritual acts. On the other hand, they were also an important export product sold throughout the Mediterranean area. For this reason most of the surviving vases come from Etruscan necropolises . The black-figure technique
25676-427: The formation of necks between powders to final elimination of small pores at the end of the process. The driving force for densification is the change in free energy from the decrease in surface area and lowering of the surface free energy by the replacement of solid-vapor interfaces. It forms new but lower-energy solid-solid interfaces with a net decrease in total free energy. On a microscopic scale, material transfer
25872-440: The history of painting in books 34 and 35 of his Natural History (ca. 77 CE). In book 35, chapter 5, he writes of silhouette as a starting point in the development of painting: In chapter 15, he tells the story of Butades of Corinth as an originator of this modeling technique: Greek black-figure pottery painting, also known as the black-figure style or black-figure ceramic (Greek, μελανόμορφα, melanomorpha), common between
26068-406: The islands of Rhodes and Samos , as well as Taranto , Etruscan necropolises, and Cyrene , which was at first considered to be the original source of the pottery. The quality of the vessels is very high. The clay was well slurried and was given a cream-colored coating. Amphoras, hydriai, column kraters (called krater lakonikos in antiquity), volute kraters, Chalcidic kraters, lebes, aryballoi and
26264-503: The late 18th century, silhouette artists have also made small scenes cut from card and mounted on a contrasting background like the portraits. These pictures, known as " paper cuts ", were often, but not necessarily, silhouette images. European paper cuts traditionally have differed from Asian paper cuts, which are often made of several layers of brightly coloured and patterned paper, with many formal decorative elements such as flower petals. Among 19th century artists to work with papercutting
26460-403: The latter portions of the process, boundary and lattice diffusion from the boundary become important. Control of temperature is very important to the sintering process, since grain-boundary diffusion and volume diffusion rely heavily upon temperature, particle size, particle distribution, material composition, and often other properties of the sintering environment itself. Sintering is part of
26656-493: The latter two being sons of the potter Nearchos. Hermogenes invented a Little Master variety of skyphos now known as a Hermogenes skyphos. The Phrynos Painter, Taleides Painter, Xenokles Painter and the Group of Rhodes 12264 should also be mentioned here. Until the end of the century the quality of black-figure vase production could basically be maintained. But after the development of the red-figure style around 530 BC, presumably by
26852-415: The leftover powder is still pure, so it can be recycled. Particular disadvantages of the powder technology include: Plastic materials are formed by sintering for applications that require materials of specific porosity. Sintered plastic porous components are used in filtration and to control fluid and gas flows. Sintered plastics are used in applications requiring caustic fluid separation processes such as
27048-590: The life of Heracles Painters like the witty Acheloos Painter, the conventional Chiusi Painter, and the Daybreak Painter with his faithful detailing belong to the Leagros Group. Other well-known vase painters of the time are the Painter of the Vatican Mourner , The Princeton Painter , the Painter of Munich 1410 and the Swing Painter (540-520 BC), to whom many vases are attributed. He is not considered to be
27244-465: The liquid concentration must also create the required capillary pressure within range, else the process ceases. The vitrification rate is dependent upon the pore size, the viscosity and amount of liquid phase present leading to the viscosity of the overall composition, and the surface tension. Temperature dependence for densification controls the process because at higher temperatures viscosity decreases and increases liquid content. Therefore, when changes to
27440-464: The main framework for cup scenes. The main image was likewise divided into two segments at an early date, a main scene and a smaller, lower one. Frequently the vessel was only coated with a glossy slip or decorated with just a few ornaments. Inscriptions are uncommon but can appear as name annotations. Signatures are unknown for potters as well as painters. It is probable that the Laconian craftsmen were perioeci pottery painters. Characteristic features of
27636-579: The master of the Gorgoneion Group and the Cavalcade Painter , given this designation because of his preference for depicting horsemen on cup interiors; he was active around 580 BC. Two of his masterpieces are a cup showing the suicide of Ajax , and a column krater showing a bridal couple in a chariot. All figures shown on the bowl are labeled. The first artist known by name is the polychrome vase painter Timonidas [ de ] , who signed
27832-478: The more expensive miniaturists patronised by the wealthy. A traditional silhouette portrait artist would cut the likeness of a person, freehand, within a few minutes. Some modern silhouette artists also make silhouette portraits from photographs of people taken in profile. These profile images are often head and shoulder length (bust) but can also be full length. The work of the physiognomist Johann Caspar Lavater , who used silhouettes to analyse facial types,
28028-402: The most common scenes of daily life, the latter appearing for the first time during the early Corinthian period. Sport scenes are rare. Scenes with fat-bellied dancers are unique and their meaning is disputed up to the present time. These are drinkers whose bellies and buttocks are padded with pillows and they may represent an early form of Greek comedy. The transitional style (640-625 BC) linked
28224-470: The most common vessels painted. Sculptured vases were also widespread. In contrast to Attic vases, inscriptions are rare, and painters’ signatures even more so. Most of the surviving vessels produced in Corinth have been found in Etruria , lower Italy and Sicily. In the 7th and first half of the 6th centuries BC, Corinthian vase painting dominated the Mediterranean market for ceramics. It is difficult to construct
28420-444: The most important sources of mythology and iconography , and sometimes also for researching day-to-day ancient Greek life. Since the 19th century CE at the latest, these vases have been the subject of intensive investigation. The foundation for pottery painting is the vase onto which an image is painted. Popular shapes alternated with passing fashions. Whereas many recurred after intervals, others were replaced over time. They all had
28616-606: The most important vase shapes. The edges of kotyles were ornamented, and the other decorations consisted of animals and rays. The two vertical vase surfaces frequently have mythological scenes. The alabastrons were usually painted with single figures. The Duel Painter was the most important early Corinthian painter (625–600 BC), who depicted fighting scenes on aryballos . Starting in the Middle Corinthian period (600–575 BC), opaque colors were used more and more frequently to emphasize details. Figures were additionally painted using
28812-408: The neck and the surface of the particle. This energy creates a transfer of material through the fastest means possible; if transfer were to take place from the particle volume or the grain boundary between particles, particle count would decrease and pores would be destroyed. Pore elimination is fastest in samples with many pores of uniform size because the boundary diffusion distance is smallest. during
29008-463: The necks become shorter and the body somewhat narrower. Around 400 BC the vase shoulders were considerably reduced in width and the curve of the vase body looked constricted. After 366 BC the vases were again more elegant and become even narrower. These vases were primarily produced in the leading workshops of the Kerameikos district. It seems to have been an honor or particularly lucrative to be awarded
29204-437: The new arrangement possibilities. But in the meantime, a few innovative craftsmen could still give new impulses to the production of black-figure vases. The most imaginative potter of the time, also a talented businessman, was Nikosthenes . Over 120 vases bear his signature, indicating that they were made by him or in his workshop. He seems to have particularly specialized in producing vases for export to Etruria. In his workshop
29400-429: The nibs in whiteboard markers, inhaler filters, and vents for caps and liners on packaging materials. Sintered ultra high molecular weight polyethylene materials are used as ski and snowboard base materials. The porous texture allows wax to be retained within the structure of the base material, thus providing a more durable wax coating. For materials that are difficult to sinter, a process called liquid phase sintering
29596-488: The orientalizing (Proto-Corinthian) with the black-figure style. The old animal frieze style of the Proto-Corinthian period had run dry, as did the interest of vase painters in mythological scenes. During this period animal and hybrid creatures were dominant. The index form of the time was the spherical aryballos, which was produced in large numbers and decorated with animal friezes or scenes of daily life. The image quality
29792-411: The orientalizing style, but the image repertoire no longer reflects orientalizing practice. The evolution of black-figure pottery painting is traditionally described in terms of various regional styles and schools. Using Corinth as the hub, there were basic differences in the productions of the individual regions, even if they did influence each other. Especially in Attica, although not exclusively there,
29988-458: The outcome of the game. Almost in the style of a speech balloon he has both players announce the numbers they cast with their dice—Ajax a three and Achilles a four. This is the oldest known depiction of this scene, of which there is no mention in classical literature. No fewer than 180 other surviving vases, dating from the Exekias version up to about 480 BC, show this scene. John Boardman emphasizes
30184-499: The outline of a form, has been used in both fashion and fitness to describe the outline shape of the body from a particular angle, as altered by clothing in fashion usage, and clothed or unclothed where fitness is concerned, (e.g. a usage applied here by the Powerhouse Museum ). Advertising for both these fields urges people, women in particular, to achieve a particular appearance, either by corsetry , diet or exercise . The term
30380-411: The outside and a gorgon grimace on the inside. This type of painting was also adopted by Attic painters. On their part, Corinthian painters took over framed image fields from Athens. Animal friezes became less important. During this time the third Corinthian painter with a known name, Chares , was active. The Tydeus Painter should also be mentioned, who around 560 BC liked to paint neck amphoras with
30576-504: The painter. But in other respects Sophilos shows that he was an ambitious artist. On two dinos the marriage of Peleus and Thetis is depicted. These vases were produced at about the same time as the François vase , which depicts this subject to perfection. However, Sophilos does without any trimmings in the form of animal friezes on one of his two dinos, and he does not combine different myths in scenes distributed over various vase surfaces. It
30772-436: The particle undergoes grain-growth and grain-shape changes occurs. Shrinkage would result when the liquid slips between particles and increases pressure at points of contact causing the material to move away from the contact areas, forcing particle centers to draw near each other. The sintering of liquid-phase materials involves a fine-grained solid phase to create the needed capillary pressures proportional to its diameter, and
30968-399: The people they enslaved in order to document them as property and in order to accompany other business documents such as a bill of sale . Silhouettes of ships, planes, tanks, and other military vehicles are used by soldiers and sailors for learning to identify different craft. [REDACTED] Media related to Silhouettes at Wikimedia Commons Sintered Sintering or frittage
31164-464: The porosity of the material. Sintering is performed at high temperature. Additionally, a second and/or third external force (such as pressure, electric current) could be used. A commonly used second external force is pressure. Sintering performed by only heating is generally termed "pressureless sintering", which is possible with graded metal-ceramic composites, utilising a nanoparticle sintering aid and bulk molding technology. A variant used for 3D shapes
31360-713: The pottery often match the fashion of known painters. It is also possible that they were migrant potters from eastern Greece, which would explain the strong eastern Greek influence especially on the Boreads Painter. In the meantime at least eight vase painters can be distinguished. Five painters, the Arkesilas Painter (565–555), the Boreads Painter (575–565), the Hunt Painter , the Naucratis Painter (575–550) and
31556-534: The precision of the dating of Attic vases. Mythological scenes are frequently depicted, especially Heracles and figures relating to the Trojan War . But the imagery on Corinthian vases does not have as wide a thematic range as do later works by Attic painters. Gods are seldom depicted, Dionysus never. But the Theban Cycle was more popular in Corinth than later in Athens. Primarily fights, horsemen and banquets were
31752-458: The prize amphoras, imitative forms known as Pseudo-Panathenaic prize amphoras were also manufactured. Starting already in the 7th century BC painted pottery was being produced in Sparta for local consumption as well as for export. The first quality pieces were produced around 580 BC. The zenith in black-figure pottery was reached between about 575 and 525 BC. Besides Sparta, the main discovery sites are
31948-428: The product properties. A failing of microwave sintering is that it generally sinters only one compact at a time, so overall productivity turns out to be poor except for situations involving one of a kind sintering, such as for artists. As microwaves can only penetrate a short distance in materials with a high conductivity and a high permeability , microwave sintering requires the sample to be delivered in powders with
32144-469: The proportions and relationship of the bony structures of the face (the forehead, nose and chin) making the image is clear and simple. For this reason, profile portraits have been employed on coinage since the Roman era. The early Renaissance period saw a fashion for painted profile portraits and people such as Federico da Montefeltro and Ludovico Sforza were depicted in profile portraits. The profile portrait
32340-534: The range of 0.1 to 1 micrometres develop pressures in the range of 175 pounds per square inch (1,210 kPa) to 1,750 pounds per square inch (12,100 kPa) for silicate liquids and in the range of 975 pounds per square inch (6,720 kPa) to 9,750 pounds per square inch (67,200 kPa) for a metal such as liquid cobalt. Densification requires constant capillary pressure where just solution-precipitation material transfer would not produce densification. For further densification, additional particle movement while
32536-670: The red-figure Bowdoin Painter) and the Perseus Painter continued to decorate large, standard lekythos. The scenes of the Athena Painter still radiate some of the dignity inherent in the work of the Leagros Group. The Marathon Painter is primarily known for the funerary lekythos found in the tumulus for the Athenians who died in the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The last significant lekythos painter,
32732-500: The red-figure period nor after figured vases were no longer really traded in Athens. The prize amphoras were produced into the 2nd century BC, and about 1,000 of them have survived. Since for some dates the number of amphorae awarded to a winner is known, it is possible to deduce that about one percent of the total production of Athenian vases has survived. Other projections lead to the conclusion that in all about seven million vases with painted figures were produced in Athens. In addition to
32928-407: The reduction of total porosity by repacking, followed by material transport due to evaporation and condensation from diffusion . In the final stages, metal atoms move along crystal boundaries to the walls of internal pores, redistributing mass from the internal bulk of the object and smoothing pore walls. Surface tension is the driving force for this movement. A special form of sintering (which
33124-720: The samples were sintered to the same density, proving that grain size is a function of specimen density rather than CRH temperature mode. In rate-controlled sintering (RCS), the densification rate in the open-porosity phase is lower than in the CRH method. By definition, the relative density, ρ rel , in the open-porosity phase is lower than 90%. Although this should prevent separation of pores from grain boundaries, it has been proven statistically that RCS did not produce smaller grain sizes than CRH for alumina, zirconia, and ceria samples. Two-step sintering (TSS) uses two different sintering temperatures. The first sintering temperature should guarantee
33320-502: The shadows cast by or upon buildings is called sciography . The play of shadows upon buildings was very much in vogue a thousand years ago as evidenced by the surviving examples of muqarnas decoration, where the shadows of three-dimensional ornamentation with stone masonry around the entrance of mosques form pictures. As outright pictures were avoided in Islam, tessellations and calligraphic pictures were allowed, "accidental" silhouettes are
33516-633: The shape of a person's body or the shape created by wearing clothing of a particular style or period. The word silhouette is derived from the name of Étienne de Silhouette , a French finance minister who, in 1759, was forced by France's credit crisis during the Seven Years' War to impose severe economic demands upon the French people, particularly the wealthy. Because of de Silhouette's austere economies , his name became synonymous with anything done or made cheaply and so with these outline portraits. Prior to
33712-845: The silhouette of women in the 1850s and 60s. The posture of the Princess Alexandra influenced the silhouette of English women in the Edwardian period . Because silhouettes give a very clear image, they are often used in any field where the speedy identification of an object is necessary. Silhouettes have many practical applications. They are used for traffic signs . They are used to identify towns or countries with silhouettes of monuments or maps. They are used to identify natural objects such as trees, insects and dinosaurs. They are used in forensic science . For interviews, some individuals choose to be videotaped in silhouette to mask their facial features and protect their anonymity, typically accompanied by
33908-658: The silhouette portrait is being reborn in a new generation of people who appreciate the silhouette as a nostalgic way of capturing a significant occasion. In the United States and the UK silhouette artists have websites advertising their services at weddings and other such functions. In England there is an active group of silhouette artists. In Australia, S. John Ross plied his scissors at agricultural shows for 60 years until his death in 2008. Other artists such as Douglas Carpenter produce silhouette images using pen and ink. Since
34104-521: The sintering community. Using a direct current (DC) pulse as the electric current, spark plasma, spark impact pressure, joule heating, and an electrical field diffusion effect would be created. By modifying the graphite die design and its assembly, it is possible to perform pressureless sintering in spark plasma sintering facility. This modified die design setup is reported to synergize the advantages of both conventional pressureless sintering and spark plasma sintering techniques. Electro sinter forging
34300-502: The sintering of electrical joints at temperatures lower than 200 °C. Particular advantages of the powder technology include: The literature contains many references on sintering dissimilar materials to produce solid/solid-phase compounds or solid/melt mixtures at the processing stage. Almost any substance can be obtained in powder form, through either chemical, mechanical or physical processes, so basically any material can be obtained through sintering. When pure elements are sintered,
34496-425: The solid in the liquid, and (3) wetting of the solid by the liquid. The power behind the densification is derived from the capillary pressure of the liquid phase located between the fine solid particles. When the liquid phase wets the solid particles, each space between the particles becomes a capillary in which a substantial capillary pressure is developed. For submicrometre particle sizes, capillaries with diameters in
34692-515: The subject's profile silhouette to a needle moving on an engraving plate, from which multiple portrait copies could be printed. The invention of photography signaled the end of the silhouette as a widespread form of portraiture. The skill was not lost, and travelling silhouette artists continued to work at state fairs into the 20th century. E. J. Perry and Dai Vernon were artists active in Coney Island at this time as well. The popularity of
34888-438: The term silhouette has been extended to describe the sight or representation of a person, object or scene that is backlit and appears dark against a lighter background. Anything that appears this way, for example, a figure standing backlit in a doorway, may be described as "in silhouette". Because a silhouette emphasises the outline, the word has also been used in fields such as fashion , fitness , and concept art to describe
35084-595: The two different styles. The most famous are works by the Andokides Painter , whose black-figure scenes are attributed to the Lysippides Painter . Scholars are divided on the issue of whether these painters are the same person. Only a few painters, for example the Nikoxenos Painter and the Athena Painter , produced large quantities of vases using both techniques. Although bilingual pottery was quite popular for
35280-555: The usual neck amphoras, Little Masters, Droop and eye cups were produced, but also a type of amphora reminiscent of Etruscan bucchero pottery, named the Nikosthenic amphora after its creator. These pieces were found particularly in Caere , the other vase types usually in Cerveteri and Vulci. The many inventions in his workshop were not limited to forms. In Nikosthenes’ workshop what is known as
35476-415: The vents to be re-opened to allow oxygen into the kiln, which was allowed to cool down. The vessel then returned to its reddish-orange colour due to renewed oxidization, while the now- sintered painted layer remained the glossy black color which had been created in the second stage. Although scoring is one of the main stylistic indicators, some pieces do without. For these, the form is technically similar to
35672-687: The viewer directly, so to speak. The depiction of the horses is also unique; they have individual temperaments and are not reduced to their function as noble animals, as is otherwise customary on vases. There was further specialization among producers of vessels and cups during the mature Classical Period. The large-volume komast and Siana cups evolved via Gordion cups into graceful variants called Little-master cups because of their delicate painting. The potters and painters of this form are accordingly called Little Masters . They chiefly painted band cups and lip cups . The lip cups got their name from their relatively pronounced and delineated lip. The outside of
35868-404: The ware being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced while maximizing furnace loading. Most, if not all, metals can be sintered. This applies especially to pure metals produced in vacuum which suffer no surface contamination. Sintering under atmospheric pressure requires the use of a protective gas, quite often endothermic gas . Sintering, with subsequent reworking, can produce
36064-413: The work of red-figure painters later. He possibly anticipated some of their innovations or was influenced by them toward the end of his painting career: on many of his vases women are only shown in outline, without a black filling, and they are no longer identifiable as women by the application of opaque white as skin color. Group E (550–525 v. Chr.) was a large, self-contained collection of artisans, and
36260-461: Was 2000 °C. In the United States, sintering was first patented by Duval d'Adrian in 1922. His three-step process aimed at producing heat-resistant blocks from such oxide materials as zirconia , thoria or tantalia . The steps were: (i) molding the powder; (ii) annealing it at about 2500 °C to make it conducting; (iii) applying current-pressure sintering as in the method by Weintraub and Rush. Sintering that uses an arc produced via
36456-445: Was both potter and painter; over 130 of his vases have survived. The Antimenes Painter (530–500 BC) liked to decorate hydria with animal friezes in the predella, and otherwise especially neck amphoras. Two hydria attributed to him are decorated on the neck region using a white ground technique. He was the first to paint amphoras with a masklike face of Dionysus. The most famous of his over 200 surviving vases shows an olive harvest on
36652-399: Was first applied in the middle of the 7th century BC, during the period of Proto-Attic vase painting. Influenced by pottery from Corinth, which offered the highest quality at the time, Attic vase painters switched to the new technology between about 635 BC and the end of the century. At first they closely followed the methods and subjects of the Corinthian models. The Painter of Berlin A 34 at
36848-500: Was in use in advertising by the early 20th century. Many gyms and fitness studios use the word "silhouette" either in their name or in their advertising. Historians of costume also use the term when describing the effect achieved by the clothes of different periods, so that they might describe and compare the silhouette of the 1860s with that of the other decades of the 19th century. A desirable silhouette could be influenced by many factors. The invention of crinoline steel influenced
37044-416: Was reminiscent of engraved metal pieces, with the more costly metal tableware being replaced by pottery vases with figures painted on them. A characteristic black-figure style developed before the end of the century. Most orientalizing elements had been given up and there were no ornaments except for dabbed rosettes (the rosettes being formed by an arrangement of small individual dots) The clay used in Corinth
37240-462: Was replaced with a plant frieze. The neck is customarily painted with a lotus palmette cross or festoons. The amphoras are quite colorful and recall Corinthian products. In this case a Corinthian form was obviously deliberately copied to produce a particular vase type for the Etruscan market, where the style was popular. It is possible that this form was not manufactured in Athens but somewhere else in Attica, or even outside Attica. Important painters were
37436-572: Was soft, with a yellow, occasionally green tint. Faulty firing was a matter of course, occurring whenever the complicated firing procedure did not function as desired. The result was often unwanted coloring of the entire vase, or parts of it. After firing, the glossy slip applied to the vase turned dull black. The supplemental red and white colors first appeared in Corinth and then became very common. The painted vessels are usually of small format, seldom higher than 30 cm. Oil flasks ( alabastra , aryballos ), pyxides , kraters , oenochoes and cups were
37632-524: Was the Leagros Group (520-500 BC), named after the kalos inscription they frequently used, Leagros. Amphoras and hydria, the latter often with palmettes in the predella, are the most frequently painted vessels. The image field is usually filled absolutely to capacity, but the quality of the images is still kept very high. Many of the over 200 vases in this group were decorated with scenes of the Trojan War and
37828-504: Was the author Hans Christian Andersen . The modern artist Robert Ryan creates intricate images by this technique, sometimes using them to produce silk-screen prints . In the late 19th and early 20th century several illustrators employed designs of similar appearance for making book illustrations. Silhouette pictures could easily be printed by blocks that were cheaper to produce and longer lasting than detailed black and white illustrations. Silhouette pictures sometimes appear in books of
38024-411: Was the case with many Corinthian vases. Besides the Gorgon Painter the painters of the Komast Group (585–570 BC) should be mentioned. This group decorated types of vases which were new to Athens, namely lekanes, kotyles and kothons. The most important innovation was however the introduction of the komast cup , which along with the "prekomast cups" of the Oxford Palmette Class stands at the beginning of
38220-404: Was the only one to have signed one of the surviving vases. The first known vase was produced by the Burgon Group and is known as the Burgon vase. Since the name of the ruling official ( Archon ) occasionally appears on the vase after the 4th century BC, some of the vases can be precisely dated. Since the Panathenaia were religious festivals, the style and the type of decoration changed neither during
38416-756: Was undoubtedly trained in Athens. Over 130 surviving vases are now attributed to him. One of his pictures on a hydria is the first known Attic representation of the fight between Heracles and Geryon . Lydos was the first to show Heracles with the hide of a lion, which afterward became common in Attic art. He also depicted the battle between the gods and the giants on a dinos found on Athens’ acropolis, and Heracles with Cycnus . Lydos decorated other types of vessels besides hydriai and dinos, such as plates, cups (overlap Siena cups), column kraters and psykters, as well as votive tablets. It continues to be difficult to identify Lydos’ products as such since they frequently differ only slightly from those of his immediate milieu. The style
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