160-620: The Malwa Sultanate was a late medieval kingdom in the Malwa region , covering the present day Indian states of Madhya Pradesh and south-eastern Rajasthan from 1401 to 1562. It was founded by Dilawar Khan , who following Timur 's invasion and the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, in 1401, made Malwa an independent realm. Following the Battle of Gagron in 1519, much of the Sultanate came under
320-405: A Tower of Silence . Indore is the commercial capital of Malwa region and Madhya Pradesh as state. Malwa is one of the world's major opium producers. This crop resulted in development of close connections between the economies of Malwa, the western Indian ports and China , bringing international capital to the region in the 18th and 19th centuries. Malwa opium was a challenge to the monopoly of
480-676: A Turco - Afghan governor of the Delhi Sultanate . Dilawar Khan had ceased to pay tribute to Delhi after 1392. In 1437, the Ghurid dynasty of Dilawar Khan was overthrown by Mahmud Khan , a Khalji Turko-Afghan descendant of the Khalji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate . After the Khiljis were deposed, it was ruled by Shujaat Khan, an Afghan governor of Malwa under Sher Shah Suri . Shujaat Khan's son, Baz Bahadur declared independence in 1555, and ruled until
640-506: A subah (province) of his empire. The Malwa Subah existed from 1568 to 1743. Mandu was abandoned by the 17th century. During the 17th century much of Western Malwa was held by the Rathors of the Ratanawat branch. The Ratanawats later broke into several states which later became Ratlam State , Sitamau State and Sailana State . Some of the lesser states were Multhan and Kachi-Baroda . As
800-579: A country to which they were accustomed", according to Fazl. Akbar made clear that he would stay in India, reintroducing the historical legacy of the Timurid Renaissance , in contrast to his grandfather and father, who reigned as transient rulers. By 1559, the Mughals had launched a drive to the south into Rajputana and Malwa . However, Akbar's disputes with his regent, Bairam Khan, temporarily put an end to
960-511: A hostage to the Mughal court. Yousuf Shah surrendered immediately to the Mughals, but another of his sons, Yaqub Shah , crowned himself as king, leading a resistance against the Mughal armies. In June 1589, Akbar travelled from Lahore to Srinagar to receive the surrender of Yaqub and his rebel forces. Baltistan and Ladakh , which were Tibetan provinces adjacent to Kashmir, pledged their allegiance to Akbar. The Mughals also moved to conquer Sindh in
1120-532: A key to holding the interior parts of Rajputana. Udai Singh retreated to the hills of Mewar, leaving two Rajput warriors, Jaimal and Patta , in charge of the defence of his capital. Chittorgarh fell in February 1568 after a siege of four months . The fall of Chittor was proclaimed by Akbar as "the victory of Islam over infidels [ i.e. , non-Muslims]." In his Fathnama (dispatches announcing victory) issued on 9 March 1575 conveying his news of victory, Akbar wrote: "With
1280-723: A large part of Gwalior , parts of Indore and Tonk , and about 35 small estates and holdings. Political power was exercised from Neemuch . Upon Indian independence in 1947, the Holkars and other princely rulers acceded to India, and most of Malwa became part of the new state of Madhya Bharat , which was merged into Madhya Pradesh in 1956. The Malwa region occupies a plateau in western Madhya Pradesh and south-eastern Rajasthan (between 21°10′N 73°45′E / 21.167°N 73.750°E / 21.167; 73.750 and 25°10′N 79°14′E / 25.167°N 79.233°E / 25.167; 79.233 ), with Gujarat in
1440-639: A large-scale factory that produces diesel engines. Pithampur , an industrial town 25 km from Indore, is known as the Detroit of India for its heavy concentration of automotive industry. Indore is recognised as the commercial capital of Madhya Pradesh, and is the main centre for trade in textiles and agro-based products. It has one of the six Indian Institutes of Management and one of sixteen Indian Institute of Technology . The culture of Malwa has been significantly influenced by Gujarati and Rajasthani culture, because of their geographic proximity. Marathi influence
1600-448: A major astronomical observatory, attracting scholars from all over India including Bhāskara II . His successors ruled until about 1305, when Malwa was conquered by the Delhi Sultanate . Malwa was several times invaded by the south Indian Western Chalukya Empire . Dilawar Khan , previously Malwa's governor under the rule of the Delhi sultanate, declared himself sultan of Malwa in 1401 after
1760-565: A rebellion by Afghan nobles supported by the Rajput ruler of Idar , as well as the renewed intrigues of the Mirzas , forced his return to Gujarat. Akbar crossed Rajputana and reached Ahmedabad in 11 days—a journey that normally took six weeks. The outnumbered Mughal army won a decisive victory on 2 September 1573. Akbar slew the rebel leaders and erected a tower out of their severed heads. The conquest and subjugation of Gujarat proved highly profitable for
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#17328447221711920-552: A religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted policies that won him the support of his non-Muslim subjects, including abolishing the sectarian tax and appointing them to high civil and military posts. Under Akbar, Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, which tripled in size and wealth, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of an Indo-Persian culture . Akbar's courts at Delhi , Agra , and Fatehpur Sikri attracted holy men of many faiths, poets, architects, and artisans, and became known as centres of
2080-578: A solid colour patch, and architecture painted in vibrant colours. The biggest festival of Malwa is the Simhastha mela , held every 12 years, in which more than 40 million pilgrims take a holy dip in river Shipra . The festival of Gana-gour is celebrated in honour of Shiva and Parvati . The history of the festival goes back to Rano Bai , whose parental home was in Malwa, but who was married in Rajasthan. Rano Bai
2240-606: A unique 'mehrab' (lozenge) shaped coin. Akbar's portrait type gold coin (Mohur) is generally attributed to his son, Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir), who had rebelled and then sought reconciliation by minting and presenting his father with gold Mohurs bearing Akbar's portrait. During the latter part of Akbar's reign, coins portrayed the concept of Akbar's newly promoted religion, with the Ilahi type and Jalla Jalal-Hu types. Prior to Akbar's reign, marriages between Hindu princesses and Muslim kings failed to produce stable relations between
2400-397: Is kadhi made with tamarind instead of yogurt. Sweet cakes, made of a variety of wheat called tapu , are prepared during religious festivities. Sweet cereal called thulli is also typically eaten with milk or yoghurt. Traditional desserts include mawa-bati (milk-based sweet similar to Gulab jamun ), khoprapak (coconut-based sweet), shreekhand (yogurt based) and malpua . Lavani
2560-569: Is a widely practised form of folk music in southern Malwa, which was brought to the region by the Marathas . The Nirguni Lavani (philosophical) and the Shringari Lavani (erotic) are two of the main genres. The Bhils have their own folk songs, which are always accompanied by dance. The folk musical modes of Malwa are of four or five notes, and in rare cases six. The devotional music of the Nirguni cult
2720-822: Is also visible, because of recent rule by the Marathas . The main language of Malwa is Malvi , although Hindi is widely spoken in the cities. This Indo-European language is subclassified as Indo-Aryan. The language is sometimes referred to as Malavi or Ujjaini. Malvi is part of the Rajasthani branch of languages; Nimadi is spoken in the Nimar region of Madhya Pradesh and in Rajasthan. The dialects of Malvi are, in alphabetical order, Bachadi, Pawari/Bhoyari in Betul, Chhindwara, Pandhurna and Wardha districts. Dholewari, Hoshangabadi, Jamral, Katiyai, Malvi Proper, Patvi, Rangari, Rangri and Sondwari. A survey in 2001 found only five dialects: Ujjaini (in
2880-531: Is another nomadic tribe from Rajasthan that regularly visits the region. Religion in Malwa (2011) Malwa has a significant number of Dawoodi Bohras , a subsect of Shia Muslims from Gujarat, who are mostly businessmen by profession. Besides speaking the local languages, the Bohras have their own language, Lisan al-Dawat . The Patidars , who Migrated from Gujarat settle in the Malwa-nimar. The Whole Malwa-Nimar belt
3040-405: Is dominated by Patidar's who are large landowner's. The most spoken language in Malwa region is Malvi which is the regional language and Hindi is spoken in cities. Also, Marathi is spoken considerably in the region of Indore , Dhar , Dewas and Ujjain . A significant number of Marathas , Jats , Rajputs and Banias also live in the region. The Sindhis , who settled in the region after
3200-469: Is headed by Mufti e Azam Malwa or Grand Mufti of Malwa, who follows Aala Hazrat Imam Ahmed Raza Khan (an important leader of Ahle Sunnat Wal Jamaat ). He is considered as the supreme fatwa issuing authority of the region. Mufti Rizwanur-Rahman Faruqi was succeeded by his son in law Mufti Habeeb yar Khan. The current incumbent is Mufti Noorul Haq. The main tourist destinations in Malwa are places of historical or religious significance. The river Shipra and
3360-747: Is part of the Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forests ecoregion , Narmada valley dry deciduous forests , and Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests . Vegetation : The natural vegetation is tropical dry forest , with scattered teak (Tectona grandis) forests. The main trees are Butea , Bombax , Anogeissus , Acacia , Buchanania and Boswellia . The shrubs or small trees include species of Grewia , Ziziphus mauritiana , Casearia , Prosopis , Capparis , Woodfordia , Phyllanthus , and Carissa . Wildlife : Sambhar (Cervus unicolor) , Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) , and Chinkara (Gazella bennettii) are some common ungulates . During
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#17328447221713520-447: Is popular throughout Malwa. Legends of Raja Bhoj and Bijori , the Kanjar girl, and the tale of Balabau are popular themes for folk songs. Insertions known as stobha are commonly used in Malwa music; this can occur in four ways: the matra stobha (syllable insertion), varna stobha (letter insertion), shabda stobha (word insertion) and vakya stobha (sentence insertion). Malwa was
3680-512: Is the bhutta ri kees (made with grated corn roasted in ghee and later cooked in milk with spices). Chakki ri shaak is made of wheat dough, which is washed under running water, steamed and then used in a gravy of curd. The traditional bread of Malwa is called baati/bafla , which is essentially a small, round ball of wheat flour, roasted over dung cakes, in the traditional way. Baati is typically eaten with dal (pulses), while baflas are dripping with ghee and soaked with dal. The amli ri kadhi
3840-435: Is the longest of the three seasons, extending for about five months (mid-Ashvin to Phalgun , i.e., October to mid-March). The average daily minimum temperature ranges from 6 °C to 9 °C, though on some nights it can fall as low as 3 °C. Some cultivators believe that an occasional winter shower during the months of Pausha and Maagha —known as Mawta—is helpful to the early summer wheat and germ crops. The region
4000-602: Is the main attraction. A life-size statue of Rani Ahilya sits on a throne within the fort complex. Dhar was the capital of Malwa before Mandu became the capital in 1405. There, the fort is in ruins but offers a panoramic view. The Bhojashala temple (built-in 1400) is still used as a place of worship on Tuesday. Dhar is also a birthplace of Raja Bhoj. Dhar people named as Dharwasi. Akbar Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar ( ( 1542-10-15 ) 15 October 1542 – ( 1605-10-27 ) 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar
4160-614: The mansabdari system, establishing a hierarchical scale of military and civil ranks. Organisational reforms were accompanied by innovations in cannons , fortifications , and the use of elephants . Akbar also took an interest in matchlocks and effectively employed them during various conflicts. He sought the help of the Ottomans , as well as Europeans, especially the Portuguese and Italians, in procuring advanced firearms and artillery. Akbar's vizier Abul Fazl once declared that "with
4320-552: The Avanti kingdom, one of the prominent mahajanapadas of ancient India. In the post- Mahabharata period—around 500 BC— Avanti was an important kingdom in western India; it was ruled by the Haihayas , a people who were responsible for the destruction of Naga power in western India . The region was conquered by the Nanda Empire in the mid-4th century BC, and subsequently became part of
4480-629: The British East India Company , which was supplying Bengal opium to China. This led the British company to impose many restrictions on the production and trade of the drug; eventually, opium trading was pushed underground (see Opium Trading in Mumbai for more information). When smuggling became rife, the British eased the restrictions. Today, the region is one of the largest producers of legal opium in
4640-608: The Khandesh Sultanate refused to relinquish Khandesh . Akbar then established the Subahs of Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Khandesh under Prince Daniyal. "By the time of his death in 1605, Akbar controlled a broad sweep of territory from the Bay of Bengal to Qandahar and Badakshan. He touched the western sea in Sind and at Surat and was well astride central India." Akbar's system of central government
4800-702: The Makran coast, became a part of the Mughal Empire. Kandahar (also known as the ancient Indian kingdom of Gandhara ) had connections with the Mughals from the time of the Empire's ancestor, Timur , the warlord who had conquered much of Western, Central, and parts of South Asia in the 14th century. However, the Safavids considered it to be an appanage of the Persian-ruled territory of Khorasan , and declared its association with
4960-530: The Malwa Agency of British India was merged into Madhya Bharat (also known as Malwa Union) state of independent India. Although its political borders have fluctuated throughout history, the region has developed its own distinct culture, influenced by the Rajasthani, Marathi and Gujarati cultures. Several prominent people in the history of India have lived in Malwa, including the poet and dramatist Kalidasa ,
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5120-733: The Maurya Empire . Ashoka , who was later a Mauryan emperor, was governor of Ujjain in his youth. After the death of Ashoka in 232 BC, the Maurya Empire began to collapse. Although evidence is sparse, Malwa was probably ruled by the Kushanas , the Shakas and the Satavahana dynasty during the 1st and 2nd century CE. Ownership of the region was the subject of dispute between the Western Kshatrapas and
5280-741: The Miftah-ul-Fuzala , a dictionary of rare words, the Bustan (1502) painted by Haji Mahmud and the Aja'ib-us-San'ati (1508). Another manuscript of the Anwar-i-Suhaili (now in the National Museum, Delhi) probably also belong to this period. Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to
5440-654: The Mughal conqueror Timur attacked Delhi , causing the break-up of the sultanate into smaller states. Khan started the Malwa Sultanate and established a capital at Mandu , high in the Vindhya Range overlooking the Narmada River valley. His son and successor, Hoshang Shah (1405–35), developed Mandu as an important city. Hoshang Shah's son, Ghazni Khan, ruled for only a year and was succeeded by Mahmud Khalji (1436–69),
5600-695: The Rashtrakuta dynasty appointed the Paramara rulers as governors of Malwa. From the mid-tenth century, Kingdom of Malwa was ruled by the Paramaras , who established a capital at Dhar . King Bhoja , who ruled from about 1010 to 1060, was known as the great polymath philosopher-king of medieval India; his extensive writings cover philosophy, poetry, medicine, architecture, construction, town planning , veterinary science , phonetics , yoga , and archery . Malwa became an intellectual centre of India, and became home to
5760-510: The Satavahanas during the first three centuries AD. Ujjain emerged a major trading centre during the 1st century AD. Malwa became part of the Gupta Empire during the reign of Chandragupta II (375–413), also known as Vikramaditya , who conquered the region, driving out the Western Kshatrapas . The Gupta period is widely regarded as a golden age in the history of Malwa, when Ujjain served as
5920-731: The Third Anglo-Maratha War , and the Holkars of Indore became a princely state of the British Raj . After 1818 the British organised the numerous princely states of central India into the Central India Agency ; the Malwa Agency was a division of Central India , with an area of 23,100 km (8,900 sq mi) and a population of 1,054,753 in 1901. It comprised the states of Dewas State ( senior and junior branch ), Jaora , Ratlam , Sitamau and Sailana , together with
6080-674: The Vindhyas . The Malwa region had been a separate political unit from the time of the ancient Malava Kingdom . It has been ruled by several kingdoms and dynasties, including the Avanti Kingdom , The Mauryans , the Malavas , the Guptas , the Paramaras , The Rajputs , the Delhi Sultanate , the Malwa sultans , the Mughals and the Marathas . Malwa continued to be an administrative division until 1947, when
6240-401: The mansabdari . Under this system, each officer in the army was assigned a rank (a mansabdar ) and assigned a number of cavalry , which he was required to supply to the imperial army. The mansabdars were divided into 33 classes. The top three commanding ranks, ranging from 7,000 to 10,000 troops, were normally reserved for princes. Ranks between 10 and 5,000 were assigned to other members of
6400-414: The partition of India , are an important part of the business community. Like southern Rajasthan, the region has a significant number of Jains , who are mostly traders and business people. The region is home to smaller numbers of Goan Catholics , Anglo-Indians , Punjabis and Parsis or Zoroastrians. The Parsis are closely connected to the growth and evolution of Mhow , which has a Parsi fire temple and
6560-405: The volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range . Politically and administratively, it is also synonymous with the former state of Madhya Bharat which was later merged with Madhya Pradesh . At present the historical Malwa region includes districts of western Madhya Pradesh and parts of south-eastern Rajasthan . Sometimes the definition of Malwa is extended to include the Nimar region south of
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6720-517: The 19th century for their criminal activities, but have since been denotified. A nomadic tribe from the Marwar region of Rajasthan, the Gadia Lohars —who work as lohars (blacksmiths)—visit the region at the start of the agricultural season to repair and sell agricultural tools and implements, stopping temporarily on the outskirts of villages and towns and residing in their ornate metal carts. The Kalbelia
6880-526: The Emperor of Persia, himself beleaguered by the Ottoman Turks, was unable to send reinforcements. In 1593, Akbar received the exiled Safavid prince, Rostam Mirza. Rostam Mirza pledged allegiance to the Mughals; he was granted a rank (mansab) of command over 5,000 men and received Multan as a jagir . The Safavid prince and governor of Kandahar, Mozaffar Hosayn, also agreed to defect to the Mughals. Hosayn, who
7040-541: The Empire's holdings in Afghanistan; they were, according to Abul Fazl "afraid of the cold of Afghanistan". Likewise, Hindu officers in the Mughal army were inhibited by the traditional taboo against crossing the Indus . To encourage them, Akbar provided them with pay eight months in advance. In August 1581, Akbar seized Kabul and took up residence at Babur's old citadel . He stayed there for three weeks and his brother fled into
7200-573: The Great , and also as Akbar I ( Persian pronunciation: [ak.baɾ] ), was the third Mughal emperor , who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun , under a regent, Bairam Khan , who helped the young emperor expand and consolidate Mughal domains in the Indian subcontinent . He is generally considered one of the greatest emperors in Indian history and led a successful campaign to unify
7360-619: The Indo-Gangetic plains. The Mughals had already established domination over parts of northern Rajputana in Mewat , Ajmer , and Nagor. Akbar sought to conquer Rajputana's heartlands, which had rarely previously submitted to the Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate . Beginning in 1561, the Mughals actively engaged the Rajputs in warfare and diplomacy. Most Rajput states accepted Akbar's suzerainty; however,
7520-565: The Madhya Pradesh state. Traditional Malwa food has elements of Rajasthani , Gujarati and Maharashtrian cuisine. Traditionally, jowar was the staple cereal, but after the Green Revolution in India , wheat has replaced jowar as the most important food crop; many are vegetarians . Since the climate is mostly dry throughout the year, most people rely on stored foods such as pulses, and green vegetables are rare. A typical snack of Malwa
7680-444: The Malwa was conquered by Rana Sanga of Mewar who appointed one of his close allies Medini Rai as ruler of Malwa under his lordship. Chanderi was capital of his kingdom. After the defeat of Rajput confederation in Battle of Khanwa near Agra against Babur which was fought for Supremacy of Northern India between Rajputs and Mughals . Babur then siege Chanderi offering Shamsabad to Medini rai instead of Chanderi as it
7840-421: The Mirzas who, after offering token resistance, fled for refuge in the Deccan . Surat , the commercial capital of the region, and other coastal cities soon capitulated to the Mughals. The king, Muzaffar Shah III , was caught hiding in a corn field; he was pensioned off by Akbar with a small allowance. Akbar then returned to Fatehpur Sikiri, where he built the Buland Darwaza to commemorate his victories. But,
8000-421: The Mughal capital in Bengal. Following his conquests of Gujarat and Bengal, Akbar was preoccupied with domestic concerns. He did not leave Fatehpur Sikri on a military campaign until 1581, when Punjab was again invaded by his brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim. Akbar expelled his brother to Kabul and waged a campaign to remove him from power. At the same time, Akbar's nobles were resisting leaving India to administer
8160-405: The Mughal emperors to be a usurpation. In 1558, while Akbar was consolidating his rule over northern India, Safavid Shah Tahmasp I seized Kandahar and expelled its Mughal governor. The recovery of Kandahar had not been a priority for Akbar, but after his military activity in the northern frontiers, he moved to restore Mughal control. At the time, the region was also under threat from the Uzbeks, but
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#17328447221718320-428: The Mughal governor of Bihar, was ordered to chastise Daud Khan. Eventually, Akbar himself set out to Bengal, and in 1574, the Mughals seized Patna from Daud Khan, who fled to Bengal. Akbar then returned to Fatehpur Sikri and left his generals to finish the campaign. The Mughal army was subsequently victorious at the Battle of Tukaroi in 1575, which led to the annexation of Bengal and parts of Bihar that had been under
8480-414: The Mughal state weakened after 1700, the Marathas held sway over Malwa under leadership of Chimnaji Appa , Nemaji Shinde and Chimnaji Damodar were the first Maratha generals to cross the boundary of Maharashtra and to invade in Malwa in 1698. Subsequently, Malhar Rao Holkar (1694–1766) became leader of Maratha armies in Malwa in 1724, and in 1733 the Maratha Peshwa granted him control of most of
8640-418: The Mughals and drove them out of Malwa. Baz Bahadur regained his kingdom for a short period. In 1562, Akbar sent another army, led by Abdullah Khan, an Uzbeg, which finally defeated Baz Bahadur. He fled to Chittor . It became the Malwa Subah (top-level province) of the Mughal empire, with seat at Ujjain and Abdullah Khan became its first governor. Many remarkable illustrated manuscripts were prepared during
8800-489: The Mughals and was able to retain most of his kingdom during Akbar's reign. Akbar's next military objectives were the conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which connected India with the trading centres of Asia, Africa, and Europe through the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . Gujarat had also been a haven for rebellious Mughal nobles. In Bengal, the Afghans still held considerable influence under their ruler, Sulaiman Khan Karrani . Akbar first moved against Gujarat, which lay in
8960-405: The Mughals. The outnumbered Mughal forces defeated the Sindhi forces at the Battle of Sehwan. After suffering further defeats, Jani Beg surrendered to the Mughals in 1591, and in 1593, paid homage to Akbar in Lahore. As early as 1586, about half a dozen Baluchi chiefs, under nominal Pani Afghan rule, had been persuaded to subordinate themselves to Akbar. In preparation for taking Kandahar from
9120-417: The Mughals; after expenses, the territory yielded a revenue of more than five million rupees annually to Akbar's treasury. After conquering Gujarat, the remaining centre of Afghan power was Bengal. In 1572, Sulaiman Khan's son, Daud Khan , succeeded him. Daud Khan defined Mughal rule, assuming the insignia of royalty and ordering that the khutbah be proclaimed in his name, rather than Akbar's. Munim Khan ,
9280-459: The Punjab. In 1558, Akbar took possession of Ajmer , the aperture to Rajputana , after the defeat and flight of its Muslim ruler. The Mughals also besieged and defeated the Sur forces in control of Gwalior Fort , a stronghold north of the Narmada river. Royal begums (ladies), along with the families of Mughal amirs, were brought from Kabul to India at the time, "so that men might become settled and be restrained in some measure from departing to
9440-439: The Rajasthani school of miniature painting, known as Malwa painting , was centred largely in Malwa and Bundelkhand. The school preserved the style of the earliest examples, such as the Rasikapriya series dated 1636 (after a poem analysing the love sentiment) and the Amaru Sataka (a 17th-century Sanskrit poem). The paintings from this school are flat compositions on black and chocolate-brown backgrounds, with figures shown against
9600-455: The Rajput kings had submitted to the Mughals; only the clans of Mewar continued to resist. Udai Singh's son and successor, Maharana Pratap , was later defeated by the Mughals at the Battle of Haldighati in 1576. Akbar would celebrate his conquest of Rajputana by laying the foundation of a new capital, 23 miles (37 km) west-southwest of Agra, in 1569. It was called Fatehpur Sikri , or the "City of Victory". Pratap Singh continued to attack
9760-411: The Rajputs. During this period of his reign, Akbar was still devoted to Islam and sought to impress the superiority of his faith over what were regarded by contemporaries as the most prestigious warriors in Hinduism. In 1567, Akbar attacked the Chittor Fort in Mewar. The fortress-capital of Mewar was of strategic importance as it lay on the shortest route from Agra to Gujarat and was also considered
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#17328447221719920-438: The Safavids, Akbar ordered the Mughal forces to conquer the rest of the Afghan-held parts of Baluchistan in 1595. The Mughal general Mir Masum led an attack on the stronghold of Sibi, which was northeast of Quetta , and defeated a coalition of local chieftains in battle. They were required to acknowledge Mughal supremacy and attend Akbar's court. As a result, the modern-day Pakistani and Afghan parts of Baluchistan, including
10080-419: The Sur rulers, who had proclaimed himself Hindu emperor and expelled the Mughals from the Indo-Gangetic Plains . Urged by Bairam Khan, who re-marshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could consolidate his position, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it. His army, led by Bairam Khan, defeated Hemu and the Sur army on 5 November 1556 at the Second Battle of Panipat , 50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi. Soon after
10240-477: The Uzbek invasion of Safavid-held Khorasan . In return, Abdullah Khan agreed to refrain from supporting, subsidising, or offering refuge to the Afghan tribes hostile to the Mughals. Akbar, in turn, began a series of campaigns to pacify the Yusufzais and other rebels. Akbar ordered Zain Khan to lead an expedition against the Afghan tribes. Raja Birbal , a renowned minister in Akbar's court, was also given military command. The expedition failed, and on their retreat from
10400-419: The abode of Lakshmi ". The location of the Malwa or Moholo , mentioned by the 7th-century Chinese traveller Xuanzang , is plausibly identified with present-day Gujarat. The region is cited as Malibah in Arabic records, such as Kamilu-t Tawarikh by Ibn Asir. The Malwa Culture was a Chalcolithic archaeological culture which existed in the Malwa region, as well as nearby parts of Maharashtra to
10560-471: The arts, letters, and learning. Timurid and Perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements into a distinct style of Mughal arts, including painting and architecture . Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and perhaps hoping to bring about religious unity within his empire, Akbar promulgated Din-i Ilahi , a syncretic creed derived mainly from Islam and Hinduism as well as elements of Zoroastrianism and Christianity . Akbar
10720-418: The author Bhartrihari , the mathematicians and astronomers Varahamihira and Brahmagupta , and the polymath king Bhoja . Ujjain had been the political, economic, and cultural capital of the region in ancient times, and Indore is now the largest city and commercial center. Overall, agriculture is the main occupation of the people of Malwa. The region has been one of the important producers of opium in
10880-420: The base material consisting of a mixture of red clay and cow dung. Peacocks, cats, lions, goojari, bawari, the swastika and chowk are some motifs of this style. Sanjhya is a ritual wall painting done by young girls during the annual period when Hindus remember and offer ritual oblation to their ancestors. Malwa miniature paintings are well known for their intricate brushwork. In the 17th century, an offshoot of
11040-431: The battle of Sarangpur on 29 March 1561, culminating in the Mughal conquest of Malwa . Akbar soon recalled Adham Khan and made over command to Pir Muhammad. Pir Muhammad attacked Khandesh and proceeded up to Burhanpur , but he was defeated by a coalition of three powers: Miran Mubarak Shah II of Khandesh , Tufal Khan of Berar Sultanate and Baz Bahadur. Pir Muhammad died while retreating. The confederate army pursued
11200-406: The battle, Mughal forces occupied Delhi and then Agra. Akbar made a triumphant entry into Delhi, where he stayed for a month. Then, he and Bairam Khan returned to Punjab to deal with Sikandar Shah Suri, who had become active again. In the next six months, the Mughals won another major battle against Sikander, who fled east to Bengal . Akbar and his forces occupied Lahore and then seized Multan in
11360-404: The brief control of Maharana of Mewar Rana Sanga , and he appointed one of his vassals, Medini Rai , to rule over the Sultanate. In 1562, the Sultanate was conquered from its last ruler, Baz Bahadur , by the Mughal Empire , and it became a subah of the empire. The Sultanate was predominantly ruled by Afghan and Turco-Afghan dynasties throughout its existence. Dilawar Khan was an Afghan or
11520-472: The capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. Historians have advanced several reasons for the move, including an insufficient or poor quality water supply at Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar's campaigns in the northwest areas of the Empire or loss of interest. In 1599, Akbar moved his capital back to Agra, where he ruled until his death. Akbar was a patron of the arts and culture. He had Sanskrit literature translated and participated in native festivals. Akbar established
11680-512: The centre of Sanskrit literature during and after the Gupta period. The region's most famous playwright, Kalidasa , is considered to be the greatest Indian writer ever. His first surviving play is Malavikagnimitra (Malavika and Agnimitra). Kalidasa's second play, his masterpiece, is the Abhijñānaśākuntalam , which tells the story of king Dushyanta, who falls in love with a girl of lowly birth,
11840-489: The city of Ujjain have been regarded as sacred for thousands of years. The Mahakal Temple of Ujjain is one of the 12 jyotirlingas , literally meaning “pillars of light" . Ujjain has over 100 other ancient temples, including Harsidhhi , Chintaman Ganesh , Gadh Kalika , Kaal Bhairava and Mangalnath . The Kalideh Palace, on the outskirts of the city, is a fine example of ancient Indian architecture. The Bhartrihari caves are associated with interesting legends. Since
12000-468: The command of his foster brother, Adham Khan , and a Mughal commander, Pir Muhammad Khan, began the Mughal conquest of Malwa. The Afghan ruler, Baz Bahadur , was defeated at the Battle of Sarangpur and fled to Khandesh for refuge, leaving behind his harem, treasure, and war elephants. Despite initial success, Akbar was ultimately displeased with the aftermath of the campaign; his foster brother retained all of
12160-416: The continues invasions of Rajput chief Rana Sanga of Mewar . Mahmud Khalji I was succeeded by his eldest son Ghiyas-ud-Din . The last days of Ghiyas-ud-Din were embittered by a struggle for throne between his two sons, with Nasir-ud-Din emerging victorious over Ala-ud-Din and ascending the throne on 22 October 1510, The last ruler Mahmud Shah II surrendered to Bahadur Shah , the sultan of Gujarat after
12320-404: The crook of the Mughal provinces of Rajputana and Malwa. Gujarat possessed areas of rich agricultural production in its central plain, an impressive output of textiles and other industrial goods, and the busiest seaports of India. Akbar intended to link the maritime state with the massive resources of the Indo-Gangetic plains. Akbar's ostensible casus belli for warring with Gujarat was that
12480-619: The designers of the Taj Mahal centuries later. Baz Bahadur built a huge palace in Mandu in the 16th century. Other notable historical monuments are Rewa Kund , Rupmati 's Pavilion, Nilkanth Mahal, Hathi Mahal, Darya Khan's Tomb, Dai ka Mahal, Malik Mughit is Mosque and Jali Mahal. Close to Mandu is Maheshwar, a town on the northern bank of Narmada River that served as the capital of the Indore state under Ahilyabai Holkar . The Maratha rajwada (fort)
12640-452: The districts of Ujjain , Indore , Dewas , Dhar , Agar Malwa and Sehore ), Rajawari ( Ratlam , Mandsaur and Neemuch ), Umathwari ( Rajgarh ) and Sondhwari ( Jhalawar ) and Bhoyari / Pawari (in the districts of Betul , Chhindwara , Pandhurna and Wardha ). About 55% of the population of Malwa can converse in and about 40% of the population is literate in Hindi, the official language of
12800-513: The dominion of Daud Khan. Only Orissa was left in the hands of the Karrani dynasty , albeit as a fief of the Mughal Empire. A year later, however, Daud Khan rebelled and attempted to regain Bengal. He was defeated by the Mughal general Khan Jahan Quli and fled into exile. Daud Khan was later captured and executed by Mughal forces. His severed head was sent to Akbar, while his limbs were gibbeted at Tandah,
12960-472: The emperor for military appointments and promotion. The mir saman was in charge of the imperial household, including the harems, and supervised the functioning of the court and royal bodyguard. The judiciary was a separate organisation headed by a chief qazi , who was also responsible for religious beliefs and practices. Akbar reformed the administration land revenues by adopting a system that had been used by Sher Shah Suri . The village continued to remain
13120-538: The empire's western capital. The astronomer Varahamihira was based in Ujjain, which emerged as a major centre of learning, especially in astronomy and mathematics . Around 500, Malwa re-emerged from the dissolving Gupta Empire as a separate kingdom; in 528, Yasodharman of Malwa defeated the Hunas , who had invaded India from the north-west. During the seventh century, the region became part of Harsha 's empire, who disputed
13280-459: The end of the Malwa Sultanate. The sultanate of Malwa was founded by Dilawar Khan Ghuri , the governor of Malwa for the Delhi Sultanate , who asserted his independence in 1392, but did not actually assume the ensigns of royalty till 1401. Initially Dhar was the capital of the new kingdom, but soon it was shifted to Mandu , which was renamed Shadiabad (the city of joy). After his death, he
13440-462: The evening, he would have someone read to him. On 20 November 1551, Humayun's youngest brother, Hindal Mirza, died in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief. About the time of nine-year-old Akbar's first appointment as governor of Ghazni , he married Hindal's daughter, Ruqaiya Sultan Begum , his first wife. Humayun gave Akbar command of Hindal's troops and conferred on
13600-576: The evenings, carrying earthen pots with holes for the light from oil lamps inside to escape. In front of every house, the girls recite songs connected with the Ghadlya and receive food or money in return. The Gordhan festival is celebrated on the 16th day in the month of Kartika. The Bhils of the region sing Heeda , anecdotal songs to the cattle, while the women sing the Chandrawali song, associated with Krishna 's romance. The most popular fairs are held in
13760-502: The exception of Turkey, there is perhaps no country in which its guns has more means of securing the Government than [India]." Scholars and historians have used the term " gunpowder empire " to analyse the success of the Mughals in India. Akbar's father Humayun had regained control of the Punjab , Delhi , and Agra with Safavid support, but Mughal rule was still precarious when Akbar took
13920-411: The expansion. The young emperor, at the age of eighteen, wanted to take a more active part in managing the Empire's affairs. Urged on by his foster mother, Maham Anga , and other relatives, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan following a dispute at court in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave on Hajj to Mecca . Bairam Khan left for Mecca, but on his way, was persuaded by his opponents to rebel. He
14080-516: The families involved; the women were lost to their families and did not return after marriage. Akbar departed from that practice, providing that the Hindu Rajputs who married their daughters or sisters to him would be treated equally to his Muslim fathers- and brothers-in-law, except that they would not be allowed to dine or pray with him or take Muslim wives. Akbar also made those Rajputs members of his court. Some Rajputs considered marriage to Akbar
14240-415: The first millennium BC. Since women did not participate in the dance-drama form, men enacted their roles. Swang incorporates suitable theatrics and mimicry, accompanied alternately by song and dialogue. The genre is dialogue-oriented rather than movement-oriented. Mandana (literally painting) wall and floor paintings are the best-known painting traditions of Malwa. White drawings stand out in contrast to
14400-571: The first of the Khalji sultans of Malwa, who expanded the state to include parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the Deccan . The Muslim sultans invited the Rajputs to settle in the country. In the early 16th century, the sultan sought the aid of the sultans of Gujarat to counter the growing power of the Rajputs, while the Rajputs sought the support of the Sesodia Rajput kings of Mewar .During that time Much of
14560-473: The forces of his brother, Muhammad Hakim, who had marched into the Punjab with the intention of seizing the imperial throne. Following a brief confrontation, Muhammad Hakim accepted Akbar's supremacy and retreated back to Kabul. In 1564, Mughal forces began the conquest of Garha , a thinly populated, hilly area in central India that was of interest to the Mughals because of its herd of wild elephants. The territory
14720-594: The fort of Mandu fell to Bahadur on 25 May 1531. Since 1518, Mahmud Shah II was a vassal of the Gujarat Sultan. The last ruler Mahmud Shah II surrendered to Bahadur Shah , the sultan of Gujarat after the fort of Mandu fell to Bahadur on 25 May 1531. During 1531 – 1537 the kingdom was annexed under the control of Bahadur Shah, though the Mughal emperor Humayun captured it for a short period during 1535–36. The Gujaratis regained Malwa giving allegiance to Bahadur Shah until 1542. In 1537, Qadir Shah, an ex-officer of
14880-558: The fourth century BC, Ujjain has enjoyed the reputation of being India's Greenwich , as the Prime Meridian of the Hindu geographers. The observatory built by Jai Singh II is one of the four such observatories in India and features ancient astronomical devices. The Simhastha mela , celebrated every 12 years, starts on the full moon day in Chaitra (April) and continues into Vaishakha (May) until
15040-587: The great learning of the people, viz., Malwa and Magadha . The people there esteemed virtue, were of an intelligent mind and exceedingly studious. In 756 AD Gurjara-Pratiharas advanced into Malwa. In 786 the region was captured by the Rashtrakuta kings of the Deccan, and was disputed between the Rashtrakutas and the Gurjara Pratihara kings of Kannauj until the early part of the tenth century. The Emperors of
15200-474: The help of our blood-thirsty sword we have erased the signs of infidelity in their minds and destroyed the temples in those places and all over Hindustan." Akbar had the surviving defenders and 30,000 non-combatants massacred and their heads displayed upon towers erected throughout the region to demonstrate his authority. Akbar remained in Chittorgarh for three days, then returned to Agra, where, to commemorate
15360-429: The high iron content of the basalt from which it formed. The soil requires less irrigation because of its high capacity for moisture retention. The other two soil types are lighter and have a higher proportion of sand. The average elevation of the plateau is 500 m. Some of the peaks over 800 m high are at Sigar (881 m), Janapav (854 m) and Ghajari (810 m). The plateau generally slopes towards
15520-551: The imperial couple all of Hindal's wealth. Akbar's marriage to Ruqaiya was solemnised in Jalandhar , Punjab, when they were both 14 years old. Following chaos over the succession of Sher Shah Suri's son Islam Shah , Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally Tahmasp I . A few months later, Humayun died. Akbar's guardian, Bairam Khan , concealed his death to prepare for Akbar's succession. Akbar succeeded Humayun on 14 February 1556, while in
15680-425: The last century, deforestation has happened at a fast rate, leading to environmental problems such as acute water scarcity and the danger that the region is being desertified. The population of the Malwa region was 22,773,993 in 2011, with a population density of a moderate 270/km . The annual birth rate in the region was 31.6 per 1000, and the death rate 10.3. The infant mortality rate was 93.8, slightly higher than
15840-643: The library of Fatehpur Sikri exclusively for women, and he decreed the establishment of schools for the education of both Muslims and Hindus throughout the realm. He also encouraged bookbinding to become a high art. Akbar's government prioritized commercial expansion, encouraging traders, providing protection and security for transactions, and levying a low custom duty to stimulate foreign trade. It also required that local administrators provide restitution to traders for goods stolen while in their territories. To minimise such incidents, bands of highway police called rahdars were enlisted to patrol roads and ensure
16000-430: The lovely Shakuntala. The last of Kalidasa's surviving plays is Vikramuurvashiiya ("Urvashi conquered by valour"). Kalidasa also wrote the epic poems Raghuvamsha ("Dynasty of Raghu"), Ritusamhāra and Kumarasambhava ("Birth of the war god"), as well as the lyric Meghaduuta ("The cloud messenger"). Swang is a popular dance form in Malwa; its roots go back to the origins of the Indian theatre tradition in
16160-401: The lower Indus valley. Since 1574, the northern fortress of Bhakkar had remained under imperial control. In 1586, the Mughal governor of Multan tried and failed to secure the capitulation of Mirza Jani Beg , the independent ruler of Thatta in southern Sindh. Akbar responded by sending a Mughal army to besiege Sehwan , the river capital of the region. Jani Beg mustered a large army to meet
16320-509: The main crops are jowar, rice, wheat, coarse millet, peanuts and pulses, soya bean, cotton, linseed, sesame and sugarcane. Sugar mills are located in numerous small towns. The black, volcanic soil is ideal for the cultivation of cotton, and textile manufacture is an important industry. Large centres of textile production include Indore, Ujjain and Nagda. Maheshwar is known for its fine Maheshwari saris, and Mandsaur for its coarse woollen blankets. Handicrafts are an important source of income for
16480-426: The middle of Ashvin (September). Most of the rain falls during the southwest monsoon spell, and ranges from about 80 cm in the west to about 10.5 cm in the east. Indore and the immediately surrounding areas receive an average of 90 cm of rainfall a year. The growing period lasts from 90 to 150 days, during which the average daily temperature is below 30 °C, but seldom falls below 20 °C. Winter
16640-451: The midst of a war against Sikandar Shah to reclaim the Mughal throne. In Kalanaur, Punjab , the 14-year-old Akbar was enthroned by Bairam Khan on a newly constructed platform (which still stands ) and was proclaimed Shahanshah ( Persian for "King of Kings"). Bairam Khan ruled on his behalf until he came of age. Akbar's military campaigns consolidated Mughal rule in the Indian subcontinent . Akbar introduced organisational changes to
16800-533: The months of Phalguna , Chaitra , Bhadra , Ashvin and Kartik . The Chaitra fair, held at Biaora, and the Gal yatras , held at more than two dozen villages in Malwa are remarkable. Many fairs are held in the tenth day of the month of Bhadra to mark the birth of Tejaji . The Triveni mela is held at Ratlam, and other fairs take place in Kartika at Ujjain, Mandhata (Nimad), among others. Muslim community of Malwa
16960-483: The mountain fortress of the Gonds. The Mughals seized immense wealth, including an uncalculated amount of gold and silver, jewels, and 1,000 elephants. Kamala Devi, a younger sister of Durgavati, was sent to the Mughal harem. The brother of Durgavati's deceased husband was installed as the Mughal administrator of the region. As with Malwa, Akbar entered into a dispute with his vassals over the conquest of Gondwana. Asaf Khan
17120-572: The mountains, Birbal and his entourage were ambushed and killed by Afghans at the Malandarai Pass in February 1586. Akbar immediately fielded new armies to reinvade the Yusufzai lands under the command of Raja Todar Mal . Over the next six years, the Mughals contained the Yusufzai in the mountain valleys, forcing the submission of many chiefs in Swat and Bajaur. Dozens of forts were built and occupied to secure
17280-471: The mountains. Akbar left Kabul in the hands of his sister, Bakht-un-Nissa Begum , and returned to India. He then pardoned his brother, who took up de facto control of the Mughal administration in Kabul; Bakht-un-Nissa continued to be the official governor. In 1585, after Muhammad Hakim died, Kabul passed into the hands of Akbar and was officially incorporated as a province of the Mughal Empire. The Kabul expedition
17440-603: The next full moon day. Mandu was originally the fort capital of the Parmar rulers. Towards the end of the 13th century, it came under the sway of the Sultans of Malwa, the first of whom named it Shadiabad (city of joy). It remained as the capital, and in it the sultans built exquisite palaces like the Jahaz Mahal and Hindola Mahal, ornamental canals, baths and pavilions. The massive Jami Masjid and Hoshang Shah's tomb provided inspiration to
17600-447: The next year, Akbar sent another Mughal army to invade and annexe the kingdom. Malwa became a province of the nascent imperial administration of Akbar's regime. Baz Bahadur survived as a refugee at various courts until, eight years later in 1570, he took service under Akbar. When Adham Khan confronted Akbar following another dispute in late 1561, the emperor threw him from a terrace into the palace courtyard at Agra. Still alive, Adham Khan
17760-519: The nobility. The empire's permanent standing army was small and the imperial forces mostly consisted of contingents maintained by the mansabdars . Persons were normally appointed to a low mansab and then promoted based on merit and the favour of the emperor. Each mansabdar was required to maintain a certain number of cavalrymen and twice that number of horses. The number of horses was greater because they had to be rested and rapidly replaced in times of war. Akbar employed strict measures to ensure that
17920-713: The north. The western part of the region is drained by the Mahi River , while the Chambal River drains the central part, and the Betwa River and the headwaters of the Dhasan and Ken rivers drain the east. The Shipra River is of historical importance because of the Simhasth mela , held every 12 years. Other notable rivers are Parbati , Gambhir and Choti Kali Sindh . Due to its altitude of about 550 to 600 meters above mean sea level,
18080-511: The northwestern frontiers of the Mughal Empire. The Uzbeks also subsidised Afghan tribes on the border that were hostile to the Mughals. The tribes felt challenged by the Yusufzai of Bajaur and Swat and were motivated by a new religious leader, Bayazid, the founder of the Roshaniyya sect. In 1586, Akbar negotiated a pact with Abdullah Khan in which the Mughals agreed to remain neutral during
18240-718: The one at Attock near the crossing of the Grand Trunk Road and the Indus river . He also constructed a network of smaller forts called thanas throughout the frontier to secure the overland trade route with Persia and Central Asia. He also established an international trading business for his chief consort, Mariam-uz-Zamani , who ran an extensive trade of indigo, spices, and cotton to Gulf nations through merchant's vessels. Akbar introduced coins with decorative features, including floral motifs, dotted borders, and quatrefoil . The coins were issued in both round and square shapes, including
18400-667: The overall rate for the Madhya Pradesh state. There are numerous tribes in the region, such as the Bhils —and their allied groups, the Meos the Bhilalas , Barelas and Patelias —and the Meenas , who all differ to a remarkable degree from the regional population in their dialects and social life. They encompass a variety of languages and cultures. Some tribes of the region, notably the Kanjars , were notified in
18560-540: The period of the sultanate. An illustrated manuscript of Kalpa Sutra (1439) (presently in the National Museum, Delhi) was prepared in Mandu during the reign of Mahmud Shah I But the most interesting is a manuscript of the Nimat Nama , a treatise on the art of cooking, which bears many portraits of Ghiyas-ud-Din Shah but the colophon bears the name of Nasir-ud-Din Shah. The other notable illustrated manuscripts of this period are of
18720-562: The power equation between the two had now changed in favour of the Mughals. In 1593, Akbar began military operations against the Deccan Sultans, who had not submitted to his authority. He besieged Ahmednagar Fort in 1595, forcing Chand Bibi to cede Berar . A subsequent revolt forced Akbar to take the fort in August 1600. Akbar occupied Burhanpur and besieged Asirgarh Fort in 1599, and took it on 17 January 1601, when Miran Bahadur Shah of
18880-481: The previous Khalji dynasty rulers, regained control over a part of the erstwhile kingdom. But in 1542, Sher Shah Suri conquered the kingdom, defeating him and appointed Shuja'at Khan as the governor. His son, Baz Bahadur , declared himself independent in 1555. Darya Khan Gujarati, the ex-Wazir of Mahmud Khan of Gujarat ruled Ujjain. In 1561, emperor Akbar sent the Mughal army, led by Adham Khan and Pir Muhammad Khan, which attacked Malwa and defeated Baz Bahadur in
19040-450: The primary unit of revenue assessment. Cultivated areas were measured and taxed through fixed rates—on the basis of prices prevailing the imperial court—based on the type of crop and productivity. This system burdened the peasantry because prices at the imperial court were often higher than those in the countryside. Akbar also introduced a decentralised system of annual assessment, which resulted in corruption among local officials. The system
19200-401: The quality of the armed forces was maintained at a high level; horses were regularly inspected and usually only Arabian horses were employed. The mansabdars were the highest paid military service in the world at the time. Akbar was a follower of Salim Chishti , a holy man who lived in the region of Sikri near Agra. Believing the area to be lucky, Akbar had a mosque constructed there for
19360-489: The rebel Mirzas, who had previously been driven out of India, were now operating out of a base in southern Gujarat. Moreover, Akbar had received invitations from cliques in Gujarat to oust the reigning king, which further served as justification for his military expedition. In 1572, Akbar moved to occupy Ahmedabad , the capital, and other northern cities, and was proclaimed the lawful sovereign of Gujarat. By 1573, he had driven out
19520-493: The rebellious leaders, hoping to conciliate them, but they rebelled again; Akbar quelled their second uprising. Following a third revolt, with the proclamation of Mirza Muhammad Hakim —Akbar's brother and the Mughal ruler of Kabul—several Uzbek chieftains were slain and the rebel leaders trampled to death under elephants. Simultaneously, the Mirzas, a group of Akbar's distant cousins who held important fiefs near Agra, rebelled and were defeated by Akbar. In 1566, Akbar moved to meet
19680-529: The region has comparatively cool evenings against the hot days during the summer season. Even if the day temperature reaches 42 to 43 degrees Celsius, the night temperatures are always in range of 20 to 22 degrees making the climate much cooler than the other areas of the region. The cool morning wind, the karaman , and an evening breeze, the Shab-e-Malwa , make the summers less harsh. The term Shab-e-Malwa , meaning dusk in Malwa (from shab , Urdu for night),
19840-430: The region is particularly suitable for the cultivation of such unalu (early summer) crops as wheat, gram ( Cicer arietinum ) and til ( Sesamum indicum ). Relatively poor soil is used for the cultivation of such syalu (early winter) crops as millet ( Andropogon sorghum ), maize ( Zea mays ), mung bean ( Vigna radiata ), urad ( Vigna mungo ), batla ( Pisum sativum ) and peanuts ( Arachis hypogaea ). Overall,
20000-547: The region with the Chalukya king Pulakesin II of Badami in the Deccan . During his reign the Buddhist pilgrim monk Xuanzang had visited India and mentions seeing a hundred Buddhist monasteries along with a same number of Deva temples of different kinds with the adherents of Pashupata Shaivism making a majority. He also states that there were two places in India that were remarkable for
20160-472: The region, which was formally ceded by the Mughals in 1738. Ranoji Scindia , noted Maratha commander, established his headquarters at Ujjain in 1721. . This capital was later moved to Gwalior State by Daulatrao Scindia . Another Maratha general, Anand Rao Pawar , established himself as the Raja of Dhar in 1742, and the two Pawar brothers became Rajas of Dewas State . At the end of the 18th century, Malwa became
20320-600: The region. Despite his pact with the Uzbeks, Akbar nurtured a secret hope of reconquering Central Asia, but Badakshan and Balkh remained firmly part of the Uzbek dominion. Abdullah Khan died in 1598 and the last of the rebellious Afghan tribes were subdued by 1600. The Roshaniyya movement was suppressed, its leaders were captured or driven into exile, and the Afridi and Orakzai tribes which had risen up under them were subjugated. Jalaluddin,
20480-550: The rulers of Mewar and Marwar— Udai Singh II and Chandrasen Rathore —remained outside the imperial fold. Udai Singh was descended from the Sisodia ruler, Rana Sanga , who had fought Babur at the Battle of Khanwa in 1527. As the head of the Sisodia clan , he possessed the highest ritual status of all the Rajput kings and chieftains in India. The Mughals viewed defeating Udai Singh as essential to asserting their imperial authority among
20640-523: The safety of traders. Other active measures taken included the construction and protection of routes of commerce and communications. Akbar made concerted efforts to improve roads to facilitate the use of wheeled vehicles through the Khyber Pass, the most popular route frequented by traders and travellers journeying from Kabul into Mughal India. He also strategically occupied the northwestern cities of Multan and Lahore in Punjab and constructed forts, such as
20800-569: The son of the Roshaniyya movement's founder, Bayazid, was killed in 1601 in a fight with Mughal troops near Ghazni . While Akbar was in Lahore dealing with the Uzbeks, he sought to subjugate the Indus valley to secure the frontier provinces. In 1585, he sent an army to conquer Kashmir in the upper Indus basin after Yousuf Shah , the reigning king of the Shia Chak dynasty , refused to send his son as
20960-478: The south, during the 2nd millennium BCE. Ujjain , also known historically as Ujjaiyini and Avanti , emerged as the first major centre in the Malwa region during India's second wave of urbanisation in the 7th century BC (the first wave was the Indus Valley Civilization ). Around 600 BC an earthen rampart was built around Ujjain, enclosing a city of considerable size. Ujjain was the capital city of
21120-542: The spoils and followed through with the Central Asian practice of slaughtering the surrendered garrison, their wives and children, and many Muslim theologians and Sayyids, who were descendants of Muhammad . Akbar personally rode to Malwa to confront Adham Khan and relieve him of command. Pir Muhammad Khan was then sent in pursuit of Baz Bahadur, but was beaten back by the alliance of the rulers of Khandesh and Berar . Baz Bahadur temporarily regained control of Malwa until, in
21280-476: The throne. When the Surs reconquered Agra and Delhi following the death of Humayun, Akbar's young age and the lack of military assistance from the Mughal stronghold of Kabul —which was in the midst of an invasion by the ruler of Badakhshan , Prince Mirza Suleiman—aggravated the situation. When his regent, Bairam Khan , called a council of war to marshall the Mughal forces, none of Akbar's chieftains approved. Bairam Khan
21440-620: The tribal population. Coloured lacquerware from Ratlam, rag dolls from Indore , and papier-mâché articles from Indore, Ujjain and several other centres are well known. Mandsaur district is the sole producer in India of white- and red-coloured slate , used in the district's 110 slate pencil factories. There is a cement factory in Neemuch. Apart from this, the region lacks mineral resources. The region's industries mainly produce consumer goods—but there are now many centres of large- and medium-scale industries, including Indore, Nagda and Ujjain. Indore has
21600-411: The use of the priest. Subsequently, he celebrated the victories over Chittor and Ranthambore by laying the foundations of a new walled capital, 23 miles (37 km) west of Agra in 1569, which was named Fatehpur ("Town of Victory") after the conquest of Gujarat in 1573, and subsequently came to be known as Fatehpur Sikri to distinguish it from other similarly named towns. The city was soon abandoned and
21760-479: The various kingdoms of Hindūstān or India proper . Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include much of the Indian subcontinent through Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic dominance. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a centralised system of administration and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. To preserve peace and order in
21920-561: The venue of fighting between the rival Maratha powers and the headquarters of the Pindaris , who were irregular plunderers. The Pindaris were rooted out in a campaign by the British general Lord Hastings , and further order was established under Sir John Malcolm . The Holkar dynasty ruled Malwa from Indore and Maheshwar on the Narmada until 1818, when the Marathas were defeated by the British in
22080-602: The victory, he set up statues of Jaimal and Patta mounted on elephants at the gates of his fort. Thereafter, Udai Singh never ventured out of his mountain refuge in Mewar. The fall of Chittorgarh was followed up by a Mughal attack on the Ranthambore Fort in 1568. Ranthambore was held by the Hada Rajputs and reputed to be the most powerful fortress in India. However, it fell only after a couple of months. At that point, most of
22240-692: The west by the Vagad region and Gujarat . To the south and east is the Vindhya Range and to the north is the Bundelkhand upland. The plateau is an extension of the Deccan Traps , formed between 60 and 68 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period . In this region the main classes of soil are black , brown and bhatori (stony) soil. The volcanic, clay-like soil of the region owes its black colour to
22400-498: The west. The region includes the Madhya Pradesh districts of Agar , Dewas , Dhar , Indore , Jhabua , Mandsaur , Neemuch , Rajgarh , Ratlam , Shajapur , Ujjain , and parts of Guna and Sehore , and the Rajasthan districts of Jhalawar and parts of Kota , Banswara and Pratapgarh . Malwa is bounded in the north-east by the Hadoti region, in the north-west by the Mewar region, in
22560-465: The world. There is a central, government-owned opium and alkaloid factory in the city of Neemuch. Nevertheless, there is a still a significant amount of illicit opium production, which is channelled into the black market. The headquarters of India's Central Bureau of Narcotics is in Gwalior . The Rajputana-Malwa Railway was opened in 1876. The region is predominantly agricultural. The brown soil in parts of
22720-489: The world. Wheat and soybeans are other important cash crops, and textiles are a major industry. Malwi is a demonym given to people from the Malwa region. Several early Stone Age or Lower Paleolithic habitations have been excavated in eastern Malwa. The name Malwa is derived from the name of the ancient Indian tribe of Malavas . The name Malava is said to be derived from the Sanskrit term Malav , which means "part of
22880-404: The zamindars were given a hereditary right to collect a share of the produce. Peasants had a hereditary right to cultivate the land as long as they paid the land revenue. Revenue officials were guaranteed only three-quarters of their salary, with the remaining quarter dependent on their full realisation of the revenue assessed. Akbar organised his army and the nobility by means of a system called
23040-471: Was abandoned in 1580 and replaced with the dahsala (also known as zabti ), under which revenue was calculated as one-third of the average produce of the previous ten years, to be paid to the state in cash. This system was later refined, taking into account local prices and grouping areas with similar productivity into assessment circles. Remission was given to peasants when the harvest failed during times of flood or drought. The dahsala system
23200-401: Was accused of keeping most of the treasures and sending back only 200 elephants to Akbar. When summoned to give accounts, he fled Gondwana. He went first to the Uzbeks, then returned to Gondwana where he was pursued by Mughal forces. Finally, he submitted and Akbar restored him to his previous position. In January 1564, an assassin shot an arrow at Akbar, which pierced his right shoulder, as he
23360-448: Was based on the system that had evolved since the Delhi Sultanate . Akbar reorganised the sections with a detailed set of regulations. The revenue department was headed by a wazir , responsible for finances and management of jagir and inam land. The head of the military was called the mir bakshi , appointed from among the leading nobles of the court. The mir bakshi was in charge of intelligence gathering, and made recommendations to
23520-705: Was born to them the next year on 25 October 1542 (the fifth day of Rajab , 949 AH ) at the Rajput Fortress of Amarkot in Rajputana (in modern-day Sindh), where his parents had been given refuge by the local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad. During the extended period of Humayun's exile, Akbar was brought up in Kabul by his paternal uncles, Kamran Mirza and Askari Mirza , and aunts, in particular, Kamran Mirza's wife. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, and although he never learned to read or write, when he retired in
23680-489: Was capital of his kingdom and was of great importance but Rai refused Babur offer and choose to die. He was defeated by Babur in January 1528 at Battle of Chanderi and Babur conquer the fort. Gujarat stormed Mandu in 1518. In 1531, Bahadur Shah of Gujarat , captured Mandu, executed Mahmud II (1511–31), and shortly after that, the Malwa sultanate collapsed. The Mughal emperor Akbar captured Malwa in 1562 and made it
23840-466: Was defeated by the Mughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar forgave him and gave him the option of either continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage; Bairam chose the latter. Bairam Khan was assassinated on his way to Mecca, by a group of Afghans led by Mubarak Khan Lohani, whose father had been killed while fighting with the Mughals at the Battle of Machhiwara in 1555. In 1560, Akbar resumed military operations. A Mughal army under
24000-410: Was dragged up and thrown to the courtyard once again by Akbar to ensure his death. After Adham Khan's death, Akbar distributed authority among specialised ministerial posts relating to different aspects of imperial governance to prevent any one noble from becoming too powerful. When a powerful clan of Uzbek chiefs broke out in rebellion in 1564, Akbar routed them in Malwa and then Bihar . He pardoned
24160-521: Was in an adversary relationship with his overlord, Shah Abbas , was granted a rank of 5,000 men, and his daughter Kandahari Begum was married to Akbar's grandson, the Mughal prince Khurram . Kandahar was secured in 1595 with the arrival of a garrison headed by the Mughal general, Shah Bayg Khan. The reconquest of Kandahar did not overtly disturb Mughal-Persian relations. Akbar and the Persian Shah continued to exchange ambassadors and presents. However,
24320-414: Was introduced by the Mughals . The year is popularly divided into three seasons: summer, the rains, and winter. Summer extends over the months of Chaitra to Jyestha (mid-March to mid-May). The average maximum temperature during the summer months is 37 °C, which typically rises to around 40 °C on a few days. The rainy season starts with the first showers of Aashaadha (mid-June) and extends to
24480-523: Was returning from a visit to the Dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin near Delhi. The Emperor ordered the apprehended assassin, a slave of Mirza Sharfuddin—a noble in Akbar's court whose recent rebellion had been suppressed—to be beheaded. Having established Mughal rule over northern India, Akbar turned his attention to the conquest of Rajputana , which was strategically important as it was a rival centre of power that flanked
24640-419: Was ruled over by Raja Vir Narayan, a minor, and his mother, Durgavati , a Rajput warrior queen of the Gonds. Akbar did not personally lead the campaign because he was preoccupied with the Uzbek rebellion, leaving the expedition in the hands of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Kara. Durgavati committed suicide after her defeat at the Battle of Damoh, while Raja Vir Narayan was slain at the Fall of Chauragarh,
24800-550: Was set out by Raja Todar Mal , who also served as a revenue officer under Sher Shah Suri, in a detailed memorandum submitted to the emperor in 1582–1583. Other local methods of assessment continued in some areas. Lands which were fallow or uncultivated were assessed at concessional rates. Akbar also encouraged the improvement and extension of agriculture. Zamindars were required to provide loans and agricultural implements in times of need, and to encourage farmers to plough as much land as possible and sow high-quality seeds. In turn,
24960-435: Was strongly attached to Malwa, and did not want to stay in Rajasthan. After marriage, she was allowed to visit Malwa only once a year; Gana-gour symbolises these annual return visits. The festival is observed by women in the region once in the month of Chaitra (mid-March) and Bhadra (mid-August). The Ghadlya (earthen pot) festival is celebrated by the girls of the region, who gather to visit every house in their village in
25120-435: Was succeeded as emperor by his son, Prince Salim, later known as Jahangir . After Mughal Emperor Humayun was defeated at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540) by the forces of Sher Shah Suri , Humayun fled westward to modern-day Sindh . There, he met and married the 14-year-old Hamida Banu Begum , daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a Persian teacher of Humayun's younger brother Hindal Mirza . Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar
25280-532: Was succeeded by his son Alp Khan , who assumed the title of Hoshang Shah. The Muzaffarids under Zafar Khan Muzaffar Shah I accused Hoshang of parricide and invaded Malwa. Hoshang was defeated and captured as a prisoner, while a Muzaffarid governor was appointed in his pace at Dhar . The Ghurid dynasty, founded by Dilawar Khan Ghuri, was replaced by Mahmud Shah I , who proclaimed himself king on 16 May 1436. The Khalji dynasty, founded by him, ruled over Malwa till 1531. The sultanate saw heavy decline in 1519 after
25440-489: Was the beginning of a long period of activity over the northern frontiers of the empire. For thirteen years, beginning in 1585, Akbar remained in the north, shifting his capital to Lahore while he dealt with challenges from Uzbek tribes, which had driven his grandfather, Babur, out of Central Asia. The Uzbeks were organised under Abdullah Khan Shaybanid , a military chieftain who had seized Badakhshan and Balkh from Akbar's distant Timurid relatives, and whose troops challenged
25600-405: Was ultimately able to prevail over the nobles and it was decided that the Mughals would march against the strongest of the Sur rulers, Sikandar Shah Suri , in Punjab. Delhi was left under the regency of Tardi Baig Khan . Sikandar Shah Suri, his army weakened by earlier lost battles, withdrew to avoid combat as the Mughal army approached. Akbar also faced Hemu , a minister and general of one of
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