Medu Art Ensemble (1979 - 1985) was a multiracial, Pan-African, and anti-colonial collective of cultural activists based in Gaborone , Botswana during the height of the anti-apartheid resistance movement during the late twentieth century. The collective formed originally in 1979 and was formed to give voice to South Africa’s apartheid policy of racial segregation (1948-1994) and liberation struggles in neighboring countries Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, and Zimbabwe. The group was formed after the 1976 Soweto Uprising , when many South African activists were forced into exile. The group was composed of over 60 musicians, performance artists, visual artists, researchers, writers, and poets. Most of the members were South African, but some were from the United States of America, Canada, Cuba, Brazil, Sweden, and Botswana. As a "non-aligned" group, Medu worked with artists from various racial, social, political, and cultural backgrounds. Medu’s members, or “cultural workers” as they preferred to be called, eventually organized and relocated to Gaborone, Botswana in 1978. They felt that the term "cultural workers" was far more fitting to their mission rather than referring to themselves as artists because the such a pursuit was regarded as something trivial and therefore inherently elitist and white. With the support of the African National Congress (ANC), in Gaborone, Medu officially registered as a cultural organization with the Botswanan government. Medu means “roots” in the Northern Sotho language Sepedi , and describes the collective's underground operations (in defiance of the apartheid government's ban on oppositional political parties and organizations). The collective’s cultural work was divided into six units; Publications and Research, Graphic Arts and Design, Music, Theatre, Photography, and Film.
79-437: In Gaborone, Medu organized concerts, conducted art and creative writing workshops, produced films, organized public health campaigns, and mounted exhibitions among other activities. The collective also produced agitational newsletters and political posters, both of which sought to simultaneously bolster regional solidarity, critique the injustices of the apartheid state, and promote black consciousness. One of Medu's flagship events
158-402: A balanced air force, and a navy adequate for coastal protection in all. In addition, numerous auxiliary formations were trained as support units capable of occupying strategic border areas, including the predominantly Angolan 32 Battalion , Namibia's South West African Territorial Force , and four (Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkei, and Venda) Bantustan militaries. During Botha's term,
237-601: A battalion sized unit was only appointed in February 1994, by which time the old SADF was already on its deathbed. However, black officer candidates from the various Homeland Forces and from South West Africa/SWATF had been accepted since 1981. Units such as the 32 Battalion incorporated many black volunteers, as did the 101 Battalion . Conscription was opposed by organisations such as the End Conscription Campaign , but overall, white morale remained high—as indicated by
316-650: A conventional military arm which could defend the republic's borders, making retaliatory strikes as necessary. As the military expanded during the 1970s, the SADF general staff was organised into six sections—finance, intelligence, logistics, operations, personnel, and planning; uniquely, the South African Medical Service (SAMS) was made co-equal with the South African Army , the South African Navy and
395-452: A different method where a plate's non-image areas are protected via a layer of ink-repellent silicon. Waterless offset lithography is newer, invented in the 1960s by 3M. It was later sold and commercialized by Toray. Advantages of offset printing compared to other printing methods include: Disadvantages of offset printing compared to other printing methods include: Every printing technology has its own identifying marks, and offset printing
474-536: A fixed cut-off, unlike rotogravure or flexographic presses, which are variable. Offset printing uses inks that, compared to other printing methods, are highly viscous. Typical inks have a dynamic viscosity of 40–100 Pa·s. There are many types of paste inks available for utilization in offset lithographic printing and each have their own advantages and disadvantages. These include heat-set, cold-set, and energy-curable (or EC), such as ultraviolet - (or UV-) curable, and electron beam- (or EB-) curable. Heat-set inks are
553-527: A flat ( planographic ) image carrier. Ink rollers transfer ink to the image areas of the image carrier, while a water roller applies a water-based film to the non-image areas. The modern "web" process feeds a large reel of paper through a large press machine in several parts, typically for several meters, which then prints continuously as the paper is fed through. Development of the offset press came in two versions: in 1875 by Robert Barclay of England for printing on tin and in 1904 by Ira Washington Rubel of
632-804: A foreign rather than domestic enemy despite extensive preparation for both. As the Apartheid ended in 1994 , the SADF was transformed inthe SANDF, the South African National Defence Force . The State President was the Commander-in-Chief of the SADF with: Staff Divisions under the Chief of Defence Staff included: Other Support Services commands included: Prior to amalgamation, the SADF had 585,000 personnel divided as follows: South Africa at one time possessed nuclear weapons , but its stockpile
711-430: A large number of sheet sizes and format sizes can be run through the same press. In addition, waste sheets can be used for make-ready (which is the testing process to ensure a quality print run). This allows for lower cost preparation so that good paper is not wasted while setting up the press, for plates and inks. Waste sheets do bring some disadvantages as often there are dust and offset powder particles that transfer on to
790-439: A metal cylinder instead of a flat stone. The offset cylinder was covered with specially treated cardboard that transferred the printed image from the stone to the surface of the metal. Later, the cardboard covering of the offset cylinder was changed to rubber, which is still the most commonly used material. As the 19th century closed and photography became popular, many lithographic firms went out of business. Photoengraving ,
869-463: A newspaper press to print color pages heat-set and black & white pages cold-set. Web offset presses are beneficial in long run printing jobs, typically press runs that exceed 10,000 or 20,000 impressions. Speed is a determining factor when considering the completion time for press production; some web presses print at speeds of 3,000 feet (910 meters) per minute or faster. In addition to the benefits of speed and quick completion, some web presses have
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#1732854611709948-494: A normally sympathetic international stage. While it was clear that popular support was growing and guerrilla skills were being improved upon, affrays on South Africa itself did not seriously disrupt the economy or impact the country's superior military and industrial status. By the fall of apartheid in 1991, the SADF was an uneven reflection of both the strengths and weaknesses of South Africa's white society at large. It employed many personnel with developed technical skills; thus,
1027-438: A press via a suction bar that lifts and drops each sheet onto place. A lithographic ("litho" for short) press uses principles of lithography to apply ink to a printing plate, as explained previously. Sheet-fed litho is commonly used for printing of short-run magazines, brochures, letter headings, and general commercial (jobbing) printing. In sheet-fed offset, "the printing is carried out on single sheets of paper as they are fed to
1106-443: A process that used halftone technology instead of illustration, became the primary aesthetic of the era. Many printers, including Ira Washington Rubel of New Jersey , were using the low-cost lithograph process to produce copies of photographs and books. Rubel discovered in 1901—by forgetting to load a sheet—that printing from the rubber roller, instead of the metal, made the printed page clearer and sharper. After further refinement,
1185-510: A raid that lasted a total of 40 minutes. The raid killed twelve people including Thami Mnyele and Cecil George Phahle (only two were Medu members) and others injured. Succeeding the raid, the Botswana government banned the remaining members from honoring the victims. With not enough people to mass produce posters and the constant threat of an attack, the Medu Art Ensemble disbanded soon after
1264-470: A set of "chill rolls" positioned after the dryer lowers the paper temperature and sets the ink. The speed at which the ink dries is a function of dryer temperature and length of time the paper is exposed to this temperature. This type of printing is typically used for magazines, catalogs, inserts, and other medium-to-high volume, medium-to-high quality production runs. This is also a subset of web offset printing, typically used for lower quality print output. It
1343-507: A substantial collection of Medu's posters, and archival documents, media, and ephemera attesting to the collective's cultural programming and tragic dissolution. Medu's posters were included in the 2011 exhibition, Impressions from South Africa,1965 to Now at the Museum of Modern Art, New York . In 2019, the Art Institute of Chicago organized The People Shall Govern! Medu Art Ensemble and
1422-494: A wavelength of 830 nm, but vary in their energy usage depending on whether they are used to expose or ablate material. Violet CTP lasers have a much shorter wavelength, 405 nm–410 nm. Violet CTP is "based on emulsion tuned to visible light exposure". Another process is the computer-to-conventional plate (CTCP) system in which conventional offset plates can be exposed, making it an economical option. Sheet-fed refers to individual sheets of paper or rolls being fed into
1501-521: Is best suited for economically producing large volumes of high quality prints in a manner that requires little maintenance. Many modern offset presses use computer-to-plate systems as opposed to the older computer-to-film work flows, which further increases their quality. There are two types of offset printing: wet offset and waterless offset . Wet offset lithography uses a mix of wetting fluids (dampening solutions) to manage ink adhesion and to protect non-image areas. Waterless offset lithography employs
1580-448: Is known as slur. Web-fed refers to the use of rolls (or "webs") of paper supplied to the printing press. Offset web printing is generally used for runs in excess of five or ten thousand impressions. Typical examples of web printing include newspapers, newspaper inserts or ads, magazines, direct mail, catalogs, and books. Web-fed presses are divided into two general classes: cold-set (or non-heat-set ) and heat-set offset web presses,
1659-402: Is no exception. In text reproduction, the type edges are sharp and have clear outlines. The paper surrounding the ink dots is usually unprinted. The halftone dots can be hexagonal though there are different screening methods. Several variations of the printing process exist: Blanket-to-blanket presses are also called perfecting or duplex presses because they print on both sides of the sheet at
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#17328546117091738-559: Is typical of newspaper production. In this process, the ink dries by absorption into the underlying paper. A typical coldset configuration is often a series of vertically arranged print units and peripherals. As newspapers seek new markets, which often imply higher quality (more gloss, more contrast), they may add a heatset tower (with a dryer) or use UV (ultraviolet) based inks which "cure" on the surface by polymerization rather than by evaporation or absorption. Sheet-fed presses offer several advantages. Because individual sheets are fed through,
1817-540: Is where the plates containing all of the imaging are mounted. Finally, the blanket and impression cylinders are used to transfer the image to the substrate running through the press. The delivery system is the final destination in the printing process while the paper runs through the press. Once the paper reaches delivery, it is stacked for the ink to cure in a proper manner. This is the step in which sheets are inspected to make sure they have proper ink density and registration. Production or impact of double image in printing
1896-518: The Angolan Civil War during Operation Savannah and were also active alongside Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War . Although both campaigns were strategically unsuccessful, it was clearly proven that South Africa's military was immeasurably superior in strength and sophistication than all her African neighbours combined. Further enlargement and modernisation of
1975-704: The Harlem Renaissance . Because these cross-cultural influences went against the rigid notions of art, Medu used their work to reflect on the realities of oppressed people under apartheid. Medu played a formative role in shaping the visual culture of resistance in South Africa during the late 1970s and early 1980s along with other key printmaking initiatives such as Junction Avenue, Screen Training Project, and Cape Town Arts Project. Operating both contemporaneously with and after Medu, these collectives also issued posters to inform and galvanize their compatriots, countering
2054-790: The South African Air Force . During apartheid , armed SADF troops were used in countering terror attacks, often directly supporting the South African Police . South African military units were involved in the long-running Mozambican and Angolan civil wars, frequently supporting Pretoria's allies, the Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). SADF personnel were also deployed during
2133-490: The South African Defence Force 's murderous Raid on Gaborone , which resulted in the death of twelve people, including Medu members Mike Hamlyn, Thamsanga Mnyele , George Phahle, and Lindi Phahle. As a multiracial collective of cultural workers, Medu comprised more than sixty visual artists, performers, and writers who were collectively invested in regional liberation and resistance to apartheid rule. Members of
2212-571: The Soviet Union , and Warsaw Pact member states. In general the struggle went badly for South Africa's opponents. Mozambique provided support and shelter to ANC operatives; in retaliation South African units launched massive counterstrikes which the local security forces were in no position to block. Military aircraft and special forces units deployed across Zimbabwe , Botswana , Lesotho , and Zambia to attack suspected insurgent bases. 30,000 South African military personnel were posted on
2291-644: The United States for printing on paper. Rubel's contemporary in Continental Europe was Kašpar Hermann , the author of the offset machine prototype (1904), holder of a patent for an offset disc machine (two rubber transfer rollers facing each other) – rolling-press. In 1907, he successfully started printing in Germany on his Triumph sheetfed offset press. Lithography was initially created to be an inexpensive method of reproducing artwork. This printing process
2370-522: The armed forces of South Africa from 1957 until 1994. Shortly before the state reconstituted itself as a republic in 1961, the former Union Defence Force was officially succeeded by the SADF, which was established by the Defence Act (No. 44) of 1957. The SADF, in turn, was superseded by the South African National Defence Force in 1994. The SADF was organised to perform a dual mission: to counter possible insurgency in all forms, and to maintain
2449-792: The 1980s, newspapers such as the Rand Daily Mail ran columns on censored material, many of which included Medu's posters and newsletters. Medu's posters range in their content. Posters intended for South African audiences forcefully scrutinized the pernicious mechanism and brutality of apartheid through bold imagery and slogans, commemorated activists and events, while others promoted the various cultural activities Medu's Film, Photography, Theatre, and Music units organized in Gaborone. The posters were typically produced through dialogue among Medu's participants, with individuals or groups of members contributing to different designs before presenting proposals to
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2528-746: The African National Congress (ANC) and the Umkhonto We Sizwe (MK) its paramilitary wing are a contentious issue. Due to the Ensemble's underground nature, clear evidence is limited. The ANC was banned by the South African government in 1960 but their operations continued in secret. Officially the Medu were not tied with the ANC and the Ensemble claimed to be impartial but Medu member poet Dr Wally Serote describes
2607-632: The Anti-Apartheid Poster, the first exhibition on Medu's work in North America. The exhibition featured approximately 130 of Medu's artwork consisting of t-shirts, banners, and 60 known posters. Key sources of scholarship on Medu Art Ensemble include: Posters (and in some case, newsletters) by Medu Art Ensemble can be found in numerous public collections including: South African Defence Force The South African Defence Force ( SADF ) ( Afrikaans : Suid-Afrikaanse Weermag ) comprised
2686-486: The Black Consciousness Movement which held the belief, among others, that white sympathisers were ‘more of a hindrance than a help to their cause’. Evidently this position of belief changed and was adapted to fit the ideal of a future South Africa that would be home to all men regardless of race and white people were allowed to join and as such it helped gain international funding for the Ensemble. Members of
2765-399: The Chief and Davidson lines made by A.T.F.-Davidson . Offset duplicators are made for fast and quick printing jobs; printing up to 12,000 impressions per hour. They are able to print business forms, letterheads, labels, bulletins, postcards, envelopes, folders, reports, and sales literature. The feeder system is responsible for making sure paper runs through the press correctly. This is where
2844-514: The Council where the event was called an "unprovoked and unwarranted attack. The United Nations Resolution 568 drafted on 21 June 1985 ordered ‘full and adequate compensation by South Africa to Botswana' for the damages and Botswana's status and place of refugee for those affected by the apartheid regime was reiterated. In 2002, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission claimed that because the raid went outside
2923-667: The Infantry and Service Corps on a tribal basis, most black soldiers serving in these exclusive tribal battalions, which had black NCOs but white commissioned officers. The first black personnel were accepted into commissioned ranks only from 1986, and then only for serving black soldiers and NCOs. The regular Commission would not be open for Bantus until 1991, and then again they would serve only in black units or Support/Service Support units, to avoid having position of authority over white combat arms personnel. The first black officer to be promoted to lieutenant colonel rank and have command over
3002-531: The Medu Art Ensemble were inspired by artists around the world. Although the group considered themselves to be an ideologically diverse group, their artworks lean towards socialist and communist teachings. The members were influenced by various liberation struggles worldwide and wanted to break away from mainstream art institutions, and Marxist artists all around the world. Theorists such as Frantz Fanon , Mao Zedong , and Bertolt Brecht , with African writers such as Wole Soyinka and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o furthered
3081-488: The Medu members as "cadres of the ANC." The Ensemble's involvement may have fuelled their motives but it may have also contributed to their downfall and abrupt end as the SADF forces claim that their Botswana Raid 1985 was motivated by their intelligence that alleged that they were to attack ANC members. At 1:40am on 14 June 1985 the South African Defense Forces (SADF) crossed the border into Botswana and began
3160-696: The Namibian border by late 1985, frequently crossing the frontier to battle SWAPO groups operating from southern Angola . SWAPO's MPLA allies, with the backing of the Cuban military , were often unable to protect them. These raids demonstrated the SADF's efficiency in combating rural insurgency. Major guerrilla camps were always chief targets, whether on foreign or domestic soil. Consequently, establishing good intelligence and effective assault strategy were commonly reflected in tactical priorities. The SADF's success eventually compelled SWAPO to withdraw over 200 miles from
3239-432: The Namibian border, forcing their insurgents to travel great distances across arid bush in order to reach their targets. Many could no longer carry heavy weapons on these treks, occasionally abandoning them as they marched south. Moreover, serious SWAPO losses were already having a negative effect on morale. ANC operations fared little better. Most high-profile terrorist attacks were foiled or offered negative publicity from
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3318-785: The Potter Press printing Company in New York produced a press in 1903. By 1907 the Rubel offset press was in use in San Francisco . The Harris Automatic Press Company also created a similar press around the same time. Charles and Albert Harris modeled their press "on a rotary letter press machine". Newspaper publisher Staley T. McBrayer invented the Vanguard web offset press for newspaper printing, which he unveiled in 1954 in Fort Worth, Texas . One of
3397-452: The SADF began focusing on taking a more aggressive stance to the ongoing war against communist-supported liberation and anti- Apartheid movements in South Africa and Namibia (then South West Africa ) and targeting neighboring countries that offered them support. This was partially justified as a new structure intended to turn back a "total onslaught" on the republic from abroad. The post-colonial rise of newly independent black governments on
3476-582: The South African borders, perpetrators of the raid could not be tried and persecuted. Only the men who were tried for the raid were the informants for the raid, who were granted amnesty. Medu's work has been the subject of several exhibitions. In 2008, the Johannesburg Art Gallery mounted the exhibition Thami Mnyele + Medu Art Ensemble, which centered on the work of Thamsanqa (Thami) Mnyele and his contributions to Medu's Graphics Unit. This comprehensive exhibition brought together artwork by Mnyele,
3555-624: The United Democratic Front and the Silkscreen Training Project to fight against apartheid. Medu and ANC member Dikobe wa Mogale Ben Martins opened the symposium with the speech, ‘The Necessity of Art for National Liberation’. Referencing Austrian art historian Ernst Fischer’s , The Necessity of Art: A Marxist Approach (1959) Martins claimed that artists have the responsibility to teach the general public about social issues and stimulate their social and class consciousness in
3634-661: The administration's doorstep created a perceived menace to the existing structure, and Pretoria's occupation of Namibia threatened to bring it into direct confrontation with the world community. On the ground, militant guerrilla movements such as the African National Congress (ANC), South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO) and the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC) challenged South Africa with force of arms. In 1984, at least 6,000 such insurgents were being trained and armed by Tanzania , Ethiopia ,
3713-443: The anti-apartheid movement. The festival included performances from Junction Avenue Theatre Company’s Marabi, a musical focusing on the culture within the South African working class, and well-known live musical acts Hugh Masekela , Barry Gilder , and Abdullah Ibrahim . The festival and symposium allowed cultural workers to interact and engage in each other's works and influenced new forms of multiracial cultural resistance including
3792-460: The armed forces continued under former defence minister Pieter Willem Botha , who became state president in 1984. Shortly after Botha took office, the SADF numbered some 83,400 men (including 53,100 conscripts and 5,400 non-whites): one armoured brigade, one mechanised infantry brigade, four motorised brigades, one parachute brigade , a special reconnaissance regiment , one Marine brigade, twenty artillery regiments, supporting specialist units,
3871-529: The blankets and plate cylinders, creating imperfections on the printed sheet. This method produces the highest quality images. Web-fed presses, on the other hand, are much faster than sheet-fed presses, with speeds up to 80,000 cut-offs per hour (a cut-off is the paper that has been cut off a reel or web on the press; the length of each sheet is equal to the cylinder's circumference). The speed of web-fed presses makes them ideal for large runs such as newspapers, magazines, and comic books. However, web-fed presses have
3950-441: The collective included Gwen Ansell, Theresa Devant, Sergio-Albio González, Jonas Gwangwa , Basil Jones, Michael Kahn, Heinz Klug, Keorapetse Kgositsile , Adrian Kohler, Mandla Langa, Hugh Masekela , Gordon Metz, Thamsanqa Mnyele , Judy Seidman, Mongane Wally Serote , Pethu Serote, and Tim Williams, among many others. The collective originally consisted of just black South African's as its founding members were very much inspired by
4029-428: The conference included Art Toward Social Development curated by David Koloane and Emile Maurice , consisting of paintings, photography, live music, poetry, and theater performances. Around 300 art pieces were displayed in the exhibition. Artists collaborated and created t-shirts, political pins, and other forms of art. Printmaking was a significant aspect of the conference as artists collaborated to create graphics for
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#17328546117094108-453: The country. Gaborone in Botswana was an ideal location for the Collective not just geographically (very close to the border to South Africa and neighboring to a number of Africa countries) but also this distance served as a chance for artists to work outside of the numerous censorship laws, a chance to express themselves and to be free of the restrictive Apartheid laws. The Medu Ensemble were not
4187-456: The difference being how the inks dry. Cold web offset printing dries through absorption into the paper, while heat-set utilizes drying lamps or heaters to cure or "set" the inks. Heat-set presses can print on both coated (slick) and uncoated papers, while cold-set presses are restricted to uncoated paper stock, such as newsprint. Some cold-set web presses can be fitted with heat dryers, or ultraviolet lamps (for use with UV-curing inks), thus enabling
4266-461: The disinformation campaigns and ideologies promulgated by the apartheid government. The first of Medu's six units to emerge was Publications and Research, which served as the collective’s mouthpiece and administrative organ by generating the collective's meeting minutes, quarterly newsletters, and other publications. This unit operated symbiotically with the Graphics Unit, which designed covers for
4345-540: The entire collective for approval. While posters for temporal-specific events such as concerts were often produced in short runs, others with evergreen political content were issued in the hundreds, especially in the lead up to the collective's 1982 Culture and Resistance Festival and Symposium where posters were given out to attendees. Today the Medu posters serve as a rich source, they provide information that has little to no documentation elsewhere as South Africa's harsh censorship laws forbid such intelligence to be shared in
4424-944: The few recruits tried for serious disciplinary offences. Before 1957, the Union of South Africa had relied on small standing cadres for defence, expanding during wartime through the use of white conscripts. During the Second World War the Union Defence Force initially fielded only 3,353 full-time soldiers, with another 14,631 active in reserve roles. These troops were not prepared to fight in Europe proper, as they had hitherto been trained only in basic light infantry tactics and bush warfare. However, Jan Christiaan Smuts proved remarkably resourceful in raising 345,049 men for overseas operations; South African soldiers went on to distinguish themselves as far abroad as Italy and Egypt. After 1957,
4503-523: The first ones to discover the advantages of the capital, the Afrikaans couple Marius and Jeanette Schoon had set the works in place in 1977 when they founded bases there for the anti-apartheid movement. One of Medu’s most notable acts was their July 5 to 9, 1982 Culture and Resistance Festival and Symposium in which hundreds of artists from around the world gathered at the University of Botswana to emphasize
4582-461: The general public. The posters were often folded inside of newsletters and clandestinely smuggled into South Africa where they were often posted in public spaces before being torn down by state police or censors. Numerous examples of Medu's posters appeared on official censorship registries in accordance with apartheid state's 1974 Publications Act which outlined materials the regime deemed "undesirable," or potentially threatening to apartheid law; during
4661-550: The group's cultural thinking. The iconography found across the collective's posters partakes of an international socialist and revolutionary lexicon of broken chains, clenched fists, upraised arms, and heroic depictions of activists and freedom fighters. This symbolism originated in World War I–era labor and anti-oppression movements across the world and was expressed in the work of Soviet and antifascist poster makers, Mexican muralists and print workshop members, and participants in
4740-449: The importance of culture for southern African liberation from apartheid and colonialism. The conference’s main goal was to redefine people’s definition of art and use it as a form of resistance to help their community. The conference allowed Medu's posters to gain traction and exposure to the public. The symposium was organized by members of the ANC and leaders of Medu, Wally Serote , Thami Mnyele, and Sergio-Albio González . Events from
4819-549: The important functions in the printing process is prepress production. This stage makes sure that all files are correctly processed in preparation for printing. This includes converting to the proper CMYK color model , finalizing the files, and creating plates for each color of the job to be run on the press. Offset lithography is one of the most common ways of creating printed materials. A few of its common applications include: newspapers, magazines, brochures, stationery, and books. Compared to other printing methods, offset printing
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#17328546117094898-436: The inline ability to cut, perforate, and fold. This subset of web offset printing uses inks which dry by evaporation in a dryer typically positioned just after the printing units; it is typically done on coated papers, where the ink stays largely on the surface, and gives a glossy high contrast print image after the drying. As the paper leaves the dryer too hot for the folding and cutting that are typically downstream procedures,
4977-498: The military could more easily maintain and operate sophisticated hardware than black African forces drawn from underdeveloped regions. In an unusual contrast with Southern Africa's other white armies, the SADF had a stern sense of bureaucratic hierarchy. Commanders deferred to civilian supervisors and normally could not aspire to political power. The SADF's technical performance had also improved greatly, owing largely to realistic and efficient training procedures. The army in particular
5056-541: The most common variety and are "set" by applying heat and then rapid cooling to catalyze the curing process. They are used in magazines, catalogs, and inserts. Cold-set inks are set simply by absorption into non-coated stocks and are generally used for newspapers and books but are also found in insert printing and are the most economical option. Energy-curable inks are the highest-quality offset litho inks and are set by application of light energy. They require specialized equipment such as inter-station curing lamps, and are usually
5135-528: The most expensive type of offset litho ink. Offset lithography became the most popular form of commercial printing from the 1950s ("offset printing"). Substantial investment in the larger presses required for offset lithography was needed, and had an effect on the shape of the printing industry, leading to fewer, larger, printers. The change made a greatly increased use of colour printing possible, as this had previously been much more expensive. Subsequent improvements in plates, inks, and paper have further refined
5214-688: The new South African Defence Force was faced with a post-war upsurge in African nationalism , and forced to expand its resources accordingly. In 1963 its total strength stood at around 25,000 men. By 1977, the United Nations was imposing arms sanctions on the republic due to its controversial policy of racial apartheid. South Africa responded by developing a powerful domestic arms industry, capable of producing quality hardware, including jet fighters , drones , guided missiles , armoured cars , multiple rocket launchers , and small arms . SADF units fought in
5293-537: The newsletters and produced the posters for which Medu is best known. Members of the Graphic Arts Movement included Thami Mnyele , Miles Pelo, Heinz Klug, Judy Seidman, Gordon Metz Albio and Theresa Gonzales, Philip Segola, and Lentswe Mokgatle . Medu produced over 100 posters during its lifetime, using a range of printing techniques including offset lithograph , and screen printing . These techniques allowed Medu's posters to be mass produced and spread to
5372-527: The paper size to be printed. Two main materials are used: Computer-to-plate (CTP) is a newer technology which replaced computer-to-film (CTF) technology, and that allows the imaging of metal or polyester plates without the use of film. By eliminating the stripping, compositing, and traditional plate making processes, CTP altered the printing industry, which led to reduced prepress times, lower costs of labor, and improved print quality. Most CTP systems use thermal CTP or violet technologies. Both technologies have
5451-707: The press one at a time". Sheet-fed presses use mechanical registration to relate each sheet to one another to ensure that they are reproduced with the same imagery in the same position on every sheet running through the press. In the United States, an offset press with paper size up to 12 in × 18 in (300 mm × 460 mm), is classified as a duplicator instead of a press. Offset duplicators are used for fast, good quality reproduction of one-color and two-color copies in sizes up to 12 in × 18 in (300 mm × 460 mm). Popular models were made by A. B. Dick Company , Multilith , and
5530-505: The raid. Many of the surviving members left Botswana to continue their political work whereas others remained and practiced underground. After the disbandment, little was known about the whereabouts of the remaining Medu posters. Some were snuck into South Africa and publicly displayed, but most were confiscated, or destroyed by the SADF. After the attack, the representative of Botswana for the United Nations called for an urgent meeting of
5609-511: The related South African Border War . The military was mostly composed of white South Africans , who alone were subject to conscription . The permanent force of the Army was 85% Afrikaans speaking. However, black South Africans were the second largest group, and Asians and Coloured citizens with mixed ancestry were eligible to serve as volunteers, several attaining commissioned rank. From 1971 onwards, several black battalions were raised in
5688-441: The same characteristics in terms of quality and plate durability (for longer runs). However, the violet CTP systems are often cheaper than thermal ones, and thermal CTP systems do not need to be operated under yellow light. Thermal CTP involves the use of thermal lasers to expose or remove areas of coating while the plate is being imaged. This depends on whether the plate is negative, or positive working. These lasers are generally at
5767-535: The same time. There is no impression cylinder because the opposite blanket cylinders act as impression cylinders to each other during print production. This method is most used on offset presses designed for envelope printing. There are also two plate cylinders per colour on the press. Web and sheet-fed offset presses are similar in that many of them can also print on both sides of the paper in one pass, making it easier and faster to print duplex. The plates used in offset printing are thin, flexible, and usually larger than
5846-453: The struggle for liberation and the world around them. Martins argued, "As politics must teach people the ways and give them the means to take control over their own lives, art must teach people, in the most vivid and imaginative ways possible, how to take control over their own experience and observations, how to link these with the struggle for liberation and a just society free of race, class and exploitation." The Medu Art Ensemble's ties with
5925-408: The substrate is loaded and then the system is correctly set up to the certain specifications of the substrate to the press. The Printing Unit consists of many different systems. The dampening system is used to apply dampening solution to the plates with water rollers. The inking system uses rollers to deliver ink to the plate and blanket cylinders to be transferred to the substrate. The plate cylinder
6004-406: Was dismantled during the political transition of the early 1990s. Offset printing Offset printing is a common printing technique in which the inked image is transferred (or "offset") from a plate to a rubber blanket and then to the printing surface. When used in combination with the lithographic process, which is based on the repulsion of oil and water , the offset technique employs
6083-541: Was limited to use on flat, porous surfaces because the printing plates were produced from limestone . In fact the word "lithograph", which comes from Greek (λιθογραφία), means "an image from stone" or "written in stone". The first rotary offset lithographic printing press was created in England and patented in 1875 by Robert Barclay. This development combined mid-19th century transfer printing technologies and Richard March Hoe 's 1843 rotary printing press —a press that used
6162-470: Was skilled in both counterinsurgency warfare and conventional mechanised operations. In 1984, 11,000 infantrymen were even trained to execute blitzkrieg tactics. White soldiers were for the most part reasonably motivated; conscripts had a sense of defending their own country rather than some far-off foreign venture. Commissioned officers generally accepted in principle recruits of all colours, placed an emphasis on technical efficiency, and preferred to fight
6241-533: Was the 1982 Culture and Resistance Festival and Symposium, which brought thousands of activists, cultural workers, and ordinary people together (from across Africa, the Americas, and Europe) for a week of concerts, exhibitions, talks, workshops and other forms of radical cultural programing. This massive undertaking brought greater attention to Medu's activism, heightening in particular the apartheid government's scrutiny of collective's work. Medu disbanded in 1985, following
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