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106-480: Pottery , due to its relative durability, comprises a large part of the archaeological record of ancient Greece , and since there is so much of it (over 100,000 painted vases are recorded in the Corpus vasorum antiquorum ), it has exerted a disproportionately large influence on our understanding of Greek society . The shards of pots discarded or buried in the 1st millennium BC are still the best guide available to understand

212-567: A Homeric duel or simple combat; a failed boat can represent the shipwreck of Odysseus or any hapless sailor. Lastly, are the local schools that appear in Greece. Production of vases was largely the prerogative of Athens – it is well attested that as in the proto-geometrical period, in Corinth, Boeotia, Argos , Crete and Cyclades , the painters and potters were satisfied to follow the Attic style . From about

318-521: A century later than was in fact the case. This error was corrected when the Archaeological Society of Athens undertook the excavation of the Acropolis in 1885 and discovered the so-called " Persian debris " of red figure pots destroyed by Persian invaders in 480 BC. With a more soundly established chronology it was possible for Adolf Furtwängler and his students in the 1880s and 90s to date

424-584: A complexity of emotion not attempted by earlier painters. Their work represents a late mannerist phase to the achievement of Greek vase painting. Pottery Pottery is one of the oldest human inventions , originating before the Neolithic period , with ceramic objects such as the Gravettian culture Venus of Dolní Věstonice figurine discovered in the Czech Republic dating back to 29,000–25,000 BC. However,

530-561: A desired shape and heating them to high temperatures (600–1600 °C) in a bonfire , pit or kiln , which induces reactions that lead to permanent changes including increasing the strength and rigidity of the object. Much pottery is purely utilitarian, but some can also be regarded as ceramic art . An article can be decorated before or after firing. Pottery is traditionally divided into three types: earthenware , stoneware and porcelain . All three may be glazed and unglazed. All may also be decorated by various techniques. In many examples

636-400: A differentiated culture which was earlier thought to be typical Indus Valley civilisation (IVC) culture. Pottery is durable, and fragments, at least, often survive long after artifacts made from less-durable materials have decayed past recognition. Combined with other evidence, the study of pottery artefacts is helpful in the development of theories on the organisation, economic condition and

742-689: A help in tracing the historic development of the 'stiles of the different periods in the Art of the Ancients' (vol. 1, p. 168). As well as discussing the technique and aesthetic of ancient vase-painting Hugues also propounds some innovative ideas on the difference between art as symbol and art as representation - ideas which he would develop in his Recherches Sur L'Origine, L'Esprit Et Les Progres Des Arts De La Grece; Sur Leur Connections Avec Les Arts Et La Religion Des Plus Anciens Peuples Connus ... (3 vols., A Londres, 1785). In 1772 Hamilton's first collection of vases

848-459: A locality. The main ingredient of the body is clay . Some different types used for pottery include: It is common for clays and other raw materials to be mixed to produce clay bodies suited to specific purposes. Various mineral processing techniques are often utilised before mixing the raw materials, with comminution being effectively universal for non-clay materials. Examples of non-clay materials include: The production of pottery includes

954-416: A more distant connection between groups, such as trade in the same market or even relatively close settlements. Techniques that require more studied replication (i.e., the selection of clay and the fashioning of clay) may indicate a closer connection between peoples, as these methods are usually only transmissible between potters and those otherwise directly involved in production. Such a relationship requires

1060-466: A number of different artists' hands. Geometrical features remained in the style called proto-Corinthian that embraced these Orientalizing experiments, yet which coexisted with a conservative sub-geometric style. The ceramics of Corinth were exported all over Greece, and their technique arrived in Athens, prompting the development of a less markedly Eastern idiom there. During this time described as Proto-Attic,

1166-427: A red slip in imitation of superior Athenian ware. At Athens researchers have found the earliest known examples of vase painters signing their work, the first being a dinos by Sophilos (illus. below, BM, c.  580 ), this perhaps indicative of their increasing ambition as artists in producing the monumental work demanded as grave markers, as for example with Kleitias 's François Vase . Many scholars consider

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1272-434: A repertory of non-mythological animals arranged in friezes across the belly of the vase. In these friezes, painters also began to apply lotuses or palmettes. Depictions of humans were relatively rare. Those that have been found are figures in silhouette with some incised detail, perhaps the origin of the incised silhouette figures of the black-figure period. There is sufficient detail on these figures to allow scholars to discern

1378-581: A rough guide, modern earthenwares are normally fired at temperatures in the range of about 1,000  °C (1,830 °F) to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F); stonewares at between about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F) to 1,300 °C (2,370 °F); and porcelains at between about 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) to 1,400 °C (2,550 °F). Historically, reaching high temperatures was a long-lasting challenge, and earthenware can be fired effectively as low as 600 °C (1,112 °F), achievable in primitive pit firing . The time spent at any particular temperature

1484-400: A self-conscious movement, though they left behind no testament other than their own work. John Boardman said of the research on their work that "the reconstruction of their careers, common purpose, even rivalries, can be taken as an archaeological triumph". The next generation of late Archaic vase painters ( c.  500 to 480 BC) brought an increasing naturalism to the style as seen in

1590-553: A storage or other function, such as the krater with its usual use in diluting wine. Earlier Greek styles of pottery, called "Aegean" rather than "Ancient Greek", include Minoan pottery , very sophisticated by its final stages, Cycladic pottery , Minyan ware and then Mycenaean pottery in the Bronze Age , followed by the cultural disruption of the Greek Dark Age . As the culture recovered Sub-Mycenaean pottery finally blended into

1696-512: A waterproof barrier, and improve its durability. Below are the major types of glazing commonly used in pottery: 1. Glossy Glaze - Produces a shiny, reflective surface. - Highlights intricate patterns and textures. - Often used for decorative purposes. 2. Matte Glaze - Provides a smooth, non-reflective finish. - Suitable for modern and minimalist designs. - Ideal for functional wares like plates and mugs, as it minimizes glare. 3. Transparent Glaze - Can be glossy or matte. - Allows

1802-401: Is also important, the combination of heat and time is known as heatwork . Kilns can be monitored by pyrometers , thermocouples and pyrometric devices . The atmosphere within a kiln during firing can affect the appearance of the body and glaze. Key to this is the differing colours of the various oxides of iron, such as iron(III) oxide (also known as ferric oxide or Fe 2 O 3 ) which

1908-552: Is also, with Ancient Greek literature , the best guide we have to the customary life and mind of the ancient Greeks. Greek pottery goes back to the Stone Age , such as those found in Sesklo and Dimini . More elaborate painting on Greek pottery goes back to the Minoan pottery and Mycenaean pottery of the Bronze Age , some later examples of which show the ambitious figurative painting that

2014-482: Is associated with brown-red colours, whilst iron(II) oxide (also known as ferrous oxide or FeO) is associated with much darker colours, including black. The oxygen concentration in the kiln influences the type, and relative proportions, of these iron oxides in fired the body and glaze: for example, where there is a lack of oxygen during firing the associated carbon monoxide (CO) will readily react with oxygen in Fe 2 O 3 in

2120-400: Is important part of archaeology for understanding the archaeological culture of the excavated site by studying the fabric of artifacts, such as their usage, source material composition, decorative pattern, color of patterns, etc. This helps to understand characteristics, sophistication , habits, technology, tools, trade, etc. of the people who made and used the pottery. Carbon dating reveals

2226-426: Is lit and the woman runs around the circumference of the mound touching the burning torch to the dried grass. Some mounds are still being constructed as others are already burning. Pottery may be decorated in many different ways. Some decoration can be done before or after the firing, and may be undertaken before or after glazing. Glaze is a glassy coating on pottery, and reasons to use it include decoration, ensuring

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2332-425: Is made by heating materials, generally including kaolin , in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C (2,200 and 2,600 °F). This is higher than used for the other types, and achieving these temperatures was a long struggle, as well as realizing what materials were needed. The toughness, strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainly from vitrification and

2438-596: Is mostly known as the "iron reduction technique" was decoded with the contribution of scholars, ceramists and scientists from the mid 18th century onwards to the end of the 20th century, i.e. Comte de Caylus (1752), Durand-Greville (1891), Binns and Fraser (1925), Schumann (1942), Winter (1959), Bimson (1956), Noble (1960, 1965), Hofmann (1962), Oberlies (1968), Pavicevic (1974), Aloupi (1993). More recent studies by Walton et al. (2009), Walton et al.(2014), Lühl et al.(2014) and Chaviara & Aloupi-Siotis (2016) by using advanced analytical techniques provide detailed information on

2544-402: Is moulded in the shape of head of an animal or a man. At Aegina , the most popular form of the plastic vase is the head of the griffin. The Melanesian amphoras, manufactured at Paros , exhibit little knowledge of Corinthian developments. They present a marked taste for the epic composition and a horror vacui, which is expressed in an abundance of swastikas and meanders. Finally one can identify

2650-557: Is named horror vacui (fear of the empty) and will not cease until the end of geometrical period. In the middle of the century there begin to appear human figures, the best known representations of which are those of the vases found in Dipylon , one of the cemeteries of Athens . The fragments of these large funerary vases show mainly processions of chariots or warriors or of the funerary scenes: πρόθεσις ( prothesis ; exposure and lamentation of dead) or ἐκφορά ( ekphora ; transport of

2756-582: Is normally fired below 1200 °C. Because unglazed earthenware is porous, it has limited utility for the storage of liquids or as tableware. However, earthenware has had a continuous history from the Neolithic period to today. It can be made from a wide variety of clays, some of which fire to a buff, brown or black colour, with iron in the constituent minerals resulting in a reddish-brown. Reddish coloured varieties are called terracotta , especially when unglazed or used for sculpture. The development of ceramic glaze made impermeable pottery possible, improving

2862-442: Is one of our most important sources of ceramics from this period where a cache of grave goods has been found giving evidence of a distinctive Euboian protogeometric style which lasted into the early 8th century. Geometric art flourished in the 9th and 8th centuries BC. It was characterized by new motifs, breaking with the representation of the Minoan and Mycenaean periods: meanders, triangles and other geometrical decoration (hence

2968-430: Is placed within the context of linguistic and migratory patterns, it becomes an even more prevalent category of social artifact. As proposed by Olivier P. Gosselain, it is possible to understand ranges of cross-cultural interaction by looking closely at the chaîne opératoire of ceramic production. The methods used to produce pottery in early Sub-Saharan Africa are divisible into three categories: techniques visible to

3074-405: Is shaped by a variety of techniques, which include: Prior to firing, the water in an article needs to be removed. A number of different stages, or conditions of the article, can be identified: Firing produces permanent and irreversible chemical and physical changes in the body. It is only after firing that the article or material is pottery. In lower-fired pottery, the changes include sintering ,

3180-455: Is still used for dishes that benefit from the qualities of pottery cooking, typically slow cooking in an oven, such as biryani , cassoulet , daube , tagine , jollof rice , kedjenou , cazuela and types of baked beans . The earliest forms of pottery were made from clays that were fired at low temperatures, initially in pit-fires or in open bonfires . They were hand formed and undecorated. Earthenware can be fired as low as 600 °C, and

3286-527: Is usually most closely identified with this style. Vase production in Athens stopped around 330–320 BC possibly due to Alexander the Great 's control of the city, and had been in slow decline over the 4th century along with the political fortunes of Athens itself. However, vase production continued in the 4th and 3rd centuries in the Greek colonies of southern Italy where five regional styles may be distinguished. These are

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3392-400: The "clay matrix" – composed of grains of less than 0.02 mm grains which can be seen using the high-powered microscopes or a scanning electron microscope , and the "clay inclusions" – which are larger grains of clay and could be seen with the naked eye or a low-power binocular microscope. For geologists, fabric analysis means spatial arrangement of minerals in a rock. For Archaeologists,

3498-566: The "fabric analysis" of pottery entails the study of clay matrix and inclusions in the clay body as well as the firing temperature and conditions . Analysis is done to examine the following 3 in detail: The Six fabrics of Kalibangan is a good example of fabric analysis. Body , or clay body, is the material used to form pottery. Thus a potter might prepare, or order from a supplier, such an amount of earthenware body, stoneware body or porcelain body. The compositions of clay bodies varies considerably, and include both prepared and 'as dug';

3604-715: The Apulian , Lucanian , Sicilian , Campanian and Paestan . Red-figure work flourished there with the distinctive addition of polychromatic painting and in the case of the Black Sea colony of Panticapeum the gilded work of the Kerch Style . Several noteworthy artists' work comes down to us including the Darius Painter and the Underworld Painter , both active in the late 4th century, whose crowded polychromatic scenes often essay

3710-665: The Cyclades (in particular Naxos ) and the Ionian colonies in the east Aegean . Production of vases was largely the prerogative of Athens – it is well attested that in Corinth, Boeotia, Argos, Crete and Cyclades, the painters and potters were satisfied to follow the Attic style. By the end of the Archaic period the styles of black-figure pottery , red-figure pottery and the white ground technique had become fully established and would continue in use during

3816-487: The Hellenistic period . The few ways that clay pottery can be damaged is by being broken, being abraded or by coming in contact with fire. The process of making a pot and firing it is fairly simple. The first thing a potter needs is clay . Attica's high-iron clay gave its pots an orange color. When clay is first dug out of the ground it is full of rocks and shells and other useless items that need to be removed. To do this

3922-755: The Kleophon Painter can be included in the school of the Niobid Painter , as their work indicates something of the influence of the Parthenon sculptures both in theme (e.g., Polygnotos's centauromachy, Brussels, Musées Royaux A. & Hist., A 134) and in feeling for composition. Toward the end of the century, the "Rich" style of Attic sculpture as seen in the Nike Balustrade is reflected in contemporary vase painting with an ever-greater attention to incidental detail, such as hair and jewellery. The Meidias Painter

4028-523: The Neo-Hittite principalities of northern Syria and Phoenicia found their way to Greece, as did goods from Anatolian Urartu and Phrygia , yet there was little contact with the cultural centers of Egypt or Assyria . The new idiom developed initially in Corinth (as Proto-Corinthian) and later in Athens between 725 BC and 625 BC (as Proto-Attic). It was characterized by an expanded vocabulary of motifs: sphinx , griffin , lions , etc., as well as

4134-587: The Pan Painter hold to the archaic features of stiff drapery and awkward poses and combine that with exaggerated gestures. By contrast, the school of the Berlin Painter in the form of the Achilles Painter and his peers (who may have been the Berlin Painter's pupils) favoured a naturalistic pose usually of a single figure against a solid black background or of restrained white-ground lekythoi . Polygnotos and

4240-542: The Protogeometric style , which begins Ancient Greek pottery proper. The rise of vase painting saw increasing decoration. Geometric art in Greek pottery was contiguous with the late Dark Age and early Archaic Greece , which saw the rise of the Orientalizing period . The pottery produced in Archaic and Classical Greece included at first black-figure pottery , yet other styles emerged such as red-figure pottery and

4346-441: The gymnasium . Not all of their uses are known, but where there is uncertainty scholars make good proximate guesses of what use a piece would have served. Some have a purely ritual function, for example Some vessels were designed as grave markers . Craters marked the places of males and amphorae marked those of females. This helped them to survive, and is why some will depict funeral processions. White ground lekythoi contained

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4452-587: The white ground technique . Styles such as West Slope Ware were characteristic of the subsequent Hellenistic period , which saw vase painting's decline. The interest in Greek art lagged behind the revival of classical scholarship during the Renaissance and was revived in the academic circle surrounding Nicolas Poussin in Rome in the 1630s. Though modest collections of vases recovered from ancient tombs in Italy were made in

4558-520: The 15th and 16th centuries these were regarded as Etruscan . It is possible that Lorenzo de Medici bought several Attic vases directly from Greece ; however the connection between them and the examples excavated in central Italy was not made until much later. Winckelmann 's Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums of 1764 first refuted the Etruscan origin of what we now know to be Greek pottery yet Sir William Hamilton 's two collections, one lost at sea

4664-738: The 19th century starting with the founding of the Instituto di Corrispondenza in Rome in 1828 (later the German Archaeological Institute), followed by Eduard Gerhard 's pioneering study Auserlesene Griechische Vasenbilder (1840 to 1858), the establishment of the journal Archaeologische Zeitung in 1843 and the Ecole d'Athens 1846. It was Gerhard who first outlined the chronology we now use, namely: Orientalizing (Geometric, Archaic), Black Figure, Red Figure, Polychromatic (Hellenistic). Finally it

4770-555: The 4th century BC. The innovation of the red-figure technique was an Athenian invention of the late 6th century. It was quite the opposite of black-figure which had a red background. The ability to render detail by direct painting rather than incision offered new expressive possibilities to artists such as three-quarter profiles, greater anatomical detail and the representation of perspective. The first generation of red-figure painters worked in both red- and black-figure as well as other methods including Six's technique and white-ground ;

4876-577: The 8th century BC on, they created their own styles, Argos specializing in the figurative scenes, Crete remaining attached to a more strict abstraction. The orientalizing style was the product of cultural ferment in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean of the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Fostered by trade links with the city-states of Asia Minor , the artifacts of the East influenced a highly stylized yet recognizable representational art. Ivories, pottery and metalwork from

4982-470: The Middle Geometrical (approx. 850–770 BC), figurative decoration makes its appearance: they are initially identical bands of animals such as horses, stags, goats, geese, etc. which alternate with the geometrical bands. In parallel, the decoration becomes complicated and becomes increasingly ornate; the painter feels reluctant to leave empty spaces and fills them with meanders or swastikas . This phase

5088-965: The Porcinari family, whose collection of antiquities Hamilton bought, and subsequently sold to the British Museum in London. With Hamilton Hugues compiled the Collection Of Etruscan, Greek And Roman Antiquities From The Cabinet Of The Honble. Wm. Hamilton ... = Antiquités Etrusques, Grecques Et Romains, Tirees Du Cabinet De M. Hamilton ... (4 volumes, Naples 1766-67 but possibly published 1767–76). The 'Antiquities' shown and discussed in these volumes are nearly all ancient Greek vases, collected from Herculaneum , Pompeii and other parts of south Italy and Greece. Hamilton and Hugues intended this collection of vases not only to provide models for contemporary designers but also, because of their great number, to serve as

5194-503: The ability of the involved parties to communicate effectively, implying pre-existing norms of contact or a shared language between the two. Thus, the patterns of technical diffusion in pot-making that are visible via archaeological findings also reveal patterns in societal interaction. Chronologies based on pottery are often essential for dating non-literate cultures and are often of help in the dating of historic cultures as well. Trace-element analysis , mostly by neutron activation , allows

5300-580: The absence of signature, is the Dipylon Master , could be identified on several pieces, in particular monumental amphorae. At the end of the period there appear representations of mythology, probably at the moment when Homer codifies the traditions of Trojan cycle in the Iliad and the Odyssey . Here however the interpretation constitutes a risk for the modern observer: a confrontation between two warriors can be

5406-452: The age. Sites with similar pottery characteristics have the same culture, those sites which have distinct cultural characteristics but with some overlap are indicative of cultural exchange such as trade or living in vicinity or continuity of habitation, etc. Examples are black and red ware , redware , Sothi-Siswal culture and Painted Grey Ware culture . The six fabrics of Kalibangan is a good example of use of fabric analysis in identifying

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5512-468: The birth of the Orientalizing period , led largely by ancient Corinth , where the previous stick-figures of the geometric pottery become fleshed out amid motifs that replaced the geometric patterns. The classical ceramic decor is dominated mostly by Attic vase painting. Attic production was the first to resume after the Greek Dark Age and influenced the rest of Greece, especially Boeotia , Corinth ,

5618-399: The black-figure method was a Corinthian invention of the 7th century and spread from there to other city states and regions including Sparta , Boeotia , Euboea , the east Greek islands and Athens. The Corinthian fabric, extensively studied by Humfry Payne and Darrell Amyx, can be traced though the parallel treatment of animal and human figures. The animal motifs have greater prominence on

5724-417: The branches and then grass is piled high to complete the mound. Although the mound contains the pots of many women, who are related through their husbands' extended families, each women is responsible for her own or her immediate family's pots within the mound. When a mound is completed and the ground around has been swept clean of residual combustible material, a senior potter lights the fire. A handful of grass

5830-449: The coffin to the cemetery). The bodies are represented in a geometrical way except for the calves, which are rather protuberant. In the case of soldiers, a shield in form of a diabolo , called "dipylon shield" because of its characteristic drawing, covers the central part of the body. The legs and the necks of the horses, the wheels of the chariots are represented one beside the other without perspective. The hand of this painter, so called in

5936-457: The coil method of building the walls of the pot was employed. Most Greek vases were wheel-made, though as with the Rhyton mould-made pieces (so-called "plastic" pieces) are also found and decorative elements either hand-formed or by mould were added to thrown pots. More complex pieces were made in parts then assembled when it was leather hard by means of joining with a slip, where the potter returned to

6042-668: The color of the flesh or clothing. Clay used in Athens was much more orange than that of Corinth, and so did not lend itself as easily to the representation of flesh. Attic Orientalising Painters include the Analatos Painter , the Mesogeia Painter and the Polyphemos Painter . Crete , and especially the islands of the Cyclades, are characterized by their attraction to the vases known as "plastic", i.e. those whose paunch or collar

6148-534: The creation of the Corpus vasorum antiquorum under Edmond Pottier and the Beazley archive of John Beazley . Beazley and others following him have also studied fragments of Greek pottery in institutional collections, and have attributed many painted pieces to individual artists. Scholars have called these fragments disjecta membra (Latin for "scattered parts") and in a number of instances have been able to identify fragments now in different collections that belong to

6254-431: The cultural development of the societies that produced or acquired pottery. The study of pottery may also allow inferences to be drawn about a culture's daily life, religion, social relationships, attitudes towards neighbours, attitudes to their own world and even the way the culture understood the universe. It is valuable to look into pottery as an archaeological record of potential interaction between peoples. When pottery

6360-1030: The customary life and mind of the ancient Greeks. There were several vessels produced locally for everyday and kitchen use, yet finer pottery from regions such as Attica was imported by other civilizations throughout the Mediterranean , such as the Etruscans in Italy . There were a multitude of specific regional varieties, such as the South Italian ancient Greek pottery . Throughout these places, various types and shapes of vases were used. Not all were purely utilitarian; large Geometric amphorae were used as grave markers, kraters in Apulia served as tomb offerings and Panathenaic Amphorae seem to have been looked on partly as objets d'art , as were later terracotta figurines. Some were highly decorative and meant for elite consumption and domestic beautification as much as serving

6466-480: The duration of firing influences the final characteristics of the ceramic. Thus, the maximum temperature within a kiln is often held constant for a period of time to soak the wares to produce the maturity required in the body of the wares. Kilns may be heated by burning combustible materials, such as wood , coal and gas , or by electricity . The use of microwave energy has been investigated. When used as fuels, coal and wood can introduce smoke, soot and ash into

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6572-631: The earliest known pottery vessels were discovered in Jiangxi , China, which date back to 18,000 BC. Other early Neolithic and pre-Neolithic pottery artifacts have been found, in Jōmon Japan (10,500 BC), the Russian Far East (14,000 BC), Sub-Saharan Africa (9,400 BC), South America (9,000s–7,000s BC), and the Middle East (7,000s–6,000s BC). Pottery is made by forming a clay body into objects of

6678-464: The era of Classical Greece , from the early 5th to late 4th centuries BC. Corinth was eclipsed by Athenian trends since Athens was the progenitor of both the red-figure and white ground styles. Vases of the protogeometrical period ( c.  1050–900 BC) represent the return of craft production after the collapse of the Mycenaean Palace culture and the ensuing Greek dark ages . It is one of

6784-521: The extent of this trade can be gleaned from plotting the find maps of these vases outside of Greece, though this could not account for gifts or immigration. Only the existence of a second hand market could account for the number of panathenaics found in Etruscan tombs. South Italian wares came to dominate the export trade in the Western Mediterranean as Athens declined in political importance during

6890-460: The eye (decoration, firing and post-firing techniques), techniques related to the materials (selection or processing of clay, etc.), and techniques of molding or fashioning the clay. These three categories can be used to consider the implications of the reoccurrence of a particular sort of pottery in different areas. Generally, the techniques that are easily visible (the first category of those mentioned above) are thus readily imitated, and may indicate

6996-531: The few modes of artistic expression besides jewelry in this period since the sculpture, monumental architecture and mural painting of this era are unknown to us. By 1050 BC life in the Greek peninsula seems to have become sufficiently settled to allow a marked improvement in the production of earthenware. The style is confined to the rendering of circles, triangles, wavy lines and arcs, but placed with evident consideration and notable dexterity, probably aided by compasses and multiple brushes. The site of Lefkandi

7102-628: The finest work in the style to belong Exekias and the Amasis Painter , who are noted for their feeling for composition and narrative. Circa 520 BC the red-figure technique was developed and was gradually introduced in the form of the bilingual vase by the Andokides Painter , Oltos and Psiax . Red-figure quickly eclipsed black-figure, yet in the unique form of the Panathanaic Amphora, black-figure continued to be utilised well into

7208-447: The firing chamber and turning both pot and slip a reddish-brown (oxidising conditions) due to the formation of hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ) in both the paint and the clay body. Then the vent was closed and green wood introduced, creating carbon monoxide which turns the red hematite to black magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ); at this stage the temperature decreases due to incomplete combustion. In a final reoxidizing phase (at about 800–850 °C)

7314-430: The following stages: Before being shaped, clay must be prepared. This may include kneading to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body. Air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed, or de-aired, and can be accomplished either by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging . Wedging can also help produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, it

7420-481: The foot) is left unglazed or, alternatively, special refractory " spurs " are used as supports. These are removed and discarded after the firing. Some specialised glazing techniques include: Types of Glazing in Pottery. Glazing in pottery is the process of applying a coating or layer of material to ceramics that, when fired, forms a vitreous or glass-like surface. Glazes enhance the aesthetic appeal of pottery, provide

7526-646: The formation of the mineral mullite within the body at these high temperatures. Although porcelain was first made in China , the Chinese traditionally do not recognise it as a distinct category, grouping it with stoneware as "high-fired" ware, opposed to "low-fired" earthenware. This confuses the issue of when it was first made. A degree of translucency and whiteness was achieved by the Tang dynasty (AD 618–906), and considerable quantities were being exported. The modern level of whiteness

7632-443: The former being by far the dominant type for studio and industry. The properties also vary considerably, and include plasticity and mechanical strength before firing; the firing temperature needed to mature them; properties after firing, such as permeability, mechanical strength and colour. There can be regional variations in the properties of raw materials used for pottery, and these can lead to wares that are unique in character to

7738-412: The fusing together of coarser particles in the body at their points of contact with each other. In the case of porcelain, where higher firing-temperatures are used, the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the constituents in the body are greatly altered. In all cases, the reason for firing is to permanently harden the wares, and the firing regime must be appropriate to the materials used. As

7844-449: The glaze. Pierre-Fran%C3%A7ois Hugues D%27Hancarville Pierre-François Hugues, Baron d'Hancarville ( Nancy 1719 – Padua 1805) was an art historian and historian of ideas. Pierre Francois Hugues was born in 1719 at Nancy, France, the son of a bankrupt cloth-merchant. He himself later added the title of ‘baron d'Hancarville’ to his name. An amateur art dealer , he introduced William Hamilton , British ambassador at Naples, to

7950-487: The gradual change of the profile eye. This phase also sees the specialization of painters into pot and cup painters, with the Berlin and Kleophrades Painters notable in the former category and Douris and Onesimos in the latter. By the early to high classical era of red-figure painting ( c.  480–425 BC), a number of distinct schools had evolved. The Mannerists associated with the workshop of Myson and exemplified by

8056-553: The group a piece belongs to is immediately visually apparent, but this is not always the case; for example fritware uses no or little clay, so falls outside these groups. Historic pottery of all these types is often grouped as either "fine" wares, relatively expensive and well-made, and following the aesthetic taste of the culture concerned, or alternatively "coarse", "popular", "folk" or "village" wares, mostly undecorated, or simply so, and often less well-made. Cooking in pottery became less popular once metal pots became available, but

8162-417: The item is impermeable to liquids, and minimizing the adherence of pollutants. Glaze may be applied by spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on an aqueous suspension of the unfired glaze. The colour of a glaze after it has been fired may be significantly different from before firing. To prevent glazed wares sticking to kiln furniture during firing, either a small part of the object being fired (for example,

8268-413: The kiln was opened and oxygen reintroduced causing the unslipped reserved clay to go back to orange-red while the slipped area on the vase that had been sintered/vitrified in the previous phase, could no longer be oxidized and remained black. While the description of a single firing with three stages may seem economical and efficient, some scholars claim that it is equally possible that each of these stages

8374-431: The kiln which can affect the appearance of unprotected wares. For this reason, wares fired in wood- or coal-fired kilns are often placed in the kiln in saggars , ceramic boxes, to protect them. Modern kilns fuelled by gas or electricity are cleaner and more easily controlled than older wood- or coal-fired kilns and often allow shorter firing times to be used. Niche techniques include: [...] pots are positioned on and amid

8480-487: The last major style of the period, that of Wild Goat Style , allotted traditionally to Rhodes because of an important discovery within the necropolis of Kameiros . In fact, it is widespread over all of Asia Minor , with centers of production at Miletus and Chios . Two forms prevail oenochoes , which copied bronze models, and dishes, with or without feet. The decoration is organized in superimposed registers in which stylized animals, in particular of feral goats (from whence

8586-522: The late Middle Ages, as European kilns were less efficient, and the right type of clay less common. It remained a speciality of Germany until the Renaissance. Stoneware is very tough and practical, and much of it has always been utilitarian, for the kitchen or storage rather than the table. But "fine" stoneware has been important in China , Japan and the West, and continues to be made. Many utilitarian types have also come to be appreciated as art. Porcelain

8692-492: The latter was developed at the same time as red-figure. However, within twenty years, experimentation had given way to specialization as seen in the vases of the Pioneer Group , whose figural work was exclusively in red-figure, though they retained the use of black-figure for some early floral ornamentation. The shared values and goals of The Pioneers such as Euphronios and Euthymides signal that they were something approaching

8798-407: The name of the style) as distinct from the predominantly circular figures of the previous style. However, our chronology for this new art form comes from exported wares found in datable contexts overseas. With the early geometrical style (approximately 900–850 BC) one finds only abstract motifs, in what is called the "Black Dipylon" style, which is characterized by extensive use of black varnish, with

8904-504: The name) pursue each other in friezes. Many decorative motifs (floral triangles, swastikas, etc.) fill the empty spaces. Black-figure is the most commonly imagined when one thinks about Greek pottery. It was a popular style in ancient Greece for many years. The black-figure period coincides approximately with the era designated by Winckelmann as the middle to late Archaic , from c.  620 to 480 BC. The technique of incising silhouetted figures with enlivening detail which we now call

9010-417: The oil used as funerary offerings and appear to have been made solely with that object in mind. Many examples have a concealed second cup inside them to give the impression of being full of oil, as such they would have served no other useful gain. There was an international market for Greek pottery since the 8th century BC, which Athens and Corinth dominated down to the end of the 4th century BC. An idea of

9116-469: The orientalizing motifs appear but the features remain not very realistic. The painters show a preference for the typical scenes of the Geometrical Period, like processions of chariots. However, they adopt the principle of line drawing to replace the silhouette. In the middle of the 7th century BC, there appears the black and white style: black figures on a white zone, accompanied by polychromy to render

9222-576: The other now in the British Museum , were still published as "Etruscan vases"; it would take until 1837 with Stackelberg 's Gräber der Hellenen to conclusively end the controversy. Much of the early study of Greek vases took the form of production of albums of the images they depict, however neither D'Hancarville's nor Tischbein 's folios record the shapes or attempt to supply a date and are therefore unreliable as an archaeological record. Serious attempts at scholarly study made steady progress over

9328-502: The particle size. The fine clay suspension used for the paint was either produced by using several deflocculating additives to clay (potash, urea, dregs of wine, bone ashes, seaweed ashes, etc.) or by collecting it in situ from illitic clay beds following rain periods. Recent studies have shown that some trace elements in the black glaze (i.e. Zn in particular) can be characteristic of the clay beds used in antiquity. In general, different teams of scholars suggest different approaches concerning

9434-502: The popularity and practicality of pottery vessels. Decoration has evolved and developed through history. Stoneware is pottery that has been fired in a kiln at a relatively high temperature, from about 1,100 °C to 1,200 °C, and is stronger and non-porous to liquids. The Chinese, who developed stoneware very early on, classify this together with porcelain as high-fired wares. In contrast, stoneware could only be produced in Europe from

9540-478: The potter mixes the clay with water and lets all the impurities sink to the bottom. This is called levigation or elutriation . This process can be done many times. The more times this is done, the smoother clay becomes. The clay is then kneaded by the potter and placed on a wheel . Once the clay is on the wheel the potter can shape it into any of the many shapes shown below, or anything else he desires. Wheel-made pottery dates back to roughly 2500 BC. Before this,

9646-410: The prevalent early style was that of the protogeometric art , predominantly using circular and wavy decorative patterns. This was succeeded in mainland Greece , the Aegean , Anatolia , and Italy by the style of pottery known as geometric art , which employed neat rows of geometric shapes. The period of Archaic Greece , beginning in the 8th century BC and lasting until the late 5th century BC, saw

9752-475: The process and the raw materials used. The most familiar aspect of ancient Greek pottery is painted vessels of fine quality. These were not the everyday pottery used by most people but were sufficiently cheap to be accessible to a wide range of the population. Few examples of ancient Greek painting have survived so modern scholars have to trace the development of ancient Greek art partly through ancient Greek vase-painting, which survives in large quantities and

9858-455: The production of the clay slip used in antiquity. Greek pottery, unlike today's pottery, was only fired once, using a very sophisticated process. The black color effect was achieved by means of changing the amount of oxygen present during firing. This was done in a process known as three-phase firing involving alternating oxidizing –reducing conditions. First, the kiln was heated to around 920–950 °C, with all vents open bringing oxygen into

9964-421: The raw materials and cause it to be reduced to FeO. An oxygen deficient condition, called a reducing atmosphere, is generated by preventing the complete combustion of the kiln fuel; this is achieved by deliberately restricting the supply of air or by supplying an excess of fuel. Firing pottery can be done using a variety of methods, with a kiln being the usual firing method. Both the maximum temperature and

10070-420: The relief lines. A series of analytical studies have shown that the striking black gloss with a metallic sheen, so characteristic of Greek pottery, emerged from the colloidal fraction of an illitic clay with very low calcium oxide content. This clay slip was rich in iron oxides and hydroxides, differentiating from that used for the body of the vase in terms of the calcium content, the exact mineral composition and

10176-630: The same vase. The names we use for Greek vase shapes are often a matter of convention rather than historical fact. A few do illustrate their own use or are labeled with their original names, while others are the result of early archaeologists' attempt to reconcile the physical object with a known name from Greek literature—not always successfully. To understand the relationship between form and function, Greek pottery may be divided into four broad categories, given here with common types: As well as these utilitarian functions, certain vase shapes were especially associated with rituals , others with athletics and

10282-467: The sources of clay to be accurately identified and the thermoluminescence test can be used to provide an estimate of the date of last firing. Examining sherds from prehistory, scientists learned that during high-temperature firing, iron materials in clay record the state of the Earth's magnetic field at that moment. The "clay body" is also called the "paste" or the "fabric" , which consists of 2 things,

10388-433: The strata of his archaeological digs by the nature of the pottery found within them, a method of seriation Flinders Petrie was later to apply to unpainted Egyptian pottery. Where the 19th century was a period of Greek discovery and the laying out of first principles, the 20th century has been one of consolidation and intellectual industry. Efforts to record and publish the totality of public collections of vases began with

10494-569: The underlying decoration or texture of the pottery to show through. - Often used over underglaze decorations. 4. Opaque Glaze - Completely covers the surface of the pottery, hiding any underlying texture or decoration. - Useful for creating uniform, bold colors. 5. Celadon Glaze - A translucent glaze, usually in shades of green or blue. - Originated in China and is popular in East Asian ceramics. - Accentuates carved or textured designs beneath

10600-430: The vase and show the greatest experimentation in the early phase of Corinthian black-figure. As Corinthian artists gained confidence in their rendering of the human figure the animal frieze declined in size relative to the human scene during the middle to late phase. By the mid-6th century BC, the quality of Corinthian ware had fallen away significantly to the extent that some Corinthian potters would disguise their pots with

10706-468: The wheel for the final shaping or turning. Sometimes, a young man helped turn the wheel. After the pot was made, the potter painted it with an ultra fine grained clay slip; the paint was applied on the areas intended to become black after firing, according to the two different styles, i.e. the black figure and the red figure. For the decoration the vase painters used brushes of different thickness, pinpoint tools for incisions and probably single-hair tools for

10812-464: Was Otto Jahn 's 1854 catalogue Vasensammlung of the Pinakothek, Munich, that set the standard for the scientific description of Greek pottery, recording the shapes and inscriptions with a previously unseen fastidiousness. Jahn's study was the standard textbook on the history and chronology of Greek pottery for many years, yet in common with Gerhard he dated the introduction of the red figure technique to

10918-546: Was bought by the British Museum. The four volumes of the Antiquites , printed by Francesco Morelli and copiously illustrated (and with many copies hand-painted), form one of the most beautiful books ever made. Their illustrations were directly copied by Josiah Wedgwood and other pottery manufacturers, and fostered the Neoclassical taste for outline drawing and engraving adopted by John Flaxman and others. In 1769 Hancarville

11024-453: Was confined to separate firings in which the pottery is subjected to multiple firings, of different atmosphere. In any case, the faithful reproduction of the process involving extensive experimental work that led to the creation of a modern production unit in Athens since 2000, has shown that the ancient vases may have been subjected to multiple three-stage firings following repainting or as an attempt to correct color failures The technique which

11130-512: Was not reached until much later, in the 14th century. Porcelain was also made in Korea and in Japan from the end of the 16th century, after suitable kaolin was located in those countries. It was not made effectively outside East Asia until the 18th century. The study of pottery can help to provide an insight into past cultures. Fabric analysis (see section below), used to analyse the fabric of pottery ,

11236-428: Was to become highly developed and typical. After many centuries dominated by styles of geometric decoration, becoming increasingly complex, figurative elements returned in force in the 8th century. From the late 7th century to about 300 BC evolving styles of figure-led painting were at their peak of production and quality and were widely exported. During the Greek Dark Age , spanning the 11th to 8th centuries BC,

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