178-739: The attorney general of the Republic is the head of the Attorney General's Office ( Fiscalía General de la República, FGR ; prior to 2019, Procuraduría General de la República, PGR ) and the Federal Public Ministry of the United Mexican States , an institution belonging to the Federal Government's constitutional autonomous organism that is responsible for the investigation and prosecution of federal crimes. The office
356-537: A constitutional monarch from Europe. When no member of a European royal house desired the position, Iturbide himself was declared Emperor Agustín I. The United States was the first country to recognize Mexico's independence, sending an ambassador to the court and sending a message to Europe via the Monroe Doctrine not to intervene in Mexico. The emperor's rule was short (1822–1823) and he was overthrown by army officers in
534-484: A major conflict with the Catholic Church and Catholic guerrilla armies when he strictly enforced anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution which ended with an agreement. Although the constitution prohibited the reelection of the president, Obregón wished to run again and the constitution was amended to allow non-consecutive re-election and won the 1928 elections but was assassinated by a Catholic activist, causing
712-582: A "lesson in democracy" and "the end of tapadism," these presentations were broadcast in their entirety and garnered news coverage on Channel 7 , Channel 5 and Channel 2 , after 24 hours . the interventions had in common praise for the president and the "little precision" of the proposals. In order to dispel the "negative aspects of their image," the applicants presented themselves as politicians when they were "accused of being technocrats," and those who were less knowledgeable about economics "prayed" to show off their capabilities. To find out what they thought,
890-483: A "political actor with full personality and precise functions," and the FDN was not a "terminal objective" but rather a "political-historical-electoral instrument at the national and regional level to define basic alliances and convergences." The National Action Party (PAN) had a "unprecedented electoral boom in the northern region" of the nation in the years leading up to the election. A "pragmatic leading coalition fueled by
1068-548: A "radical pragmatic" PANism that was driven by the business community and aimed to "break with the State and the party," whereas Clouthier supported this "aggressive, populist, and contradictory" PANism. He represented the "doctrinary" and most conservative group. Outside the party, the group led by Clouthier was known as "the barbarians of the north" - a phrase attributed to the PRI leader Fidel Velázquez -; Inside they were pejoratively called
1246-652: A consensus, PPS leaders met with Cárdenas and Muñoz Ledo on 9 October. The PMS, for its part, tried to take in the CD. The Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution (PARM), a third party, created a "serious link" in contrast to the "loose" approaches of the first two parties, and on 12 October a commission of assembly members proposed his candidacy. Cárdenas joined the PARM and participated in protests as its presidential candidate two days later. Castillo stated that Castdenas's candidacy
1424-492: A decade of civil war, the "wind that swept Mexico." The Mexican Revolution was a decade-long transformational conflict. It began with scattered uprisings against President Díaz after the fraudulent 1910 election, his resignation in May 1911, demobilization of rebel forces, an interim presidency of a member of the old guard and the democratic election of a rich, civilian landowner, Francisco I. Madero in fall 1911. In February 1913 ,
1602-407: A function of elevation. This gives Mexico one of the world's most diverse weather systems. Maritime air masses bring seasonal precipitation from May until August. Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dry climate with only sporadic rainfall, while parts of the tropical lowlands in the south average more than 2,000 mm (78.7 in) of annual precipitation. For example, many cities in
1780-554: A glimpse of the "crisis" to be seen during the election campaign. During this election, Mexico started using electoral polls more frequently. Numerous opinion polls were presented as a result of the conditions surrounding these elections, which produced a "high level of competition" and "uncertainty". He does, however, note that the majority were restricted to the Federal District and the Valley of Mexico metropolitan area . Its execution
1958-416: A high of 159%. The situation caused the price of bread to increase by 1800%, beans by 800%, and tortillas by 400%. In this period, the external public debt went from 6 billion dollars to 84 billion. The government's "adoption of neoliberal policy and the consolidation [in power] [...] of a group of technocrats" was a result of the debt growth, the deepening economic crisis, and the agreements it made with
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#17328553474512136-627: A military coup d'état overthrew Madero's government, with the support of the U.S., resulting in Madero's murder by agents of Federal Army General Victoriano Huerta . During the Revolution, the U.S. Republican administration of Taft supported the Huerta coup against Madero, but when Democrat Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated as president in March 1913, Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's regime and allowed arms sales to
2314-454: A natural southern border between Mexico and Guatemala. The climate of Mexico is varied due to the country's size and topography. Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the Tropic of Cancer experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months. South of the Tropic of Cancer, temperatures are fairly constant year-round and vary solely as
2492-520: A new Constitution of 1857 , separating Church and State, stripping the Church and the military of their special privileges ( fueros ); mandating the sale of Church-owned property and sale of indigenous community lands, and secularizing education. Conservatives revolted, touching off civil war between rival Liberal and Conservative governments (1858–1861). The Liberals defeated the Conservative army on
2670-502: A new generation of leaders. But his announcement set off a frenzy of political activity, including the unlikely candidacy of the scion of a rich landowning family, Francisco I. Madero . Madero won a surprising amount of political support when Díaz changed his mind and ran in the election, jailing Madero. The September centennial celebration of independence was the last celebration of the Porfiriato . The Mexican Revolution starting in 1910 saw
2848-548: A peaceful political solution, but the coalition splintered, plunging Mexico again into a civil war. Constitutionalist general Pancho Villa , commander of the Division of the North, broke with Carranza and allied with Zapata. Carranza's best general Alvaro Obregón defeated Villa, his former comrade-in-arms in the Battle of Celaya in 1915, and Villa's northern forces melted away Carranza became
3026-448: A plurality of around 38% and did not have a legislative majority. During the twenty-first century, Mexico has contended with high crime rates , bureaucratic corruption , narcotrafficking , and a stagnant economy. Many state-owned industrial enterprises were privatized starting in the 1990s with neoliberal reforms, but Pemex , the state-owned petroleum company is only slowly being privatized, with exploration licenses being issued. In
3204-539: A political crisis of succession. Calles could not become president again, so he sought to set up a structure to manage presidential succession, founding the Institutional Revolutionary Party , which went on to dominate Mexico for the rest of the 20th century. Despite not holding the presidency, Calles remained the key political figure during the period known as the Maximato (1929–1934), that ended during
3382-491: A population of almost 130 million, it is the 10th most populous country and has the most Spanish speakers in the world. Mexico is a constitutional republic comprising 31 states and Mexico City , its capital and largest city , which is among the world's most populous metropolitan areas . The country borders the United States to the north; as well as Guatemala and Belize to the southeast. It has maritime borders with
3560-402: A push against government corruption, the ex-CEO of Pemex, Emilio Lozoya Austin , was arrested in 2020. After founding the new political party MORENA , Andrés Manuel López Obrador (commonly known as AMLO) won the 2018 presidential election with over 50% of the vote. His political coalition, led by his left-wing party founded after the 2012 elections, included parties and politicians from across
3738-437: A result, they assigned a group of people to meet with the PRI leaders and present their demands. Following a twenty-minute meeting between a commission headed by Ifigenia Martínez , Oscar Pintado , and Castillo Mena, representing the CD, and Humberto Lugo Gil and Jesús Salazar Toledano , representing the party, the PRI refused to register Cárdenas "simply because there is no call for the registration of pre-candidates,". On
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#17328553474513916-595: A shift towards neoliberal policies, exemplified by the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, amidst unrest in Chiapas . Mexico is a newly industrialized and developing country , with the world's 12th-largest economy by nominal GDP and 12th-largest by PPP . Mexico ranks first in the Americas and seventh in the world by the number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites . It
4094-465: A show that misrepresented the views of PRI opponents. The design of the electoral ballot for senators was also a source of contention, with opponents requesting differentiated voting for one party for the six-year period and another for the three-year period - given that the Senate was partially renewed, a candidate from each state would hold his position for six years and another for only three. According to
4272-462: A signatory of the Plan of Iguala that achieved independence, became president in a disputed election. During his short term in office, from April to December 1829, he abolished slavery. His Conservative vice president, former Royalist General Anastasio Bustamante , led a coup against him and Guerrero was judicially murdered . Mexico's ability to maintain its independence and establish a viable government
4450-520: A system of parallel voting that includes plurality and proportional representation . The Chamber of Deputies has 500 deputies. Of these, 300 are elected by plurality vote in single-member districts (the federal electoral districts ) and 200 are elected by proportional representation with closed party lists for which the country is divided into five electoral constituencies. The Senate comprises 128 senators: 64 (two for each state and two for Mexico City) are elected by plurality vote in pairs, 32 are
4628-562: A three-year decree established the Senate's partial renewal. Following the reforms, article 60 stipulated that the federal government would be in charge of "preparation, development, and monitoring of the electoral processes" and that each "Chamber will qualify the elections of its members and resolve any doubts that may arise about them". De la Madrid sent the Chamber of Deputies his proposed Federal Electoral Code in November 1986. On 17 December
4806-473: A unified Socialist coalition behind Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas Solórzano of the National Democratic Front a month before the elections of 1988. The Madrid government anticipated that the opposition would grow in these elections, but it did not account for the spread of the vote that the "multiparty system" would bring about. The author claims that the "high degree of politicization of society" allowed
4984-456: A victory of 52.0 percent and 36.95%, respectively. In the first instance, Clouthier came in second with 22.09%, and in the second, Cárdenas came in first with 31.85%. The PRI candidate received a minimum of 38% and a maximum of 61.4% of the total coverage nationwide. Regarding the nation's capital, Salinas led eight measurements, Cárdenas led four, and there was a technical tie in one. The questionnaires, sample sizes, survey types, and "quality of
5162-872: Is a member of United Nations , the G20 , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the Organization of American States , Community of Latin American and Caribbean States , and the Organization of Ibero-American States . Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire , namely
5340-810: Is also one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries , ranking fifth in natural biodiversity . It is a major tourist destination: as of 2022, it is the sixth most-visited country in the world , with 42.2 million international arrivals. Mexico's large economy and population, global cultural influence, and steady democratization make it a regional and middle power , increasingly identifying as an emerging power . Mexico has made significant political and socioeconomic gains in recent decades. However, as with much of Latin America , Mexico continues to struggle with poverty , systemic corruption , and extensive crime . Since 2006, an ongoing conflict between drug trafficking syndicates has led to over 127,000 deaths. Mexico
5518-684: Is considered one of the six independent cradles of civilization , this era saw the origin of distinct cultural traits such as religious and symbolic traditions, maize cultivation, artistic and architectural complexes as well as a vigesimal (base 20) numeric system that spread from the Mexican cultures to the rest of the Mesoamerican cultural area. In this period, villages became more dense in terms of population, becoming socially stratified with an artisan class, and developing into chiefdoms . The most powerful rulers had religious and political power, organizing
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5696-711: Is governed mainly by article 102 of the 1917 Constitution and the Organic Law of the Attorney General's Office ( Ley Orgánica de la Fiscalía General de la República ). The Attorney General's Office is organized into several subordinate entities, including eight Specialized Prosecutor Offices (Competition Control, Regional Control, Organized Crime, Election-related Crimes, Corruption, Human Rights, Crimes of Violence against Women and Human Trafficking, and Internal Affairs), Criminal Investigation Agency( Federal Ministerial Police , General Coordination of Expert Services (CGSP) and
5874-438: Is home of 10–12% of the world's biodiversity. Mexico ranks first in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 known species, second in mammals with 438 species , fourth in amphibians with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species. Mexico is also considered the second country in the world in ecosystems and fourth in overall species. About 2,500 species are protected by Mexican legislation. In 2002 , Mexico had
6052-454: Is incompatible with agriculture due to aridity, soil, or terrain. In 2018, an estimated 54.9% of land is agricultural; 11.8% is arable; 1.4% is in permanent crops; 41.7% is permanent pasture; and 33.3% is forest. Mexico is irrigated by several rivers, with the longest being the Rio Grande , which serves as a natural eastern border with the United States. The Usumacinta River in turn, serves as
6230-506: Is now referred to as the Mexican Dirty War . In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in the PRI's complete political dominance. In Baja California , the PAN candidate was elected as governor. When De la Madrid chose Carlos Salinas de Gortari as the candidate for the PRI, and therefore a foregone presidential victor, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas , son of former President Lázaro Cárdenas , broke with
6408-521: Is responsible for executing and enforcing the law and has the power to veto bills. The highest organ of the judicial branch of government is the Supreme Court of Justice , the national supreme court , which has eleven judges appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice interprets laws and judges cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are
6586-636: Is the world's 13th largest country by total area . It has coastlines on the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California , as well as the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea , the latter two forming part of the Atlantic Ocean . Within these seas are about 6,000 km (2,317 sq mi) of islands (including the remote Pacific Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands ). Almost all of Mexico lies in
6764-454: The 2024 presidential election in a landslide and upon taking office in October became the first woman to lead the country in Mexico's history. She was sworn in as Mexico's president on 1 October 2024. Mexico is located between latitudes 14° and 33°N , and longitudes 86° and 119°W in the southern portion of North America, with a total area of 1,972,550 km (761,606 sq mi),
6942-584: The Archdiocese of Mexico in 1546, with the archbishop as the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Castilian Spanish was the language of rulers. The Catholic faith was the only one permitted, with non-Catholics and Catholics (excluding Indians) holding unorthodox views being subject to the Mexican Inquisition , established in 1571. Spanish military forces, sometimes accompanied by native allies, led expeditions to conquer territory or quell rebellions through
7120-635: The Constitution to allow the Mexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions , or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it. The Mexican Federal Police was dissolved in 2019 by a constitutional amendment during the administration of President López Obrador and the Mexican National Guard established, amalgamating units of
7298-859: The Cordillera Neo-Volcánica , the Gulf Coastal Plain , the Southern Highlands, and the Yucatán Peninsula . An important geologic feature of the Yucatán peninsula is the Chicxulub crater , the scientific consensus is that the Chicxulub impactor was responsible for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event . Although Mexico is large (a little over 2,000 mi (3,219 km) in length from its farthest land points), much of its land mass
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7476-823: The Council of the Indies based in Spain to oversee State power in its overseas territories; in New Spain the crown established a high court in Mexico City, the Real Audiencia ('royal audience' or 'royal tribunal'), and then in 1535 created the Viceroyalty of New Spain . The viceroy was the highest official of the State. In the religious sphere, the Diocese of Mexico was created in 1530 and elevated to
7654-464: The Democratic Current [ es ] within the PRI in 1986. Its establishment was caused by the "abandonment of State intervention in the economy, budget cuts, privatization of companies in the parastatal sector and the contraction of social spending." This shift in governmental action implied, for Cárdenas and Muñoz Ledo, a betrayal of the party's ideological foundation, "the ideology of
7832-762: The Federal Electoral Tribunal , collegiate, unitary, and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary. Three parties have historically been the dominant parties in Mexican politics: the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), a catch-all party and member of the Socialist International that was founded in 1929 to unite all the factions of the Mexican Revolution and held an almost hegemonic power in Mexican politics since then;
8010-472: The Mexican peso crisis , requiring a $ 50 billion IMF bailout. Major macroeconomic reforms were started by Zedillo, and the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% by the end of 1999. After 71 years of rule, the incumbent PRI lost the 2000 presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposing conservative National Action Party (PAN). In the 2006 presidential election , Felipe Calderón from
8188-794: The National Action Party (PAN), a conservative party founded in 1939 and belonging to the Christian Democrat Organization of America ; and the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) a left-wing party, founded in 1989 as the successor of the coalition of socialists and liberal parties. The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the President of Mexico and managed through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The principles of
8366-491: The National Democratic Front (FDN) being formed and the departure of a number of militants. In this regard, the confrontation created by the Democratic Current (CD) made the candidate selection process "more open than before," even though it was not more democratic. Later, they called into question the president Madrid's economic strategy and called for a more democratic internal election system. Cárdenas requested that
8544-759: The North American Plate , with small parts of the Baja California peninsula on the Pacific and Cocos Plates . Geophysically , some geographers include the territory east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (around 12% of the total) within Central America. Geopolitically , however, Mexico is entirely considered part of North America, along with Canada and the United States. The majority of Mexican central and northern territories are located at high altitudes, and as such
8722-425: The Pacific Ocean to the west, the Caribbean Sea to the southeast, and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Human presence in Pre-Columbian Mexico dates back to 8,000 BC as one of six cradles of civilization . Mesoamerica hosted civilizations including the Olmec , Maya , Zapotec , Teotihuacan , and Purepecha . Aztec domination of the area preceded Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , which established
8900-440: The Plan of Casa Mata . After the forced abdication of the monarch, Central America and Chiapas left the union to form the Federal Republic of Central America . In 1824, the First Mexican Republic was established. Former insurgent General Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of the republic — the first of many army generals to hold the presidency. In 1829, former insurgent general and fierce Liberal Vicente Guerrero ,
9078-421: The September 19 earthquake of the same year; destroyed the economic stabilization that had resulted from the government's response to the debt crisis at the beginning of the decade.The earthquake's political ramifications included the need for the country to collaborate together for rescue and reconstruction efforts in the face of government inaction, resulting in "civil associationism." In 1987, inflation reached
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#17328553474519256-416: The Seven Years' War . It created a standing military, increased coastal fortifications, and expanded the northern presidios and missions into Alta California . The volatility of the urban poor in Mexico City was evident in the 1692 riot in the Zócalo. The riot over the price of maize escalated to a full-scale attack on the seats of power, with the viceregal palace and the archbishop's residence attacked by
9434-433: The Spanish Empire in 1821 and became a sovereign state the Intendency came to be known as the State of Mexico , with the new country being named after its capital: Mexico City . The country's official name has changed as the form of government has changed. The declaration of independence signed on 6 November 1813 by the deputies of the Congress of Anáhuac called the territory América Septentrional (Northern America);
9612-440: The Valley of Mexico and surrounding territories, with its people being known as the Mexica . It is generally believed that the toponym for the valley was the origin of the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance , but it may have been the other way around. In the colonial era (1521–1821) when Mexico was known as New Spain this central region became the Intendency of Mexico . After New Spain achieved independence from
9790-479: The Yucatán Peninsula ), have a yearly median temperature between 24 and 28 °C (75.2 and 82.4 °F). Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with only a 5 °C (9 °F) difference between winter and summer median temperatures. The Pacific coast is subject to natural hazards such as tsunamis and both Mexican coasts with the exception of the south coast of the Bay of Campeche and northern Baja California are vulnerable to serious hurricanes during
9968-422: The foreign policy are constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, Section 10, which include: respect for international law and legal equality of states , their sovereignty and independence , trend to non-interventionism in the domestic affairs of other countries, peaceful resolution of conflicts , and promotion of collective security through active participation in international organizations . Since
10146-407: The political reform of 1977 , was in effect for the previous legislative elections in 1985, which saw the full renewal of the Chamber of Deputies. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) won 292 seats, the National Action Party (PAN) 38, while five parties won 11–12 seats and a further two parties won six seats each. The PRI had a supermajority of around 72% of the Deputies in the Chamber of
10324-421: The "neopanists." On November 22, Clouthier won the internal elections with 870 votes (70.3%), González Schmal received 335 votes (27%), and Rosas Magallón received 34 votes (2.7%). The convention lasted seven hours and took place in Mexico City's Juan de la Barrera gymnasium. González Schmal, who lost, expressed his support for Clouthier, who was also backed by party president Luis H. Alvarez. The candidate urged
10502-522: The "new" system. Under this system, any citizen of Mexico could cast a ballot, not just affiliated members. Heberto Castillo was put up as a pre-candidate in mid-June during a gathering attended by about 2,000 PMT-affiliated Veracruz peasants. Additionally, 154 base committees from that formation gave their support to him. Castillo thus joined federal deputy Eraclio Zepeda , PSUM head in Chihuahua Antonio Becerra Gaytán , and former leftist candidate for Hidalgo governor José Hernández Delgadillo . After
10680-460: The 1821 Plan of Iguala also used América Septentrional. On two occasions (1821–1823 and 1863–1867), the country was known as Imperio Mexicano ( Mexican Empire ). All three federal constitutions (1824, 1857, and 1917, the current constitution) used the name Estados Unidos Mexicanos —or the variant Estados-Unidos Mexicanos , all of which have been translated as "United Mexican States". The phrase República Mexicana , "Mexican Republic",
10858-446: The 1824 constitution and promulgating the Seven Laws , which placed power in his hands. As a result, civil war spread across the country. Three new governments declared independence: the Republic of Texas , the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán . The largest blow to Mexico was the U.S. invasion of Mexico in 1846 in the Mexican–American War . Mexico lost much of its sparsely populated northern territory, sealed in
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#173285534745111036-486: The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . Despite that disastrous loss, Santa Anna returned to the presidency yet again before being ousted and exiled in the Liberal Revolution of Ayutla . The overthrow of Santa Anna and the establishment of a civilian government by Liberals allowed them to enact laws that they considered vital for Mexico's economic development. The Liberal Reform attempted to modernize Mexico's economy and institutions along liberal principles. They promulgated
11214-456: The 1920 presidential election. Since Carranza could not run for re-election, he chose a civilian to succeed him, intending to remain the power behind the presidency. Obregón and two other Sonoran revolutionary generals drew up the Plan of Agua Prieta , overthrowing Carranza, who died fleeing Mexico City in 1920. General Adolfo de la Huerta became interim president, followed by the election of General Álvaro Obregón . The first quarter-century of
11392-421: The 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucial complement to these principles. Mexico is a founding member of several international organizations, most notably the United Nations, the Organization of American States , the Organization of Ibero-American States , the OPANAL and the CELAC . In 2008, Mexico contributed over 40 million dollars to the United Nations regular budget. In addition, it
11570-490: The 29th, the CD issued a manifesto defending democratic legitimacy as "a last effort in this regard." Owing to resource constraints, the manifesto was only published until October 3. The document cited Muñoz Ledo and Cárdenas' previous media statements, as well as the Corriente's disagreement, stating that "they have already revealed the search for scenarios outside the PRI." Following Salinas' announcement to run for office, Cárdenas spoke of "undemocratic procedures carried out by
11748-511: The Aztec Empire began in February 1519 when Hernán Cortés founded the Spanish city of Veracruz . The 1521 capture of Tenochtitlan and posterior founding of the Spanish capital Mexico City on its ruins was the beginning of a 300-year-long colonial era during which Mexico was known as Nueva España ( New Spain ). Two factors made Mexico a jewel in the Spanish Empire: the existence of large, hierarchically organized Mesoamerican populations that rendered tribute and performed obligatory labor and
11926-413: The Cardenista candidacy already received the support of unregistered organizations, such as the Social Democratic Party, the Democratic Union and the Revolutionary Socialist Party. With Muñoz Ledo's departure from the PRI on 15 December, a wider alliance was formed. He later became one of the "main drivers" of the coalition, along with Cárdenas, and it began to take shape on 12 January 1988. On that day in
12104-413: The Chamber at the end of November, and published in the DOF on 15 December. The changes included increasing the number of deputies from 400 to 500 by raising the number of seats elected by proportional representation from 100 to 200, limiting the maximum number of seats that the party with the most votes could win (350) and allowing all parties to participate in elections regardless of their percentage of
12282-449: The Constitutionalists. Wilson ordered troops to occupy the strategic port of Veracruz in 1914, which was lifted. A coalition of anti-Huerta forces in the North, the Constitutional Army led by Governor of Coahuila Venustiano Carranza , and a peasant army in the South under Emiliano Zapata defeated the Federal Army in 1914, leaving only revolutionary forces. Following the revolutionaries' victory against Huerta, they sought to broker
12460-440: The Crown's monopoly of revenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade—Veracruz on the Atlantic (connecting to Spain ) and Acapulco on the Pacific (connecting to the Philippines ). Among the best-known pirate attacks are the 1663 Sack of Campeche and 1683 Attack on Veracruz . Of greater concern to the crown was the issue of foreign invasion, especially after Britain seized in 1762 the Spanish ports of Havana and Manila in
12638-428: The Epi-Classic, Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages . During the early post-classic era (ca. 1000–1519 AD), Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec , and the lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán . Toward
12816-691: The Federal Police, Military Police, and Naval Police. As of 2022, the National Guard is estimated at 110,000. López Obrador has increasingly used military forces for domestic law enforcement, particularly against drug cartels. There have been serious abuses of power reported in security operations in the southern part of the country and in indigenous communities and poor urban neighborhoods. The National Human Rights Commission has had little impact in reversing this trend, engaging mostly in documentation but failing to use its powers to issue public condemnations to
12994-642: The French invaders and Liberalism became synonymous with patriotism. The Mexican Army that had its roots in the colonial royal army and then the army of the early republic was destroyed and new military leaders had emerged from the War of the Reform and the conflict with the French, most notably Porfirio Díaz , a hero of the Cinco de Mayo , who now sought civilian power and challenged Juárez on his re-election in 1867. Díaz then rebelled but
13172-498: The IMF to continue receiving loans. This behavior also resulted in the social unrest that "politicians who feel displaced and who continue to support the thesis of revolutionary nationalism " brought about." At the political level, the electoral and constitutional reforms were a government response to pressure from the opposition, "at the same time [they obeyed] the control purposes of the ruling party." The CFE's composition changed, putting
13350-582: The LIII Legislature . In the 1982 general elections the PRI, along with the Popular Socialist Party (PPS) and the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution (PARM), had received 71% of the vote. Once in office, President Miguel de la Madrid implemented a "severe austerity program" that included cuts to public services and social spending. The decline in oil prices in 1985, compounded by
13528-705: The Mexican Revolution." An agreement signed by President Miguel de la Madrid was published in the Official Gazette of the Federation (DOF) on 19 June 1986. It directed the Ministry of the Interior to call on national political parties, associations, organizations, institutions and citizens to take part in "public consultation hearings on the Electoral Political renewal [...]" in order to seek feedback that would enable
13706-479: The Mexican government encouraged Anglo-American immigration into present-day Texas, a region that bordered that United States. Mexico by law was a Catholic country; the Anglo-Americans were primarily Protestant English speakers from the southern United States. Some brought their black slaves, which after 1829 was contrary to Mexican law. In 1835, Santa Anna sought to centralize government rule in Mexico, suspending
13884-523: The Mexican revolution met at a constitutional convention to draft the Constitution of 1917 , which was ratified in February 1917. The Constitution empowered the government to expropriate resources including land, gave rights to labor, and strengthened anticlerical provisions of the 1857 Constitution. With amendments, it remains the governing document of Mexico. It is estimated that the revolutionary war killed 900,000 people out of Mexico's 15 million population at
14062-491: The National Center for Planning, Analysis and Information for Combating Crime (CENAPI)), Specialized Body for Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanisms, Administrative office and Internal control organ. Mexico Mexico , officially the United Mexican States , is a country in the southern portion of North America . Covering 1,972,550 km (761,610 sq mi), it is the world's 13th largest country by area; with
14240-582: The National Guard, which was formed in 2019 from the disbanded Federal Police and military police of the Army and Navy. Figures vary on personnel, but as of are approximately 223,000 armed forces personnel (160,000 Army; 8,000 Air Force; 55,000 Navy, including about 20,000 Marines); approximately 100,000 National Guard (2021). Government expenditures on the military are a small proportion of GDP: 0.7% of GDP (2021 est.), 0.6% of GDP (2020). The Mexican Armed Forces maintain significant infrastructure, including facilities for
14418-475: The PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow margin (0.58%) over leftist politician Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). López Obrador, however, contested the election and pledged to create an "alternative government". After twelve years, in the 2012 presidential election , the PRI again won the presidency with the election of Enrique Peña Nieto . However, he won with
14596-430: The PRI "began a process of consultation with the bases and conversations with leaders". PRI members, on the other hand, declined to endorse any one candidate. The PRI released a call on 3 October and stated that pre-candidates would be able to register from 5 to 7 October. Bartlett, Salinas, and del Mazo were "considered with the most possibilities" during the "uncertainty" that surrounded the PRI candidacy announcement in
14774-450: The PRI and challenged Salinas in the 1988 elections. In 1988 there was massive electoral fraud , with results showing that Salinas had won the election by the narrowest percentage ever. There were massive protests in Mexico City over the stolen election. Salinas took the oath of office on 1 December 1988. In 1990 the PRI was famously described by Mario Vargas Llosa as the "perfect dictatorship", but by then there had been major challenges to
14952-460: The PRI from engaging in electoral fraud. Two days later, FDN representatives protested the assassination outside the Secretariat of the Interior. Manuel Bartlett promised that the government would investigate the crime immediately, but it took many years before four Michoacán Police agents were charged with the assassination, with José Franco Villa (the state's attorney general at the time) among
15130-582: The PRI front and center and eliminating the need for support from opposition parties; furthermore, it was confirmed that this encouraged the so-called "parastatal parties," also known as voters. or "satellite parties", those that normally supported the PRI and that at that time were the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution (PARM), the Popular Socialist Party (PPS) and the Socialist Workers Party (PST), - to challenge his former ally. The opposition started to gain traction during this time, both on
15308-421: The PRI issue a call for the PRI candidate's selection on 1 June 1987. As the "democratizers" gained momentum, the party became aware of it. At the end of the month, when Cárdenas and Muñoz Ledo intensified their calls for the PRI leaders, they were told not to use party resources, logos, or speak in their honor. In the end, Cárdenas was pre-nominated by the CD on 3 July, with the primary goal of "putting pressure on
15486-517: The PRI's hegemony. Salinas embarked on a program of neoliberal reforms that fixed the exchange rate of the peso, controlled inflation, opened Mexico to foreign investment, and began talks with the U.S. and Canada to join their free-trade agreement , which culminated in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on 1 January 1994; the same day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) in Chiapas began armed peasant rebellion against
15664-551: The PRI," Castillo was among the first to denounce him. However, on 23 June he made this statement. In order to negotiate a single candidacy, the PMS nevertheless met with the CD and PPS on 15 October. During this meeting, Castillo claimed that the PARM was a "crude instrument of PRI dissidence" and acknowledged Cárdenas's "right" to join that party, but added that "now Cárdenas's option is not Heberto Castillo's." Castillo realized that his candidacy
15842-475: The PRI. Article 211 of the party's statutes, which states that "anyone who joins another party [...] or is nominated as a candidate by another party to oppose the PRI [...] [resigns] his capacity as a member of the PRI," is the reason for the exclusion, according to a statement issued by the party on 16 October. It left open the possibilities for other formations to join the candidacy; his recent trajectory, and that he did not impose conditions or try to "appropriate
16020-631: The Popular Revolutionary Movement merged to form a new party with the goal of changing the "political regime" and providing "broad channels for workers and peasants" to participate in "national affairs." The "Merger Agreement" that led to the creation of the Mexican Socialist Party (PMS) was signed on 29 March with this goal in mind. In order to choose its presidential candidate, the party held internal elections following its integration. Direct and open primary elections were to be
16198-523: The Secretary of Education were among the most "popular" secretaries and best positioned candidates. On August 13, the party's president announced the names of "six distinguished PRI members" who could run for president, including Sergio García Ramírez , the head of the Attorney General's Office, Bartlett Díaz, del Mazo González, González Avelar, and Salinas de Gortari . The names were listed in alphabetical order to "avoid suspicions." Other names mentioned in
16376-534: The Secretary of the Interior, and the PRI's increased strength within the body "appear as government attempts to strengthen control over electoral competition." They make clear, though, that these intentions were not successful due to the political environment. The PRI used its majority of votes in the CFE—19, to be exact—to settle disputes against the wishes of the other parties on multiple occasions. The votes came from 16 commissioners, two congressional representatives, and
16554-517: The Treasury Secretary, Jesús Silva-Herzog Flores , stood out among them. But following a disagreement with Salinas regarding public spending, his exclusion from "presidential favor," and his resignation on 17 June 1987, the first lost his chance. Near de la Madrid, Alfredo del Mazo González , the Secretary of Energy, emerged as a "strong" contender. Consequently, del Mazo, Salinas,Interior Secretary Manuel Bartlett Díaz and Miguel González Avelar
16732-467: The U.S. entered World War I. Although often viewed as an internal conflict, the revolution had significant international elements: Germany attempted to get Mexico to side with it, sending a coded telegram in 1917 to incite war between the U.S. and Mexico, with Mexico to regain the territory it lost in the Mexican-American War but Mexico remained neutral in the conflict. In 1916, the winners of
16910-524: The army for a short period were incorporated as sectors of the single party that dominated Mexican politics from its founding in 1929. Obregón instigated land reform and strengthened the power of organized labor. He gained recognition from the United States and took steps to settle claims with companies and individuals that lost property during the Revolution. He imposed his fellow former Sonoran revolutionary general, Calles, as his successor, prompting an unsuccessful military revolt. As president, Calles provoked
17088-415: The arts and sciences. Díaz ruled with a group of advisors that became known as the científicos ('scientists'). The most influential científico was Secretary of Finance José Yves Limantour . The Porfirian regime was influenced by positivism . They rejected theology and idealism in favor of scientific methods being applied towards national development. An integral aspect of the liberal project
17266-460: The battlefield, Lerdo fled from office into exile. After the turmoil in Mexico from 1810 to 1876, the 35-year rule of Liberal General Porfirio Díaz (r.1876–1911) allowed Mexico to rapidly modernize in a period characterized as one of " order and progress ". The Porfiriato was characterized by economic stability and growth, significant foreign investment and influence, an expansion of the railroad network and telecommunications, and investments in
17444-484: The battlefield, but Conservatives sought another solution to gain power via foreign intervention by the French, asking Emperor Napoleon III to place a European monarch as head of state in Mexico. The French Army defeated the Mexican Army and placed Maximilian Habsburg on the newly established throne of Mexico, supported by Mexican Conservatives and propped up by the French Army. The Liberal Republic under Benito Juárez
17622-445: The beginning of the presidential campaign of the official party. The CD announced its plan for a "PRI basic electoral platform" on 9 September 1987, and on 17–21 September it conducted the "100 Hour March for Democracy." The plan was to demand that the pre-candidate registration process be opened at the PRI headquarters, but on the 21st, the leaders declined, citing the possibility that their actions would be viewed as "provocations." As
17800-595: The capabilities to manufacture nuclear weapons, but abandoned this possibility with the Treaty of Tlatelolco in 1968 and pledged to use its nuclear technology only for peaceful purposes. Mexico signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons . Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts, with the exception of World War II . However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of
17978-908: The city of Xalapa , the Progressive Forces of Mexico, the National Council of Workers and Peasants, the Popular Action Movement, the Assembly of Neighborhoods of Mexico City, the Emiliano Zapata Revolutionary Union, and the Mexican Green Party all formally supported the formation of the National Democratic Front (FDN) by signing a common "nationalist left" platform. Until the July 1988 elections, he acted as
18156-604: The colonial era. Notable Amerindian revolts in sporadically populated northern New Spain include the Chichimeca War (1576–1606), Tepehuán Revolt (1616–1620), and the Pueblo Revolt (1680), the Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712 was a regional Maya revolt. Most rebellions were small-scale and local, posing no major threat to the ruling elites. To protect Mexico from the attacks of English, French, and Dutch pirates and protect
18334-404: The colony of New Spain centered in the former capital, Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City ). The Mexican War of Independence in the early 19th century was followed by political and socioeconomic upheaval. The Mexican–American War resulted in significant territorial losses in 1848. Liberal reforms introduced in the Constitution of 1857 prompted domestic conflict, French intervention , and
18512-481: The commission president. The opposition parties' request to extend the registration period, which was set by the Code to end on December 31, 1987, is an example of the aforementioned. The PRI voted against it, claiming it would be illegal and shorten other deadlines. Approximately 38 million people were added to the voter registry in preparation for these elections. The National Population Council (CONAPO) estimated that by 1987,
18690-668: The construction of large ceremonial centers. The earliest complex civilization in Mexico was the Olmec culture, which flourished on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BC. Olmec cultural traits diffused through Mexico into other formative-era cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca, and the Valley of Mexico. In the subsequent pre-classical period , the Maya and Zapotec civilizations developed complex centers at Calakmul and Monte Albán , respectively. During this period
18868-415: The country; temperate humid and sub-humid being found mostly on pastures at an elevation of 1,800 meters and higher in central Mexico and cold climate usually found at an elevation of 3,500 meters and beyond. Most of the country's territory has a temperate to dry climate. Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer with elevations up to 1,000 m (3,281 ft) (the southern parts of both coastal plains as well as
19046-479: The de facto head of Mexico, and the U.S. recognized his government while Zapata's forces in the south reverted to guerrilla warfare. After Pancho Villa was defeated by revolutionary forces in 1915, he led an incursion raid into Columbus, New Mexico , prompting the U.S. to send 10,000 troops led by General John J. Pershing in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Villa. Carranza pushed back against U.S. troops being in northern Mexico. The expeditionary forces withdrew as
19224-563: The design, research, and testing of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems and electronics; military industry manufacturing centers for building such systems, and advanced naval dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced missile technologies. Since the 1990s, when the military escalated its role in the war on drugs , increasing importance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveillance platforms, aircraft, helicopters , digital war-fighting technologies, urban warfare equipment and rapid troop transport. Mexico has
19402-627: The discovery of vast silver deposits in northern Mexico. The Kingdom of New Spain was created from the remnants of the Aztec empire. The two pillars of Spanish rule were the State and the Roman Catholic Church, both under the authority of the Spanish crown. In 1493 the pope had granted sweeping powers to the Spanish monarchy for its overseas empire, with the proviso that the crown spread Christianity in its new realms. In 1524, King Charles I created
19580-658: The end of the post-Classic period, the Aztecs (or Mexica ) established dominance, establishing a political and economic empire based in the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City ), extending from central Mexico to the border with Guatemala. Although the Spanish Empire had established colonies in the Caribbean starting in 1493 the Spanish first learned of Mexico during the Juan de Grijalva expedition of 1518. The Spanish conquest of
19758-510: The entry [...] of several businessmen" dissatisfied with the government provided the basis for its electoral profile. One of them, Manuel J. Clouthier - also known as Maquío - publicly announced his affiliation to the political party on 16 November 1984 at a rally held by Carlos Castillo Peraza - PAN candidate for the municipal presidency of Mérida . Since then, he has participated in party events and ran for governor of Sinaloa against PRI candidate Francisco Labastida Ochoa in 1986. He and
19936-475: The establishment of an Empire , countered by the Republican resistance led by Benito Juárez . The rise of Porfirio Díaz 's dictatorship in the 19th century sparked the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which led to profound changes, such as the 1917 Constitution . Over the 20th century, Mexico experienced significant economic growth ; as well as issues of repression and electoral fraud . The late 20th century saw
20114-777: The extension of the Rocky Mountains from northern North America crossed the country from north to south and a fourth mountain range, the Sierra Madre del Sur , runs from Michoacán to Oaxaca . The Mexican territory is prone to volcanism . Mexico has nine distinct regions: Baja California , the Pacific Coastal Lowlands, the Mexican Plateau , the Sierra Madre Oriental , the Sierra Madre Occidental ,
20292-454: The federal government, which captured a few towns but brought world attention to the situation in Mexico. The armed conflict was short-lived and has continued as a non-violent opposition movement against neoliberalism and globalization . In 1994, following the assassination of the PRI's presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio , Salinas was succeeded by victorious PRI candidate Ernesto Zedillo . Salinas left Zedillo's government to deal with
20470-417: The first competitive presidential elections in Mexico since the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) took power in 1929 . The elections were widely considered to have been fraudulent , with the PRI resorting to electoral tampering to remain in power. PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari was proclaimed the winner of the presidential election, with the Ministry of Interior reporting he received 51% of
20648-537: The first minority or first-runner-up (one for each state and one for Mexico City), and 32 are elected by proportional representation from national closed party lists. The executive is the President of the United Mexican States , who is the head of state and government , as well as the commander-in-chief of the Mexican military forces. The President also appoints the Cabinet and other officers. The President
20826-596: The first true Mesoamerican writing systems were developed in the Epi-Olmec and Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic Maya Hieroglyphic script , the earliest written histories date from this era. The tradition of writing was important after the Spanish conquest in 1521, with indigenous scribes learning to write their languages in alphabetic letters, while also continuing to create pictorial texts. In Central Mexico,
21004-511: The following year the parliamentary groups of five parties that had protested the initiative and the removal of their projects had their petition rejected. This marked the beginning of the debates in this regard. It was then published in the DOF on 12 February 1987. With the implementation of the annual electoral roll review, the new electoral code eliminated conditional registration of political formations, facilitated coalition formation, and established
21182-442: The height of the classic period saw the ascendancy of Teotihuacán , which formed a military and commercial empire. Teotihuacan, with a population of more than 150,000 people, had some of the largest pyramidal structures in the pre-Columbian Americas. After the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 AD, competition ensued between several important political centers in central Mexico such as Xochicalco and Cholula . At this time, during
21360-528: The highest elevations are found at the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt which crosses Mexico east to west: Pico de Orizaba (5,700 m or 18,701 ft), Popocatépetl (5,462 m or 17,920 ft) and Iztaccihuatl (5,286 m or 17,343 ft) and the Nevado de Toluca (4,577 m or 15,016 ft). Two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental , which are
21538-607: The increase of inequality between urban and rural areas. The Green Revolution , a technological movement that led to a significant worldwide increase in crop production, began in the Yaqui Valley of Sonora in the middle of the 20th century. With robust economic growth, Mexico sought to showcase it to the world by hosting the 1968 Summer Olympics . The government poured huge resources into building new facilities, prompting political unrest among university students and others. Demonstrations in central Mexico City went on for weeks before
21716-431: The indigenous language of Nahuatl . Tequila , the distilled alcoholic drink made from cultivated agave cacti is a major industry. Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has also been a frequent site of bioprospecting by international research bodies. The first highly successful instance was the discovery in 1947 of the tuber " Barbasco " ( Dioscorea composita ) which has a high content of diosgenin , revolutionizing
21894-473: The intellectual authors.The Governor of Michoacán at the time of the assassinations, Luis Martínez Villicaña , had been one of Cárdenas fiercest rivals, and had heavily repressed FDN officials and sympathizers in the State. With the reforms of 1986 and 1987, the composition of the Federal Electoral Commission (CFE) was transformed. The consolidation of power within the PRI under its president,
22072-464: The internal race to be the PAN presidential candidate. Clouthier received endorsements from the state committees of Nayarit, Sinaloa, and Veracruz when he registered as a presidential candidate on September 3, the following year. Salvador Rosas Magallón , Jorge Eugenio Ortiz Gallegos , and Jesús González Schmal followed after him. The second, however, retired for health reasons. September and November were pre-campaign months. González Schmal supported
22250-531: The journal Proceso , the standard bearer himself stated: "I was elected PMS candidate for the Presidency with [119,600] votes out of [216,000] valid votes, 55% of the total." During his campaign, he put forth a "minimum plan of political and social transformations" and a "radical" program of political action with the intention of creating an "alternative power for the people." When he announced on 23 June that he would consider running for Cárdenas if he "broke with
22428-404: The leadership behind the [sic] militants' backs." It was in this environment that "the possibility of negotiating a single left-wing candidacy was envisioned" before Cárdenas left the PRI. In any case, "that's what two opposition parties said"—the Mexican Socialist Party (PMS), led by Heberto Castillo , and the Popular Socialist Party (PPS), which is currently without a candidate. To come to
22606-473: The left and the right, to the point where the PAN started to pose a "threat" to the PRI in some state elections, as happened in the 1986 Chihuahua state election [ es ] Added to the above was the split within the dominant party . For the PRI elite, the situation meant that they needed to "move to the right and block the main leftists." In this context, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas Solórzano , Porfirio Muñoz Ledo , and Rodolfo González Guevara formed
22784-655: The media, such as Secretary of Health Guillermo Soberón Acevedo and General Director of the Mexican Social Security Institute Ricardo García Sainz, were also omitted. According to the official version, the six names arose from visits throughout the country that de la Vega Domínguez made to meet with party and opinion leaders. Everybody was asked to take part in appearances before the party leaders and guests, which were broadcast on television between 17 and 27 August during "prime television news hours" in "rigorous alphabetical order." Touted as
22962-513: The mob. On 16 September 1810, secular priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla declared against "bad government" in the small town of Dolores , Guanajuato. This event, known as the Cry of Dolores ( Spanish : Grito de Dolores ) is commemorated each year, on 16 September, as Mexico's independence day. The upheaval in the Spanish Empire that resulted in the independence of most of its New World territories
23140-682: The movement and the legitimacy of the Current." Following the PARM, the Workers' Socialist Party (PST) officially changed its name to the Party of the Cardenista Front for National Reconstruction (PFCRN) on 22 November, combining it with Cárdenas's candidacy. Similar to the PARM, the CD in this instance "protected the Mexican Revolution's ideological and project hegemony." After a span of seven days, Cárdenas initiated his electoral campaign in Morelia , which
23318-496: The name"—thanks to a "wide spread of information" that included state and private television. On the same day that Salinas was the only pre-candidate, the PRI pre-campaign got underway, and culminated in him being sworn in as a candidate. on the following 8 November; It was held at the national headquarters of the PRI and within the framework of the second day of the VII Ordinary National Convention and also marked
23496-474: The north like Monterrey , Hermosillo , and Mexicali experience temperatures of 40 °C (104 °F) or more in summer. In the Sonoran Desert temperatures reach 50 °C (122 °F) or more. There are 7 major climate types in Mexico with warm sub-humid climate being coastal up to 900 meters found mostly in the southern region of Mexico; dry and desertic climates being found in the northern half of
23674-608: The number of Mexicans with voting rights would be 43.5 million. For the opposition, a few media outlets, and subject-matter experts believed that the registry was untrustworthy. Twenty to thirty percent were thought to be irregular. In this regard, the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI), which calculated that 40 million people had the right to vote, joined CONAPO. The Republic's presidency, for its part, estimated that there would be "close to 38 million Mexicans." The official data indicated 38,074,926 individuals on
23852-512: The officials who ignore its recommendations. Most Mexicans have low confidence in the police or the judicial system, and therefore, few crimes are actually reported by the citizens. There have been public demonstrations of outrage against what is considered a culture of impunity . 1988 Mexican general election Miguel de la Madrid PRI Carlos Salinas de Gortari PRI General elections were held in Mexico on 6 July 1988. They were
24030-408: The other PAN gubernatorial candidates initiated a "more dynamic and aggressive style of conducting electoral campaigns" that included defending the vote in the event of fraud. PAN members used novel forms of "complaint and civil resistance" in response to a contentious defeat, which they saw as an act of electoral fraud. In Holy Week 1987, a group of PAN members and his friends convinced him to run in
24208-523: The party and government to open the presidential succession process." Together with other politicians, Cárdenas accepted the nomination at a rally held at his house in front of two thousand people, along with the virtual pre-campaign coordinator Muñoz Ledo and Ignacio Castillo Mena . In parallel, the PRI continued its uncovering process. At first, the Madrid cabinet's secretaries of state were all regarded as "not constitutionally impeded." Salinas de Gortari and
24386-478: The planned opening of the games, with the government of Gustavo Díaz Ordaz cracking down. The culmination was the Tlatelolco Massacre , which killed around 300 protesters based on conservative estimates and perhaps as many as 800. Although the economy continued to flourish for some, social inequality remained a factor of discontent. PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive in what
24564-537: The political spectrum. The coalition also won a majority in both the upper and lower Congress chambers. His success is attributed to the country's opposing political forces exhausting their chances as well as AMLO's adoption of a moderate discourse with a focus on reconciliation. The first confirmed case of COVID-19 in Mexico occurred on 28 February 2020. The COVID-19 vaccination in Mexico began in December 2020. Claudia Sheinbaum , López Obrador's political successor, won
24742-520: The politics for the next 25 years, often known as the "Age of Santa Anna", until his overthrow in 1855. Mexico also contended with indigenous groups that controlled the territory that Mexico claimed in the north. For example, the Comanche controlled a huge territory in sparsely populated central and northern Texas. Wanting to stabilize and develop that area — and as few people from central Mexico had chosen to resettle to this remote and hostile territory —
24920-553: The polls were not taken seriously before because, "in the social imagination," the PRI was virtually "invincible," this time they were a "novelty" because of their "proliferation and diffusion."There are nine nationwide surveys "of which we have a record," compared to twenty-one that are restricted to the Federal District. Similarly, it takes into account seven national polls and thirteen from the District, averaging them to award Salinas
25098-528: The populace "to resist and disobey those who, through the abuse of power, intend to continue oppressing them" and urged his opponents to sign a pledge against "fraudulent triumphs" and launch a "high-level political campaign." On January 10, 1987, leftist parties such as the Unified Socialist Party of Mexico (PSUM), Mexican Workers Party (PMT), Revolutionary Socialist of the Mexican People, and
25276-489: The post-revolutionary period (1920–1946) was characterized by revolutionary generals serving as Presidents of Mexico , including Álvaro Obregón (1920–24), Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–28), Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–40), and Manuel Avila Camacho (1940–46). The post-revolutionary project of the Mexican government sought to bring order to the country, end military intervention in politics, and create organizations of interest groups. Workers, peasants, urban office workers, and even
25454-410: The preceding days. The confusion continued until October 4 when, in the morning, Núcleo Radio Mil—which was later joined by Acir, Radio Formula and Radio Programas de México—erroneously reported—due to a rumor that del Mazo spread That García Ramírez was the selected one. When Salinas de Gortari was finally declared the winner, the news spread quickly—"minutes, in hours, the entire country was aware of
25632-481: The presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas , who expelled Calles from the country and implemented many economic and social reforms. This included the Mexican oil expropriation in March 1938, which nationalized the U.S. and Anglo-Dutch oil company known as the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company , which would result in the creation of the state-owned Pemex . Cárdenas's successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–1946)
25810-415: The president to "find ways of democratic improvement." The "renewal" described changes to the electoral laws. The consultations took place in July and August. De la Madrid subsequently proposed an initiative on 3 November to amend sections 54 and 77 of the constitution, as well as articles 52, 53, 56, and 60. The reforms, which involved adjustments to the Chamber of Deputies electoral system, were approved by
25988-601: The principle of public financing for political parties based on vote and seat totals. It changed the composition of the Federal Electoral Commission (CFE) and added the Federal Electoral Contentious Tribunal, which is in charge of handling claims, complaints, and annulment appeals: However, the Congress of the Union established political party representation, with one commissioner for each formation receiving 1.5% of
26166-401: The production of synthetic hormones in the 1950s and 1960s and eventually leading to the invention of combined oral contraceptive pills . The United Mexican States are a federation whose government is representative , democratic, and republican based on a presidential system according to the 1917 Constitution . The Constitution establishes three levels of government: the federal Union,
26344-499: The registration period expired at the end of the month, four verified candidates for the 6 September primary election were facing one another. Three days later, the PMS National College of Voters reported that Castillo was emerging as the winner. Moments later, Becerra acknowledged his defeat and the next day Zepeda did the same. Castillo was announced as the party's presidential candidate on 13–14 September. In an article for
26522-551: The registry. Similarly, the Mexican Socialist Party (PMS) withdrew its candidacy in favor of Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, and the PRI was able to enforce its choice. The PRI denied the request to reprint the electoral ballots, whose printing was handled by the Nation's Graphic Workshops, in order to keep the discussion focused on technical matters. as with the number of registered voters, the number of boxes installed varies according to
26700-456: The results" varied, which prevented the surveys from offering "certainty or reliability regarding" the electoral process. In this regard, the June 14 El Universal poll asked, "Do you believe that the electoral results will be reliable?" and 60.73% of respondents answered negatively. 60.44% of respondents said in July that the official candidate would win "despite everything," adding 76.45% to this percentage. The polls indicated that electoral fraud
26878-428: The ruling of the Electoral Contentious Court, "the two formulas appeared on the same ballot and with a single circle per party." During the election year, the Court heard 23 appeals in total, approving the CFE's decision not to reprint the ballots following Pemesista's withdrawal. Nonetheless, the organization played a very small role in the election preparation process. The PRI announced Carlos Salinas de Gortari , who
27056-974: The second fastest rate of deforestation in the world, second only to Brazil. It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.82/10, ranking it 63rd globally out of 172 countries. According to SGI there is Deforestation and soil erosion especially in rural areas of Mexico. In the 2022 report it was noted environmental protection laws have improved in major cities but remain unenforced or unregulated in rural regions. In Mexico, 170,000 square kilometers (65,637 sq mi) are considered "Protected Natural Areas". These include 34 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67 national parks , 4 natural monuments (protected in perpetuity for their aesthetic, scientific or historical value), 26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource protection (conservation of soil, hydrological basins, and forests) and 17 sanctuaries (zones rich in diverse species). Plants indigenous to Mexico are grown in many parts of
27234-440: The selection process for candidates was, nevertheless, "a fictitious one [...] with a parade of the supposed pre-candidates, which was nothing more than a mere simulation." In keeping with PRI custom, the chosen one was picked by the Mexican president, and the "uncovering ritual" was repeated amid a setting of "presumed party unity." This "simulation" was the ruling party's reaction to the "democratizing current" that eventually led to
27412-413: The sources at the time - between 54,652 and 56,642. As opposed to the previous statement, assuring, the CFE did, on occasion, attempt to reach an understanding and compromise on "thorny issues." They cite the formation of a subcommittee tasked with investigating allegations of destroying electoral propaganda and using public funds to benefit the PRI, as well as a complaint filed against Televisa for airing
27590-428: The state governments, and the municipal governments. The federal legislature is the bicameral Congress of the Union , composed of the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies . The Congress makes federal law , declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments. The federal Congress, as well as the state legislatures, are elected by
27768-412: The summer and fall. Although low-lying areas north of the Tropic of Cancer are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly temperature averages (from 20 to 24 °C or 68.0 to 75.2 °F) because of more moderate conditions during the winter. Mexico ranks fourth in the world in biodiversity and is one of the 17 megadiverse countries . With over 200,000 different species, Mexico
27946-438: The support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries, which form a group informally called the Coffee Club . The Mexican Armed Forces are administered by the Secretariat of National Defense ( Secretaria de Defensa Nacional , SEDENA). There are two branches: the Mexican Army (which includes the Mexican Air Force ), and the Mexican Navy . The Secretariat of Public Security and Civil Protection has jurisdiction over
28124-510: The time. Consolidating power, President Carranza had peasant leader Emiliano Zapata assassinated in 1919. Carranza had gained the support of the peasantry during the Revolution, but once in power, he did little to institute land reform, which had motivated many to fight in the Revolution. Carranza returned some confiscated land to their original owners. President Carranza's best general, Obregón, served briefly in his administration but returned to his home state of Sonora to position himself to run in
28302-416: The total votes cast. To guarantee that a party maintained an absolute majority in the Chamber, a mechanism was also established: "The party with the greatest evidence of majority will be assigned proportional representation deputies, until the absolute majority is reached [...]" if no party receives 51% of the effective national vote and none of them reach half plus one of the chamber's members. In contrast,
28480-414: The vote and one for each additional 3%, up to a maximum of 16 commissioners per party. It would still be led by the Secretary of the Interior, who also served as its president. This was the first time that a parallel vote tabulation was implemented in Mexico, and the results were informed by telephone from the electoral districts to the secretariat of the Interior . The institution in charge of counting
28658-460: The vote. It was the lowest for a winning candidate since direct presidential elections were inaugurated in 1917; in all previous presidential elections, the PRI faced no serious opposition and won with well over 70% of the vote. In the Chamber of Deputies election, the PRI won 260 of the 500 seats, as well as winning 60 of the 64 seats in the Senate election. Although early results from the parallel vote tabulation indicated that Cuauhtemoc Cárdenas
28836-413: The votes was the Comisión Federal Electoral (CFE), presided by the Secretary of the Interior , Manuel Bartlett . On July 2, four days before the elections, Francisco Xavier Ovando , Cárdenas' top adviser, and his assistant Román Gil were assassinated in Mexico City. According to Cárdenas, Ovando designed a network to collect information from the 300 electoral districts on election day in order to prevent
29014-403: The world and integrated into their national cuisines. Some of Mexico's native culinary ingredients include maize, tomato, beans, squash, chocolate, vanilla , avocado , guava , chayote , epazote , camote , jícama , nopal , zucchini , tejocote , huitlacoche , sapote , mamey sapote , and a great variety of chiles , such as the habanero and the jalapeño . Most of these names come from
29192-546: Was a government in internal exile, but with the end of the Civil War in the United States in April 1865, the Reunified U.S. government began aiding the Mexican Republic. Two years later, the French Army withdrew its support, but Maximilian remained in Mexico. Republican forces captured him and he was executed. The "Restored Republic" saw the return of Juárez, "the personification of the embattled republic," as president. The Conservatives had been not only defeated militarily but also discredited politically for their collaboration with
29370-416: Was a serious political error and that his actions showed that he was more focused on the campaign than the issues facing the country. He even entertained the possibility that he could It is an action taken by the PRI directly. Likewise, the cupular decision of the nomination caused an "internal division" in the political formation. Because of the previously mentioned, Cárdenas was additionally expelled out of
29548-420: Was at the service of his party," nevertheless. In this way, despite his candidate's claims that "the talks were opened," the PMS obstructed any kind of consensus. For Arnoldo Martínez Verdugo , Pemesista leader, the left had to unite to defeat the PRI and continue with the austerity measures, so efforts to achieve a "unified position" would be maintained. Castillo eventually withdrew his candidacy in support of
29726-424: Was crushed by Juárez. Having won re-election, Juárez died in office in July 1872, and Liberal Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada became president, declaring a "religion of the state" for the rule of law, peace, and order. When Lerdo ran for re-election, Díaz rebelled against the civilian president, issuing the Plan of Tuxtepec . Díaz had more support and waged guerrilla warfare against Lerdo. On the verge of Díaz's victory on
29904-625: Was due to Napoleon Bonaparte 's invasion of Spain in 1808. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were eventually captured, Hidalgo was defrocked, and they were executed by firing squad on 31 July 1811. The first 35 years after Mexico's independence were marked by political instability and the changing of the Mexican state from a transient monarchy to a fragile federated republic. There were military coups d'état, foreign invasions, ideological conflict between Conservatives and Liberals , and economic stagnation . Former Royal Army General Agustín de Iturbide became regent, as newly independent Mexico sought
30082-427: Was in question. Spain attempted to reconquer its former colony during the 1820s but eventually recognized its independence. France attempted to recoup losses it claimed for its citizens during Mexico's unrest and blockaded the Gulf Coast during the so-called Pastry War of 1838–1839. General Antonio López de Santa Anna emerged as a national hero because of his role in both these conflicts; Santa Anna came to dominate
30260-524: Was leading, when the official results were published, Salinas de Gortari was claimed to have won by a large margin. All of the opposition candidates decried the rigged elections, and there were numerous rallies across the country, including those by opposition MPs in Congress. However, Salinas de Gortari was allowed to take office as President on December 1 after the PRI-dominated Congress ruled his election legitimate. The Federal Law of Political Organizations and Electoral Processes (LFOPPE), which resulted from
30438-403: Was more moderate, and relations between the U.S. and Mexico vastly improved during World War II , when Mexico was a significant ally. From 1946 the election of Miguel Alemán , the first civilian president in the post-revolutionary period, Mexico embarked on an aggressive program of economic development, known as the Mexican miracle , which was characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and
30616-461: Was planned, according to candidate Cárdenas, who shared this skepticism: "[The polls are] part of the game of the official party, but above all of the government, to alter the result of the election." Even though Salinas's numbers were favorable, the PRI reached "unprecedented" percentages and that Cárdenas "represented a rising opposition." The Democratic Front and its leaders urged the president of Madrid to prevent an illegal act by bringing up
30794-403: Was secular education. The Díaz government led a protracted conflict against the Yaqui that culminated with the forced relocation of thousands of Yaqui to Yucatán and Oaxaca. As the centennial of independence approached, Díaz gave an interview where he said he was not going to run in the 1910 elections, when he would be 80. Political opposition had been suppressed and there were few avenues for
30972-421: Was the Secretary of Programming and Budget at the time, as its nominee for president on 4 October 1987. At 10:30 a.m., the party president, Jorge de la Vega Domínguez , made the following announcement at the national headquarters in front of the sector leaders: "The three sectors of our party and its territorial leadership, have spoken unanimously in favor of comrade Carlos Salinas de Gortari's pre-candidacy."
31150-407: Was the only Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development since it joined in 1994 until Chile gained full membership in 2010. Mexico is considered a regional power hence its presence in major economic groups such as the G8+5 and the G-20 . Since the 1990s Mexico has sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods with
31328-439: Was the responsibility of educational institutions, with assistance from media sources like El Universal and La Jornada , as well as American groups like Gallup , Bendixen, and Law. There were more than twenty exercises that involved "very diverse" media, researchers and methodologies. it was also within these circumstances that "the first generation of Mexican institutions specialized in public opinion research emerged." Since
31506-490: Was used in the 1836 Constitutional Laws . The earliest human artifacts in Mexico are chips of stone tools found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years ago. Mexico is the site of the domestication of maize, tomato, and beans , which produced an agricultural surplus. This enabled the transition from paleo-Indian hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages beginning around 5000 BC. The formative period of Mesoamerica
31684-430: Was witnessed by 8,000 people as per the authorities and 35,000 people by the organizers. During his speech, he declared that the PPS and other political factions would be joining him shortly. This materialized on 13 December, when at its XIII Congress the PPS nominated it and with this concluded "the stage of gestation of fundamental alliances of the Democratic Current with registered political organizations." At that time,
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