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168-676: In 2006, remains of Homo heidelbergensis were discovered in Mala Balanica. Estimated to be up to 525,000 years old, it was the oldest hominin remains discovery in Serbia and third oldest in Europe at the time. During the last Interglacial period, 130,000-70,000 BP , the Neanderthals thrived. They lived all over the Balkans , including Balanica. Apart from Pešturina, in the wider Balanica region, evidence of

336-562: A 0.2 mm resolution. With modern dual-energy CT scanners, new areas of use have been established, such as aiding in the diagnosis of gout . CT is used in biomechanics to quickly reveal the geometry, anatomy, density and elastic moduli of biological tissues. Industrial CT scanning (industrial computed tomography) is a process which uses X-ray equipment to produce 3D representations of components both externally and internally. Industrial CT scanning has been used in many areas of industry for internal inspection of components. Some of

504-429: A 238 cm (8 ft) yew spear was apparently lodged in an elephant. In Africa, 500,000-year-old points from Kathu Pan 1 , South Africa, may have been hafted onto spears. Judging by indirect evidence, a horse scapula from the 500,000-year-old Boxgrove shows a puncture wound consistent with a spear wound. Evidence of hafting (in both Europe and Africa) becomes much more common after 300,000 years. The SH humans had

672-597: A blood-like colour, though ochre can also have a functional medicinal application. Beyond these two species, ochre usage is recorded at Olduvai Gorge , Tanzania, where two red ochre lumps have been found; Ambrona where an ochre slab was trimmed down into a specific shape; and Terra Amata where 75 ochre pieces were heated to achieve a wide colour range from yellow to red-brown to red. These may exemplify early and isolated instances of colour preference and colour categorisation, and such practices may not have been normalised yet. In 2006, Eudald Carbonell and Marina Mosquera suggested

840-588: A computer using tomographic reconstruction algorithms to produce tomographic (cross-sectional) images (virtual "slices") of a body. CT scans can be used in patients with metallic implants or pacemakers, for whom magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is contraindicated . Since its development in the 1970s, CT scanning has proven to be a versatile imaging technique. While CT is most prominently used in medical diagnosis , it can also be used to form images of non-living objects. The 1979 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

1008-611: A distinctive assortment of characteristics, like large flakes with at least one blunt margin, distinctive scalar Quina retouch, extensive reworking of scrapers, and the predominance of scrapers in the assemblage. These characteristics are not noticed in the similarly dated assemblages from the surrounding region. They show strong similarities with the contemporaneous Yabrudian facies of the Acheulo-Yabrudian complex . These findings strongly suggest movement of population, and possible cultural interactions between Southwest Asia ( Levant ) and

1176-602: A female from Jinniushan , China; and 181.2 cm (5 ft 11 in) for a specimen from Kabwe , Zambia; around the same as modern humans . Like Neanderthals, they had wide chests and were robust overall. The Middle Pleistocene of Africa and Europe features the advent of Late Acheulian technology, diverging from that of earlier and contemporary H. erectus , and probably issuing from increasing intelligence. Fire likely became an integral part of daily life after 400,000 years ago, and this roughly coincides with more permanent and widespread occupation of Europe (above 45°N ), and

1344-623: A female partial skeleton from Jinniushan is estimated to have been quite tall at roughly 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) in life, much taller than the SH females. A tibia from Kabwe is typically estimated to have been 181.2 cm (5 ft 11 in), among the tallest Middle Pleistocene specimens, but it is possible this individual was either unusually large or had a much longer tibia to femur ratio than expected. If these specimens are representative of their respective continents, they would suggest that above-medium to tall people were prevalent throughout

1512-784: A foundation of big rocks and earth. Other such dwellings have been postulated to have existed during or following the Holstein Interglacial (which began 424,000 years ago) in Bilzingsleben, Germany; Terra Amata , France; and Fermanville and Saint-Germain-des-Vaux in Normandy . These were probably occupied during the winter, and, averaging only 3.5 m × 3 m (11.5 ft × 9.8 ft) in area, they were probably only used for sleeping in, while other activities (including firekeeping) seem to have been done outside. Less-permanent tent technology may have been present in Europe in

1680-514: A full roll-out on 1 December 2022 and the TSA spent $ 781.2 million on an order for over 1,000 scanners, ready to go live in the summer. X-ray CT is used in geological studies to quickly reveal materials inside a drill core. Dense minerals such as pyrite and barite appear brighter and less dense components such as clay appear dull in CT images. Traditional methods of studying fossils are often destructive, such as

1848-444: A key role in the fast-evolving field of transcatheter structural heart interventions , more specifically in the transcatheter repair and replacement of heart valves. The main forms of cardiac CT scanning are: To better visualize the anatomy, post-processing of the images is common. Most common are multiplanar reconstructions (MPR) and volume rendering . For more complex anatomies and procedures, such as heart valve interventions,

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2016-453: A lakeside. The spears vary from 2.9–4.7 cm (1.1–1.9 in) in diameter, and may have been 210–240 cm (7–8 ft) long, overall similar to present day competitive javelins. The spears were made of soft spruce wood, except for spear 4 which was (also soft) pine wood. This contrasts with the Clacton spearhead from Clacton-on-Sea , England, perhaps roughly 100,000 years older, which

2184-578: A minimum age between 397,000 and 525,000 years. Measurements have been conducted by the University of Bordeaux in France, and Université du Québec à Montréal in Canada. Though some results, especially of the sediments where the mandible was discovered, showed results of older periods, up to 602,000 years old (582,000 in sediments above the mandible), the researchers concluded from other facts and circumstances that this

2352-427: A mix of for example coloring and shading in order to create realistic and observable representations. Two-dimensional CT images are conventionally rendered so that the view is as though looking up at it from the patient's feet. Hence, the left side of the image is to the patient's right and vice versa, while anterior in the image also is the patient's anterior and vice versa. This left-right interchange corresponds to

2520-427: A modern humanlike hyoid bone (which supports the tongue), and middle ear bones capable of finely distinguishing frequencies within the range of normal human speech. Judging by dental striations, they seem to have been predominantly right-handed, and handedness is related to the lateralisation of brain function , typically associated with language processing in modern humans. So, it is postulated that this population

2688-465: A particular location and then stops which is followed by the X-ray tube rotation and acquisition of a slice. The table then increments again, and another slice is taken. The table movement stops while taking slices. This results in an increased time of scanning. Spinning tube, commonly called spiral CT , or helical CT, is an imaging technique in which an entire X-ray tube is spun around the central axis of

2856-581: A row, all within the Sićevo Gorge region. The third is Pešturina cave, several kilometers away. All three contain hominin remains, including Neanderthal's in Pešturina. The Balanica caves are some 100 m (330 ft) away from the last houses in the Sićevo village. The caves are inaccessible by roads or paths and can be reached only via ropes. Access starts at the southern exit from the village of Sićevo , where

3024-476: A sequential lineage, with each species evolving into the next ( chronospecies ). Though later Mayr changed his opinion on the australopithecines (recognizing Australopithecus ), his more conservative view of archaic human diversity became widely adopted in the subsequent decades. Though H. erectus is still maintained as a highly variable, widespread, and long-lasting species, it is still much debated whether or not sinking all Middle Pleistocene remains into it

3192-506: A subspecies of H. erectus s. l. (for example, the Arago material as " H. e. tautavelensis "). In 2018, Mirjana Roksandic and colleagues revised the hypodigm of H. heidelbergensis to include only the specimens with no Neanderthal-derived traits (namely Mauer, Mala Balanica , Ceprano, HaZore'a and Nadaouiyeh Aïn Askar ). There is no defined distinction between latest potential H. heidelbergensis material – specifically Steinheim and SH – and

3360-468: A taller trochlea of the ankle bone , making the ankle more flexible (specifically dorsiflexion and plantarflexion). On the left side of its face, an SH skull ( Skull 5 ) presents the oldest-known case of orbital cellulitis (eye infection which developed from an abscess in the mouth). This probably caused sepsis , killing the individual. A male SH pelvis (Pelvis 1), based on joint degeneration, may have lived for more than 45 years, making him one of

3528-479: A technique to improve temporal resolution. Electron beam tomography (EBT) is a specific form of CT in which a large enough X-ray tube is constructed so that only the path of the electrons , travelling between the cathode and anode of the X-ray tube, are spun using deflection coils . This type had a major advantage since sweep speeds can be much faster, allowing for less blurry imaging of moving structures, such as

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3696-486: A timespan of about a million years, and such technological stagnation has typically been ascribed to comparatively limited cognitive abilities which significantly reduced innovative capacity, such as a deficit in cognitive fluidity, working memory , or a social system compatible with apprenticeship. Nonetheless, the Acheulian does seem to subtly change over time, and is typically split up into Early Acheulian and Late Acheulian,

3864-416: A true 3D reconstruction or a 3D print is created based on these CT images to gain a deeper understanding. CT is an accurate technique for diagnosis of abdominal diseases like Crohn's disease , GIT bleeding, and diagnosis and staging of cancer, as well as follow-up after cancer treatment to assess response. It is commonly used to investigate acute abdominal pain . Non-enhanced computed tomography

4032-413: A very high dynamic range which must be reduced for display or printing. This is typically done via a process of "windowing", which maps a range (the "window") of pixel values to a grayscale ramp. For example, CT images of the brain are commonly viewed with a window extending from 0 HU to 80 HU. Pixel values of 0 and lower, are displayed as black; values of 80 and higher are displayed as white; values within

4200-419: Is a medical imaging technique used to obtain detailed internal images of the body. The personnel that perform CT scans are called radiographers or radiology technologists. CT scanners use a rotating X-ray tube and a row of detectors placed in a gantry to measure X-ray attenuations by different tissues inside the body. The multiple X-ray measurements taken from different angles are then processed on

4368-406: Is a specific form of CT to assess flow through blood vessels whilst injecting a contrast agent . Blood flow, blood transit time, and organ blood volume, can all be calculated with reasonable sensitivity and specificity . This type of CT may be used on the heart , although sensitivity and specificity for detecting abnormalities are still lower than for other forms of CT. This may also be used on

4536-408: Is a two dimensional unit based on the matrix size and the field of view. When the CT slice thickness is also factored in, the unit is known as a voxel , which is a three-dimensional unit. Water has an attenuation of 0 Hounsfield units (HU), while air is −1,000 HU, cancellous bone is typically +400 HU, and cranial bone can reach 2,000 HU. The attenuation of metallic implants depends on

4704-405: Is a type of contrast CT to visualize the arteries and veins throughout the body. This ranges from arteries serving the brain to those bringing blood to the lungs , kidneys , arms and legs . An example of this type of exam is CT pulmonary angiogram (CTPA) used to diagnose pulmonary embolism (PE). It employs computed tomography and an iodine-based contrast agent to obtain an image of

4872-468: Is also under consideration for automated baggage/parcel security scanning using computer vision based object recognition algorithms that target the detection of specific threat items based on 3D appearance (e.g. guns, knives, liquid containers). Its usage in airport security pioneered at Shannon Airport in March 2022 has ended the ban on liquids over 100 ml there, a move that Heathrow Airport plans for

5040-472: Is an extinct species or subspecies of archaic human which existed during the Middle Pleistocene . It was subsumed as a subspecies of H. erectus in 1950 as H. e. heidelbergensis , but towards the end of the century, it was more widely classified as its own species. It is debated whether or not to constrain H. heidelbergensis to only Europe or to also include African and Asian specimens, and this

5208-682: Is broad, the parietal bone can be expanded, and the squamous part of temporal bone is high and arched, which could all be related to increasing brain size. The sphenoid bone features a spine extending downwards, and the articular tubercle on the underside of the skull can jut out prominently as the surface behind the jaw hinge is otherwise quite flat. In 2004, Rightmire estimated the brain volumes of ten Middle Pleistocene humans variously attributable to H. heidelbergensis —from Kabwe, Bodo, Ndutu, Dali, Jinniushan, Petralona, Steinheim, Arago, and two from SH. This set gives an average volume of about 1,206 cc, ranging from 1,100 to 1,390 cc. He also averaged

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5376-440: Is broader, taller and thicker (expanded anteroposteriorly) than those of Neanderthals or modern humans, and retains an anteriorly located acetabulocristal buttress (which supports the iliac crests during hip abduction), a well defined supraacetabular groove (between the hip socket and the ilium), and a thin and rectangular superior pubic ramus (as opposed to the thick, stout one in modern humans). The foot of all archaic humans has

5544-560: Is called high resolution CT that produces a sampling of the lung, and not continuous images. Bronchial wall thickening can be seen on lung CTs and generally (but not always) implies inflammation of the bronchi . An incidentally found nodule in the absence of symptoms (sometimes referred to as an incidentaloma ) may raise concerns that it might represent a tumor, either benign or malignant . Perhaps persuaded by fear, patients and doctors sometimes agree to an intensive schedule of CT scans, sometimes up to every three months and beyond

5712-720: Is considered a chronospecies of Neanderthals, at least in the European context. However, the contemporary Middle Pleistocene hominin population in Western Europe shows unequal presence of Neanderthal traits. While in the Sima de los Huesos Neanderthal morphology is more pronounced, in the eastern Arago and Ceprano localities not so much. Robin Dennell suggested that Neanderthals were evolving in Western Europe during glacial isolation periods, but in warmer periods more primitive species which remained in

5880-464: Is different for the eastern and the southern Europe. It appears that Mediterranean peninsulas served as areas of refuge, potentially playing an important role in maintaining the variability of hominins in the continent, by a combination of migratory pulses and in situ evolution. Hence, population of Europe in the Pleistocene may have been more complex than previously thought. Based on the fossil records,

6048-750: Is evidence for the butchery of roe deer , horse and rhinoceros. The inhabitants of Terra Amata in France seem to have been mainly eating deer, but also elephants, boar, ibex, rhino and aurochs . African sites commonly yield bovine and horse bones. Though carcasses may have simply been scavenged, some Afro-European sites show specific targeting of a single species, which more likely indicates active hunting; for example: Olorgesailie , Kenya, which has yielded over 50 to 60 individual baboons ( Theropithecus oswaldi ); and Torralba and Ambrona in Spain which have an abundance of elephant bones (though also rhino and large hoofed mammals). The increase in meat subsistence could indicate

6216-448: Is expected. Predators belong to the typical grassland and forested environments, which corresponds to the moderate temperatures and presumed paleo-environment in the interglacial Marine Isotope Stages 7 to 9. It is believed that primary food source were deer and ibex, while other large fauna had secondary role. This points to a certain level of specialization in hunting, with focus on more productive animals. Sub-layer 2 indicate summer use of

6384-462: Is further confounded by the type specimen ( Mauer 1 ) being a jawbone, because jawbones feature few diagnostic traits and are generally missing among Middle Pleistocene specimens. Thus, it is debated if some of these specimens could be split off into their own species or a subspecies of H. erectus . Because the classification is so disputed, the Middle Pleistocene is often called the "muddle in

6552-458: Is how to reduce the radiation dose during CT examinations without compromising the image quality. In general, higher radiation doses result in higher-resolution images, while lower doses lead to increased image noise and unsharp images. However, increased dosage raises the adverse side effects, including the risk of radiation-induced cancer – a four-phase abdominal CT gives the same radiation dose as 300 chest X-rays. Several methods that can reduce

6720-695: Is imaging the contents of sarcophagi or ceramics. Recently, CWI in Amsterdam has collaborated with Rijksmuseum to investigate art object inside details in the framework called IntACT. Varied types of fungus can degrade wood to different degrees, one Belgium research group has been used X-ray CT 3 dimension with sub-micron resolution unveiled fungi can penetrate micropores of 0.6 μm under certain conditions. Sawmills use industrial CT scanners to detect round defects, for instance knots, to improve total value of timber productions. Most sawmills are planning to incorporate this robust detection tool to improve productivity in

6888-585: Is indicated by the production of smaller, thinner, and more symmetrical hand axes (though thicker, less refined ones were still produced). At the 500,000-year-old Boxgrove site in England—an exceptionally well-preserved site with abundance of tool remains—thinning may have been produced by striking the hand axe near-perpendicularly with a soft hammer , possible with the invention of prepared platforms for tool making. The Boxgrove knappers also left behind large lithic flakes leftover from making hand axes, possibly with

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7056-573: Is justifiable. Mayr's lumping of H. heidelbergensis was first opposed by American anthropologist Francis Clark Howell in 1960. In 1974, British physical anthropologist Chris Stringer pointed out similarities between the Kabwe 1 and the Greek Petralona skulls to the skulls of modern humans ( H. sapiens or H. s. sapiens ) and Neanderthals ( H. neanderthalensis or H. s. neanderthalensis ). So, Stringer assigned them to Homo sapiens sensu lato ("in

7224-615: Is known to have consumed the largest megafauna species present in the region, the straight-tusked elephant (which has been found at numerous sites with cut marks and/or stone tools indicating butchery) and rhinoceroses belonging to the genus Stephanorhinus . At the Schöningen spear horizon in Germany, there is extensive evidence for the butchery of horses. At the Boxgrove site in England, there

7392-461: Is limited technique as it displays only the surfaces that meet a particular threshold density, and which are towards the viewer. However, In volume rendering, transparency, colours and shading are used which makes it easy to present a volume in a single image. For example, Pelvic bones could be displayed as semi-transparent, so that, even viewing at an oblique angle one part of the image does not hide another. An important issue within radiology today

7560-436: Is most clearly demonstrated in the exceptionally well-preserved SH assemblage. Based on skull robustness, it was assumed Middle Pleistocene humans featured a high degree of sexual dimorphism , but the SH humans demonstrate a modern humanlike level. The SH humans and other Middle Pleistocene Homo have a more basal pelvis and femur (more similar to earlier Homo than Neanderthals). The overall broad and elliptical pelvis

7728-588: Is not as universally accepted. After the 2010 identification of the genetic code of some unique archaic human species in Siberia, termed " Denisovans " pending diagnostic fossil finds, it is postulated that the Asian remains could represent that same species. Thus, Middle Pleistocene Asian specimens, such as Dali Man or the Indian Narmada Man , remain enigmatic. The paleontology institute at Heidelberg University , where

7896-680: Is obfuscated by a long gap in the human fossil record near the end of the Early Pleistocene . In 2016, Antonio Profico and colleagues suggested that 875,000-year-old skull materials from the Gombore II site of the Melka Kunture Formation, Ethiopia, represent a transitional morph between H. ergaster and H. heidelbergensis , and thus postulated that H. heidelbergensis originated in Africa instead of Europe. According to genetic analysis,

8064-607: Is often the preferred investigation modality for thyroid abnormalities. A CT scan can be used for detecting both acute and chronic changes in the lung parenchyma , the tissue of the lungs . It is particularly relevant here because normal two-dimensional X-rays do not show such defects. A variety of techniques are used, depending on the suspected abnormality. For evaluation of chronic interstitial processes such as emphysema , and fibrosis , thin sections with high spatial frequency reconstructions are used; often scans are performed both on inspiration and expiration. This special technique

8232-441: Is possible as present CT scanners provide almost isotropic resolution. MPR is used almost in every scan. The spine is frequently examined with it. An image of the spine in axial plane can only show one vertebral bone at a time and cannot show its relation with other vertebral bones. By reformatting the data in other planes, visualization of the relative position can be achieved in sagittal and coronal plane. New software allows

8400-692: Is probably not the case, settling on the lower range. The remains are now fully assigned to Homo heidelbergensis , which was later corroborated by the detailed dental survey. Even the lower range places Mala Balanica among the oldest hominin fossils in Europe. Its older estimate overlaps with Sima de los Huesos in Spain (600,000 BP± 60,000) and is slightly younger than Mauer in Germany (609,000 BP± 40,000). Younger minimum age limit overlaps with Arago in France (435,000 BP± 85,000) and Visogliano in Italy (350,000–500,000). It

8568-476: Is set by the operator (e.g., a level that corresponds to bone). With the help of edge detection image processing algorithms a 3D model can be constructed from the initial data and displayed on screen. Various thresholds can be used to get multiple models, each anatomical component such as muscle, bone and cartilage can be differentiated on the basis of different colours given to them. However, this mode of operation cannot show interior structures. Surface rendering

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8736-550: Is somewhat older than Ceprano (353,000 BP± 4,000), also in Italy. As for the surrounding region, there are only two other Middle Pleistocene specimens, Petralona and Apidima , both in Greece , but both are notably younger. Except for the Visogliano remains, which are identified as Homo erectus , all other human remains are currently identified as Homo heidelbergensis . The Heidelberg man

8904-419: Is suggested there were multiple lineages (or species) in this region and time period, but French palaeoanthropologist Jean-Jacques Hublin considers this an unjustified extrapolation as they may have simply been different but still interconnected populations of a single, highly variable species. In 2015, Marie Antoinette de Lumley suggested the less derived material can also be split off into their own species or

9072-632: Is supposed to represent the immediate ancestor of modern humans, but does not include the LCA of modern humans and Neanderthals. They suggested the confusing morphology of the Middle Pleistocene was caused by periodic H. bodoensis migration events into Europe following population collapses after glacial cycles, interbreeding with surviving indigenous populations. Their taxonomic recommendations were rejected by Stringer and others as they failed to explain how exactly their proposals would resolve anything, in addition to violating nomenclatural rules. H. heidelbergensis

9240-525: Is the 780,000-year-old Gesher Benot Ya'aqov , Israel. In Europe, evidence of constructed dwelling structures—classified as firm surface huts with solid foundations built in areas mostly sheltered from the weather—has been recorded since the Cromerian Interglacial , the earliest example a 700,000-year-old stone foundation from Přezletice , Czech Republic. This dwelling probably featured a vaulted roof made of thick branches or thin poles, supported by

9408-496: Is thought to have descended from African H. erectus — sometimes classified as Homo ergaster — during the first early expansions of hominins out of Africa beginning roughly 2 million years ago. Those that dispersed across Europe and stayed in Africa evolved into H. heidelbergensis or speciated into H. heidelbergensis in Europe and " H. rhodesiensis " in Africa, and those that dispersed across East Asia evolved into H. erectus s. s. The exact derivation from an ancestor species

9576-521: Is today the gold standard for diagnosing urinary stones . The size, volume and density of stones can be estimated to help clinicians guide further treatment; size is especially important in predicting spontaneous passage of a stone. For the axial skeleton and extremities , CT is often used to image complex fractures , especially ones around joints, because of its ability to reconstruct the area of interest in multiple planes. Fractures, ligamentous injuries, and dislocations can easily be recognized with

9744-453: Is typically considered the last common ancestor (LCA). This would make H. heidelbergensis a member of a chronospecies . It is much debated if the name H. heidelbergensis can be extended to Middle Pleistocene humans across the Old World, or if it is better to restrict it to just Europe. In the latter case, Middle Pleistocene African remains can be split off into " H. rhodesiensis ". In

9912-511: Is unclear if this is because Neanderthals were less capable of exploiting natural resources, or because they lived in harsher environments. A peak at 3½ years of age may be correlated with weaning age. In Neanderthals this peak was at 4 years, and many modern hunter gatherers also wean at about 4 years of age. Middle Pleistocene communities in general seem to have eaten big game at a higher frequency than predecessors, with meat becoming an essential dietary component. In Europe, Homo heidelbergensis

10080-526: Is unclear if this is part of a long blade-making tradition, or if blade technology was lost and reinvented several times by multiple different human species. Despite apparent pushes into colder climates, evidence of fire is scarce in the archaeological record until 400 to 300 thousand years ago. Though it is possible fire remnants simply degraded, long and overall undisturbed occupation sequences such as at Arago or Gran Dolina conspicuously lack convincing evidence of fire usage. This pattern could possibly indicate

10248-579: The Levant after 700,000 years ago) made use of soft hammers as they mainly made use of small, thick flint nodules. The first prepared platforms in Africa come from the 450,000-year-old Fauresmith industry , transitional between the Early Stone Age ( Acheulian ) and the Middle Stone Age . With either method, knappers (tool makers) would have had to have produced some item indirectly related to creating

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10416-740: The Middle Pleistocene , quite early in the Neanderthal evolution, and points to the expansion from the west. This makes it one of the oldest localities in Europe where transition from the Lower Paleolithic into the Middle one is recorded. The caves also confirm that the Balkan Peninsula, due to its geographical location, was always an important crossroads, and a migration corridor even for archaic humans, connecting continents already 300,000 years ago. Different hominin morphologies survived and coexisted in

10584-664: The Nišava river, which carved the Sićevo Gorge. The caves represent typical karstic cavities. They are located on the Sićevo's state owned cadastre lot No. 6720/1, on the southern slope of the gorge's Brljaski Kamen section, above the right bank of the Nišava river. The caves in the surroundings of Niš attracted archaeologists already at the end of the 19th century, few decades after science adopted theories of evolution and glaciation . However, Balanica and Pešturina caves were discovered during

10752-453: The Sima de los Huesos (SH) hominins were buried by people rather than being the victims of some catastrophic event such as a cave-in, because young children and infants are absent which would be unexpected if this were a single and complete family unit. The SH humans are conspicuously associated with only a single stone tool, a carefully crafted hand axe made of high-quality quartzite (rarely used in

10920-486: The University of Belgrade Faculty of Philosophy . Researchers from the Canadian University of Winnipeg , headed by Mirjana Roksandic , joined Serbian scientists in 2009. It was evident from the start that the localities are important archaeological sources as numerous artefacts, fireplaces, fauna and hominin remains were soon discovered. The entrance is 2 by 1.5 m (6 ft 7 in by 4 ft 11 in),

11088-458: The brain , where CT perfusion imaging can often detect poor brain perfusion well before it is detected using a conventional spiral CT scan. This is better for stroke diagnosis than other CT types. Positron emission tomography–computed tomography is a hybrid CT modality which combines, in a single gantry, a positron emission tomography (PET) scanner and an X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanner, to acquire sequential images from both devices in

11256-414: The mesial aspect of the ascending ramus . All three molars are present in their sockets. The lower half of the mesiolingual root of the third molar is missing and the remaining roots are exposed due to the destruction of the adjacent endomandibular lamina . The mesial section of the mandible shows an old breakage filled with sediment, whereas all of the breaks on the distal end are fresh. The presence of

11424-411: The pulmonary arteries . CT scans can reduce the risk of angiography by providing clinicians with more information about the positioning and number of clots prior to the procedure. A CT scan of the heart is performed to gain knowledge about cardiac or coronary anatomy. Traditionally, cardiac CT scans are used to detect, diagnose, or follow up coronary artery disease . More recently CT has played

11592-408: The type specimen of a new species, Homo heidelbergensis . He split this off as a new species primarily because of the mandible's archaicness—in particular its enormous size—and it was the then-oldest human jaw in the European fossil record at 640,000 years old. The mandible is well preserved, missing only the left premolars , part of the first left molar , the tip of the left coronoid process (at

11760-423: The 1970s, CT has become an important tool in medical imaging to supplement conventional X-ray imaging and medical ultrasonography . It has more recently been used for preventive medicine or screening for disease, for example, CT colonography for people with a high risk of colon cancer , or full-motion heart scans for people with a high risk of heart disease. Several institutions offer full-body scans for

11928-503: The Balkans and Middle Eastern hominin populations some 300,000 to 240,000 years ago. A number of questions remain open: What was the exact method of dissemination of the cultural innovations? Were those migrations of people or exchange of ideas, and who was the initial carrier of the original technologies? At this moment, it is not even clear which species of hominins made contact. It could be meeting of European and Middle Eastern Neanderthals, or

12096-484: The Balkans during the Chibanian . The tools were used for butchering of animals, including skinning, dismembering and defleshing of bones, leaving butchering and cut marks on the bones, which are in 90% of cases limb bones. Some 30% of total bones was manually hit whilst fresh, producing oblique angles and curved profiles. On many, hammerstone percussions were identified, with flake scars and splinters. Almost one third of

12264-412: The Balkans, and south generally, would repopulate the west, reasserting their traits. For example, Mala Balanica's mandible shows absolutely no Neanderthal morphological traits. Hence the discrepancy between the common traits among the contemporary populations as Homo heidelbergensis constantly "diluted" Homo neanderthalensis in its beginnings. The Balkans remained connected to Southwest Asia even during

12432-473: The LCA of modern humans and Neanderthal split into a modern human line, and a Neanderthal/Denisovan line, and the latter later split into Neanderthal and Denisovans. According to nuclear DNA analysis, the 430,000-year-old SH humans are more closely related to Neanderthals than Denisovans (and that the Neanderthal/Denisovan, and thus the modern human/Neanderthal split, had already occurred), suggesting

12600-466: The LCA rather than being the LCA itself (that is, H. heidelbergensis did not derive from H. antecessor ). Human dispersal beyond 45°N seems to have been quite limited during the Lower Palaeolithic , with evidence of short-lived dispersals northward beginning after a million years ago. Beginning 700,000 years ago, more permanent populations seem to have persisted across the line coinciding with

12768-465: The Lower Paleolithic. The appearance of repeated fire usage—earliest in Europe from Beeches Pit, England, and Schöningen, Germany—roughly coincides with hafting technology (attaching stone points to spears) best exemplified by the Schöningen spears . These nine wooden spears and spear fragments—in addition to a lance, and a double-pointed stick—date to 300,000 years ago and were preserved along

12936-518: The Mauer mandible are missing in the SH humans. In palaeoanthropology, the Middle Pleistocene is often termed the "muddle in the middle" because the species-level classification of archaic human remains from this time period has been heavily debated. The ancestors of modern humans ( Homo sapiens or H. s. sapiens ) and Neanderthals ( H. neanderthalensis or H. s. neanderthalensis ) diverged during this time period, and, by convention, H. heidelbergensis

13104-486: The Mauer mandible has been kept since 1908, changed the label from H. e. heidelbergensis to H. heidelbergensis in 2015. In 1976 at Sima de los Huesos (SH) in the Sierra de Atapuerca , Spain, Spanish paleontologists Emiliano Aguirre , José María Basabe and Trinidad Torres began to excavate archaic human remains. Their investigation of the site was prompted by the finding of several bear remains ( Ursus deningeri ) since

13272-597: The Middle Pleistocene Old World. If this is the case, then most all populations of any archaic human species would have generally averaged to 165–170 cm (5 ft 5 in – 5 ft 7 in) in height. Early modern humans were notably taller, with the Skhul and Qafzeh remains averaging 185.1 cm (6 ft 1 in) for males and 169.8 cm (5 ft 7 in) for females, an average of 177.5 cm (5 ft 10 in), possibly to increase

13440-579: The Neanderthal presence was discovered in the localities of Meča Dupka, Golema Dupka, and Kremenac, all in the Niš and Leskovac depressions, and on the slopes of the Radan mountain . In 2022, Neanderthal remains were discovered in Velika Balanica. Estimated to be 300,000 years old, they are the oldest Neanderthal remains in eastern Europe, and second oldest hominin remains discovered so far in Serbia. This place it in

13608-637: The age of 10, suggesting it was not abandoned due its deformity as has been done in historical times, and received the same quality of care as any other child. Enamel hypoplasia on the teeth is used to determine bouts of nutritional stress. At a rate of 40% for the SH humans, this is significantly higher than exhibited in the earlier South African hominin Paranthropus robustus at Swartkrans (30.6%) or Sterkfontein (12.1%). Nonetheless, Neanderthals suffered even higher rates and more intense bouts of hypoplasia, but it

13776-572: The alveolar planum (the distance from the frontmost tooth socket to the back of the jaw), and the overall robusticity indicated a non-modern morphology and primitive character states comparable with the Early Pleistocene. Despite relative geographic proximity and possible contemporaneity with the Krapina Neanderthals , the mandible does not share any observable derived Neanderthal traits. As it didn't appear to be Neanderthal, but more archaic,

13944-482: The appearance of hafting technology to create spears. H. heidelbergensis may have been able to carry out coordinated hunting strategies, and consequently they seem to have had a higher dependence on meat. The first fossil, Mauer 1 (a jawbone), was discovered by a worker in Mauer , southeast of Heidelberg , Germany, in 1907. It was formally described the next year by German anthropologist Otto Schoetensack , who made it

14112-664: The archaeological layer 3a. Examination of the remains showed that they bear the closest resemblance to 430,000 years old Neanderthal remains from Atapuerca's site Sima de los Huesos, in Spain. The Middle Pleistocene is becoming increasingly recognized as an important period in the biocultural evolution of humans. Characteristics of the period include exaggerated encephalization, controlled use of fire, temperate zone geographic dispersals, varieties of prepared core lithic reduction techniques, development of effective weaponry (both predatory and defensive), and regional differentiation of human populations. Remains in Velika Balanica make it one of

14280-461: The area being scanned. These are the dominant type of scanners on the market because they have been manufactured longer and offer a lower cost of production and purchase. The main limitation of this type of CT is the bulk and inertia of the equipment (X-ray tube assembly and detector array on the opposite side of the circle) which limits the speed at which the equipment can spin. Some designs use two X-ray sources and detector arrays offset by an angle, as

14448-634: The area, making the Balkans a "hotspot of biodiversity". Due to its importance, the Balanica complex and the Pešturina cave are sometimes nicknamed Serbian Atapuerca, being compared to the Spanish Atapuerca , On 10 May 2022, the Government of Serbia placed two Balanica caves under the protection as a cultural monument. They were officially declared an archaeological site under the name "Locality of Velika and Mala Balanica in Sićevo". There are three caves in

14616-696: The assemblage (77% appendicular skeleton , 15% teeth, 14% axial skeleton , 9% heads), it points towards a mayor contribution of high-utility parts. Tools found among the hominin remains are almost identical to the tools found in Middle East at that period pointing to the contact or even mixing of two populations. Remains, originating from the Middle Paleolithic, include numerous artefacts, fauna remains and hearths. Also found were stone tools for leather processing, or Quina type grattoir de côté . Specifically, stone tools from Velika and Mala Balanica caves show

14784-408: The atomic number of the element used: Titanium usually has an amount of +1000 HU, iron steel can completely block the X-ray and is, therefore, responsible for well-known line-artifacts in computed tomograms. Artifacts are caused by abrupt transitions between low- and high-density materials, which results in data values that exceed the dynamic range of the processing electronics. CT data sets have

14952-579: The back of the jaw), a developed planum triangulare (near the jaw hinge), and a mylohyoid line originating at the level of the third molar. Trends in body size through the Middle Pleistocene are obscured due to a general lack of limb bones and non-skull (post-cranial) remains. Based on the lengths of various long bones , the SH humans averaged roughly 169.5 cm (5 ft 7 in) for males and 157.7 cm (5 ft 2 in) for females, with maximums of respectively 177 cm (5 ft 10 in) and 160 cm (5 ft 3 in). The height of

15120-505: The bends in a vessel, thereby helping to visualize a whole vessel in a single image or in multiple images. After a vessel has been "straightened", measurements such as cross-sectional area and length can be made. This is helpful in preoperative assessment of a surgical procedure. For 2D projections used in radiation therapy for quality assurance and planning of external beam radiotherapy , including digitally reconstructed radiographs, see Beam's eye view . A threshold value of radiodensity

15288-501: The bones was treated by fire. Such abundance of burnt traces may be a result of intense cooking, or cleaning the living floors in the cave. During the summer of 2017, four teeth were discovered. The first tooth was discovered by the student Ljubica Stajić. They are three adult teeth and one child's (a six-year molar), belonging to at least two persons. Dated to the Chibanian period, they were estimated to be 300,000 years old. That makes them

15456-731: The brain volumes of 30 H. erectus / ergaster specimens, spanning nearly 1.5 million years from across East Asia and Africa, as 973 cc, and thus concluded a significant jump in brain size, though conceded brain size was extremely variable ranging from 727 to 1,231 cc depending on the time period, geographic region, and even between individuals within the same population (the last one probably due to notable sexual dimorphism with males much bigger than females). In comparison, for modern humans, brain size averages 1,270 cc for males and 1,130 cc for females; and for Neanderthals 1,600 cc for males and 1,300 cc for females. In 2009, palaeontologists Aurélien Mounier, François Marchal and Silvana Condemi published

15624-489: The broad sense"), as ancestral to modern humans and Neanderthals. In 1979, Stringer and Finnish anthropologist Björn Kurtén found that the Kabwe and Petralona skulls are associated with the Cromerian industry like the Mauer mandible, and thus postulated these three populations might be allied with each other. Though these fossils are poorly preserved and do not provide many comparable possible diagnostic traits (and likewise it

15792-448: The cave and a clearly specialized economy which included summer hunting of young deer, grazing in herds in the Morava's fluvial plain. These localities are some 5 km (3.1 mi) to the south-southwest. By contrast, ibex and chamois were living around the site, on the gorge's cliffs. This points to the low role of large mammals in diet, which is generally narrow and heavily influenced by

15960-412: The cave. Biostratinomic and diagenetic alterations in the assemblage include the abundance of butchery and breakage marks, with thermoalterations (treatment by fire) confirming this. There is abundant evidence (including fragmentation and use of fire) of marrow extraction. Especially the long bones of red deer and ibex were intensively exploited to obtain marrow grease. Observing skeletal elements in

16128-425: The cheek teeth, a horizontal retromolar space (a gap behind the molars), a gutter between the molars and the ramus (which juts up to connect with the skull), an overall long jaw, a deep fossa (a depression) for the masseter muscle (which closes the jaw), a small gonial angle (the angle between the body of the mandible and the ramus), an extensive planum alveolare (the distance from the frontmost tooth socket to

16296-446: The conservation and preservation of objects of cultural heritage. For many fragile objects, direct research and observation can be damaging and can degrade the object over time. Using CT scans, conservators and researchers are able to determine the material composition of the objects they are exploring, such as the position of ink along the layers of a scroll, without any additional harm. These scans have been optimal for research focused on

16464-442: The desired product (hierarchical organisation), which could represent a major cognitive development. Experiments with modern humans have shown that platform preparation cannot be learned through purely observational learning, unlike earlier techniques, and could be indicative of well developed teaching methods as well as self-regulated learning . At Boxgrove, the knappers used not only stone but also bone and antler to make hammers, and

16632-507: The development of group hunting strategies in the Middle Pleistocene. For instance, at Torralba and Ambrona, the animals may have been run into swamplands before being killed, entailing encircling and driving by a large group of hunters in a coordinated and organised attack. Exploitation of aquatic environments is generally quite lacking, despite some sites being in close proximity to the ocean, lakes or rivers. Plants were probably also frequently consumed, including seasonally available ones, but

16800-399: The earliest Neanderthal specimens— Biache , France; Ehringsdorf , Germany; or Saccopastore , Italy. The use of the Mauer mandible, an isolated jawbone, as the type specimen for the species has been problematic as it does not present many diagnostic features, and in addition it is missing from several Middle Pleistocene specimens. Anthropologist William Straus said on this topic that, "While

16968-640: The early 20th century by amateur cavers (which consequently destroyed some of the human remains in that section). By 1990, about 600 human remains were reported, and by 2004 the number had increased to roughly 4,000. These represent at least 28 individuals, of which possibly only one is a child, and the rest teenagers and young adults. The fossil assemblage is exceptionally complete, with whole corpses buried rapidly, and all bodily elements represented. In 1997, Spanish palaeoanthropologist Juan Luis Arsuaga assigned these to H. heidelbergensis , but in 2014, he retracted this, stating that Neanderthal-like features present in

17136-640: The east of the continent where isolation did not play such an important role during glaciations. Excavations are ongoing in both caves, as the bedrock still has not been reached. The hominin remains are curated at the National Museum of Serbia in Belgrade . The Government of Serbia made a decision No. 05 633–27622012 on 10 May 2022 to place the caves under the protection as "Locality of Velika and Mala Balanica in Sićevo". They were declared an official archaeological site and immovable cultural monument. The decision

17304-469: The energy-efficiency of long-distance travel with longer legs. A conspicuously massive proximal (upper half) femur was recovered from Berg Aukas Mine, Namibia, about 20 km (12 mi) east of Grootfontein . It was originally estimated to have been from a male as much as 93 kg (205 lb) in life, but its exorbitant size is now proposed to be the consequence of an extraordinarily vigorous early-life activity level while an otherwise ordinary person

17472-608: The entire layer 3. Layers 4 and 5 are still being surveyed. Lithic assemblages from the Charentian period in both caves, and remains of microfauna, suggest that layer 3a corresponds to the late Middle Pleistocene, probably the interglacial Marine Isotope Stages 9 or 7. Taking into the account the Proto-Charentian character of industry, and parallels with Karain Cave in Turkey , this would put

17640-459: The evolution of Homo heidelbergensis . In comparison to Early Pleistocene H. erectus / ergaster , Middle Pleistocene humans have a much more modern human-like face. The nasal opening is set completely vertically in the skull, and the anterior nasal sill can be crested or sometimes a prominent spine. The incisive canals (on the roof of the mouth ) open near the teeth, and are orientated like those of more recent human species. The frontal bone

17808-678: The extent of their exploitation is unclear as they do not fossilise as well as animal bones. At the Schöningen site in Germany, it is estimated that over 200 plant species in the vicinity were either edible raw or when cooked, though relatively few have actually been found at the site itself. Upper Palaeolithic modern humans are well known for having etched engravings seemingly with symbolic value. As of 2018, only 27 Middle and Lower Palaeolithic objects have been postulated to have symbolic etching, out of which some have been refuted as having been caused by natural or otherwise non-symbolic phenomena (such as

17976-414: The first differential diagnosis of H. heidelbergensis using the Mauer mandible, as well as material from Tighennif, Algeria; SH, Spain; Arago, France; and Montmaurin , France. They listed the diagnostic traits as: a reduced chin, a notch in the submental space (near the throat), parallel upper and lower boundaries of the mandible in side-view, several mental foramina (small holes for blood vessels) near

18144-470: The fossilisation or excavation processes). The Lower Palaeolithic ones are: a 400,000 to 350,000 years old bone from Bilzingsleben , Germany; three 380,000-year-old pebbles from Terra Amata; a 250,000-year-old pebble from Markkleeberg , Germany; 18 roughly 200,000-year-old pebbles from Lazaret (near Terra Amata); a roughly 200,000-year-old lithic from Grotte de l'Observatoire , Monaco and a 200- to 130-thousand-year-old pebble from Baume Bonne , France. In

18312-463: The fossils could be confidently associated with the Acheulian artefacts from the sites, and suggested that—as an alternative to archaic human activity—apparent size-selection could have been caused by either natural geological processes or 19th-century collectors favouring this specific form. Early modern humans and late Neanderthals (the latter especially after 60,000 years ago) made wide use of red ochre for presumably symbolic purposes as it produces

18480-465: The general population although this practice goes against the advice and official position of many professional organizations in the field primarily due to the radiation dose applied. The use of CT scans has increased dramatically over the last two decades in many countries. An estimated 72 million scans were performed in the United States in 2007 and more than 80 million in 2015. CT scanning of

18648-423: The hall is 12 by 6 m (39 by 20 ft), with average height of 1 m (3 ft 3 in). The maximum height is 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in), while the elongated karstic chamber is 25 m (82 ft) deep. In 2006 remains of Homo heidelbergensis were discovered. It was a hemi-mandible, named BH-1. Originally, the researchers were unable to assign it to a specific hominin species. The CT scanning

18816-570: The head is also used in CT- guided stereotactic surgery and radiosurgery for treatment of intracranial tumors, arteriovenous malformations , and other surgically treatable conditions using a device known as the N-localizer . Contrast CT is generally the initial study of choice for neck masses in adults. CT of the thyroid plays an important role in the evaluation of thyroid cancer . CT scan often incidentally finds thyroid abnormalities, and so

18984-453: The head is typically used to detect infarction ( stroke ), tumors , calcifications , haemorrhage , and bone trauma . Of the above, hypodense (dark) structures can indicate edema and infarction, hyperdense (bright) structures indicate calcifications and haemorrhage and bone trauma can be seen as disjunction in bone windows. Tumors can be detected by the swelling and anatomical distortion they cause, or by surrounding edema. CT scanning of

19152-578: The heart and arteries. Fewer scanners of this design have been produced when compared with spinning tube types, mainly due to the higher cost associated with building a much larger X-ray tube and detector array and limited anatomical coverage. Dual Energy CT, also known as Spectral CT, is an advancement of Computed Tomography in which two energies are used to create two sets of data. A Dual Energy CT may employ Dual source, Single source with dual detector layer, Single source with energy switching methods to get two different sets of data. CT perfusion imaging

19320-480: The ice age and served as a transit route. Much later, fully evolved Neanderthals would migrate to the east. Velika Balanica is a relatively large cave, covering 400 m (4,300 sq ft), of which 30 m (320 sq ft) is surveyed. The entrance is 1.5 by 2 by 2 m (4 ft 11 in by 6 ft 7 in by 6 ft 7 in), while the entry hall is 9 by 2 by 2 m (29.5 by 6.6 by 6.6 ft). Originally, 160 m (1,700 sq ft)

19488-424: The inhabitants of Velika Balanica was less efficient than the one observed in other Upper Paleolithic records. Still, the logistic mobility of the settlers was apparently rather high, which points to the intense residential use of the cave. The taphonomical analysis points towards an anthropogenic origin of the deposit, i.e. , the remains were brought into the cave by humans, rather than animals living and dying in

19656-516: The insides of these objects, as was the case with the virtual unwrapping of the En-Gedi scroll and the Herculaneum papyri . Micro-CT has also proved useful for analyzing more recent artifacts such as still-sealed historic correspondence that employed the technique of letterlocking (complex folding and cuts) that provided a "tamper-evident locking mechanism". Further examples of use cases in archaeology

19824-464: The intention of recycling them into other tools later. Late Acheulian sites elsewhere pre-prepared lithic cores ("Large Flake Blanks", LFB) in a variety of ways before shaping them into tools, making prepared platforms unnecessary. LFB Acheulian spreads out of Africa into West and South Asia before a million years ago and is present in Southern Europe after 600,000 years ago, but northern Europe (and

19992-460: The invention of ignition technology or improved fire maintenance techniques at this time, and that fire was not an integral part of people's lives before then in Europe. In Africa, on the other hand, humans may have been able to frequently scavenge fire as early as 1.6 million years ago from natural wildfires, which occur much more often in Africa, thus possibly (more or less) regularly using fire. The oldest established continuous fire site beyond Africa

20160-509: The jaw hinge), and fragments of the mid-section as the jaw was found in two pieces and had to be glued together. It may have belonged to a young adult based on slight wearing on the 3rd molar. In 1921, the skull Kabwe 1 was discovered by Swiss miner Tom Zwiglaar in Kabwe , Zambia (at the time Broken Hill, Northern Rhodesia ), and was assigned to a new species, " H. rhodesiensis ", by English palaeontologist Arthur Smith Woodward . These were two of

20328-487: The key uses for CT scanning have been flaw detection, failure analysis, metrology, assembly analysis, image-based finite element methods and reverse engineering applications. CT scanning is also employed in the imaging and conservation of museum artifacts. CT scanning has also found an application in transport security (predominantly airport security ) where it is currently used in a materials analysis context for explosives detection CTX (explosive-detection device) and

20496-512: The latter becoming especially popular after 600 to 500 thousand years ago. Late Acheulian technology never crossed over east of the Movius Line into East Asia, which is generally believed to be due to either some major deficit in cultural transmission (namely smaller population size in the East) or simply preservation bias as far fewer stone tool assemblages are found east of the line. The transition

20664-724: The latter view, " H. rhodesiensis " can either be seen as the direct ancestor of modern humans, or of " H. helmei " which evolved into modern humans. Regarding the Middle Pleistocene European remains, some are more firmly placed on the Neanderthal line (namely SH , Pontnewydd , Steinheim , and Swanscombe ), whereas others seem to have few uniquely Neanderthal features ( Tautavel in France, Ceprano in Italy, Vértesszőlős in Hungary, Bilzingsleben in Germany, Mala Balanica in Serbia, and Aroeira in Portugal). Because of this, it

20832-422: The layer 3a at 330,000-300,000 BP. Until 2014, over 10,000 animal bone remains were discovered, but due to the extreme fragmentation, over 86% is non-identifiable being shorter than 3 cm (1.2 in). Among herbivores, the most represented are the remains of Alpine ibex and red deer , followed by chamois . They are present in all layers' 2 and 3 sub-layers. Bones of forest rhinoceros are found in some of

21000-420: The location of the cave. Unlike other Neanderthal groups, the main focus of Balanica residents was not the large game, as those animals lived in the river plains, far from the cave, which caused logistic problems of transporting large carcasses back into the cave. Failure in developing efficient transportation strategy of large animals may indicate sub-optimal behavior. Consequently, the paleo-economy practiced by

21168-441: The long run, however initial investment cost is high. The result of a CT scan is a volume of voxels , which may be presented to a human observer by various methods, which broadly fit into the following categories: Technically, all volume renderings become projections when viewed on a 2-dimensional display , making the distinction between projections and volume renderings a bit vague. The epitomes of volume rendering models feature

21336-463: The lower stratigraphic level of the cave, 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) below the artifact bearing level, or 281 to 284 cm (111 to 112 in) of total depth. It was the first hominin specimen in the Central Balkans recovered through controlled excavations with firm stratigraphic context. The mandible is 6.7 cm (2.6 in) long and preserved from the posterior canine alveolus to

21504-460: The mandible was originally described as belonging to the generic archaic Homo sp. Shape of the dental arcade and molar morphology placed the remains in the genus Homo, but its fragmentary nature and plesiomorphic character of its traits precluded a more precise taxonomic designation. However, the 2013 survey which included electron spin resonance combined with uranium series isotopic analysis, and infrared/post-infrared luminescence dating , provided

21672-560: The many putative species of Middle Pleistocene Homo which were described throughout the first half of the 20th century. In the 1950s, Ernst Mayr had entered the field of anthropology, and, surveying a "bewildering diversity of names", decided to define only three species of Homo : " H. transvaalensis " (the australopithecines ), H. erectus (including the Mauer mandible, and various putative African and Asian taxa) and Homo sapiens (including anything younger than H. erectus , such as modern humans and Neanderthals ). Mayr defined them as

21840-621: The meeting of regional Neanderthals with ancestors of modern humans. The mandible from Mala Balanica is the easternmost hominin specimen in Europe dated to the Middle Pleistocene. Inferences drawn from the morphology place it outside currently observed variation of European Homo heidelbergensis . The lack of derived Neandertal traits, comparison to the contemporary specimens in Southeast Europe, like Kocabaş , Vasogliano and Ceprano, and coupled with Middle Pleistocene synapomorphies , suggest different evolutionary forces shaped ancient residents in

22008-579: The mid-19th century, French archaeologist Jacques Boucher de Crèvecœur de Perthes began excavation at St. Acheul, Amiens , France, (the area where the Acheulian was defined), and, in addition to hand axes, reported perforated sponge fossils ( Porosphaera globularis ) which he considered to have been decorative beads. This claim was completely ignored. In 1894, English archaeologist Worthington George Smith discovered 200 similar perforated fossils in Bedfordshire , England, and also speculated that their function

22176-438: The middle". H. heidelbergensis is regarded as a chronospecies , evolving from an African form of H. erectus (sometimes called H. ergaster ). By convention, H. heidelbergensis is placed as the most recent common ancestor between modern humans ( H. sapiens or H. s. sapiens ) and Neanderthals ( H. neanderthalensis or H. s. neanderthalensis ). Many specimens assigned to H. heidelbergensis likely existed well after

22344-402: The modern human/Neanderthal LCA had existed long before many European specimens typically assigned to H. heidelbergensis did, such as the Arago and Petralona materials. In 1997, Spanish archaeologist José María Bermúdez de Castro , Arsuaga, and colleagues described the roughly million-year-old H. antecessor from Gran Dolina , Sierra de Atapuerca, and suggested supplanting this species in

22512-412: The modern human/Neanderthal split. In the Middle Pleistocene, brain size averaged about 1,200 cubic centimetres (cc), comparable to modern humans. Height in the Middle Pleistocene can only be estimated based upon remains from three localities: Sima de los Huesos , Spain, 169.5 cm (5 ft 7 in) for males and 157.7 cm (5 ft 2 in) for females; 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) for

22680-439: The more closed-off end to fully open the hole. He also found wear facets which he speculated were begotten from clacking against other beads when they were strung together and worn as a necklace. In 2009, Solange Rigaud, Francisco d'Errico and colleagues noticed that the modified areas are lighter in colour than the unmodifed, suggesting they were inflicted much more recently such as during excavation. They were also unconvinced that

22848-555: The name rhodesiensis honours English diamond magnate Cecil Rhodes who disenfranchised the black population in southern Africa. They classified all European H. heidelbergensis as H. neanderthalensis , and synonymised H. rhodesiensis with a new species they named " H. bodoensis " which includes all African specimens, and potentially some from the Levant and the Balkans which have no Neanderthal-derived traits (namely Ceprano, Mala Balanica, HaZore'a and Nadaouiyeh Aïn Askar). H. bodoensis

23016-483: The oldest Neanderthal remains outside of western Europe, indicating massive migration to the east, or the Eastern Mediterranean Area. The more precise thermoluminescence dating places them between 285,000 BP +  34,000 and 295,000 BP +  74,000. Additionally, they are the second oldest hominin remains in Serbia after those from Mala Balanica. The teeth were found among the remains of the hearth , in

23184-533: The oldest examples of this demographic in the human fossil record. The frequency of 45-plus individuals gradually increases with time, but has overall remained quite low throughout the Palaeolithic. He similarly had the age-related maladies lumbar kyphosis (excessive curving of the lumbar vertebrae of the lower back), L5–S1 spondylolisthesis (misalignment of the last lumbar vertebra with the first sacral vertebra ), and Baastrup disease on L4 and 5 (enlargement of

23352-466: The oldest localities in Europe where transition from the Lower Paleolithic into the Middle one is recorded. The transition was marked by the controlled use of fire, and organized hunting. This corresponds with sudden elevation of cognitive abilities of human ancestors, and the process of encephalization . The Middle and Late Pleistocene specimen from western Europe show derived Neandertal traits, however, this

23520-413: The place of H. heidelbergensis for the LCA between modern humans and Neanderthals, with H. heidelbergensis descending from it and being a strictly European species ancestral to only Neanderthals. They later recanted. In 2020, Dutch molecular palaeoanthropologist Frido Welker and colleagues analysed ancient proteins collected from an H. antecessor tooth found that it was a member of a sister lineage to

23688-405: The reasons may include any number of different genetic processes including drift , founder effect , directional adaptation and hybridization . The remains coincide with the period when humans began their permanent presence in Europe. Unlike west European Heidelberg man, remains from Mala Balanica have no Neanderthal elements. It indicates that in colder periods, the Balkans wasn't isolated from

23856-587: The recommended guidelines, in an attempt to do surveillance on the nodules. However, established guidelines advise that patients without a prior history of cancer and whose solid nodules have not grown over a two-year period are unlikely to have any malignant cancer. For this reason, and because no research provides supporting evidence that intensive surveillance gives better outcomes, and because of risks associated with having CT scans, patients should not receive CT screening in excess of those recommended by established guidelines. Computed tomography angiography (CTA)

24024-450: The reconstruction of data in non-orthogonal (oblique) planes, which help in the visualization of organs which are not in orthogonal planes. It is better suited for visualization of the anatomical structure of the bronchi as they do not lie orthogonal to the direction of the scan. Curved-plane reconstruction (or curved planar reformation = CPR) is performed mainly for the evaluation of vessels. This type of reconstruction helps to straighten

24192-526: The region), and so Carbonell and Mosquera postulated this was purposefully and symbolically placed with the bodies as some kind of grave good. Supposed evidence of symbolic graves would not surface for another 300,000 years. The Lower Palaeolithic (Early Stone Age) comprises the Oldowan which was replaced by the Acheulian , which is characterised by the production of mostly symmetrical hand axes . The Acheulian has

24360-546: The rest of Eurasia, like the western Europe was. Scientists predicted that at some point humanoid remains would also be discovered in Velka Balanica, which happened in 2017. The Balkans served not only as a refugium in the ice age periods, but after the glaciers retreated, contributed to 80% of animal and plant species that repopulated Western Europe, and 100% of all the species that repopulated Eastern Europe. The findings in both Balanica caves point to possible contact between

24528-436: The ropes descend below the village's football field. All caves are locked and are opened only when excavations are conducted. The entrances into the caves face south, across the gorge, but overlooking to the west, and the wide South Morava Valley . Entrance into the Mala Balanica is at an elevation of 329 m (1,079 ft), while the Velika Balanica's mouth is at 332 m (1,089 ft), or 100 m (330 ft) above

24696-479: The same session, which are combined into a single superposed ( co-registered ) image. Thus, functional imaging obtained by PET, which depicts the spatial distribution of metabolic or biochemical activity in the body can be more precisely aligned or correlated with anatomic imaging obtained by CT scanning. PET-CT gives both anatomical and functional details of an organ under examination and is helpful in detecting different type of cancers. Since its introduction in

24864-448: The skull is the creation of God, the jaw is the work of the devil." If the Mauer mandible is actually a member of a different species than the Kabwe skull and most other Afro-European Middle Pleistocene archaic humans, then " H. rhodesiensis " would take priority as the name of the LCA. In 2021, Canadian anthropologist Mirjana Roksandic and colleagues recommended the complete dissolution of H. heidelbergensis and " H. rhodesiensis ", as

25032-466: The spinous processes). These would have produced lower back pain, significantly limiting movement, and may be evidence of group care. An adolescent SH skull (Cranium 14) was diagnosed with lambdoid single suture craniosynostosis (immature closing of the left lambdoid suture , leading to skull deformities as development continued). This is a rare condition, occurring in less than 6 out of every 200,000 individuals in modern humans. The individual died around

25200-558: The spread of hand axe technology across Europe, possibly associated with the dispersal of H. heidelbergensis and behavioural shifts to cope with the cold climate. Such occupation becomes much more frequent after 500,000 years ago. In 2023, a genomics analysis of over 3,000 living individuals indicated that Homo sapiens' ancestral population was reduced to less than 1,300 individuals between 800,000 and 900,000 years ago. Prof Giorgio Manzi, an anthropologist at Sapienza University of Rome, suggested that this bottleneck could have triggered

25368-525: The strict sense", in this case, specimens from East Asia). Consequently, Afro-European remains from 600 to 300 thousand years ago—most notably from Kabwe, Petralona, Bodo and Arago —are often classified as H. heidelbergensis . In 2010, American physical anthropologist Jeffrey H. Schwartz and Tattersall suggested classifying all Middle Pleistocene European as well as Asian specimens—namely from Dali and Jinniushan in China—as H. heidelbergensis . This model

25536-399: The sub-levels of both layers, while wild horse , aurochs and steppe bison are represented only in the layer 3. Carnivores are much less represented, including remains of European wildcat in sub-layer 2a, cave bear in 2a and 2-b, and wolf in 3b and 3c. Remains of red fox were also found. Based on the topographic cliff-like location of the cave, abundance of ibex and chamois remains

25704-615: The survey of the terrain for the construction of the Niš-Dimitrovgrad motorway , at the beginning of the 21st century. Balanica caves were discovered in 2002. Archaeological importance of the caves came to light when the local gold rush hit the area. Gold prospectors used the caves as bivouac shelters . They were discovering abundant quantity of artefacts and various remains, which prompted paleoarchaeologists to begin surveys. Excavations in Belanica began in 2004, led by Dušan Mihailović from

25872-580: The use of such a wide range of raw materials could speak to advanced planning capabilities as stoneworking requires a much different skillset to work and gather materials for than boneworking. The Kapthurin Formation , Kenya, has yielded the oldest evidence of blade and bladelet technology, dating to 545 to 509 thousand years ago. This technology is rare even in the Middle Palaeolithic, and is typically associated with Upper Palaeolithic modern humans. It

26040-422: The use of thin sections and physical preparation. X-ray CT is used in paleontology to non-destructively visualize fossils in 3D. This has many advantages. For example, we can look at fragile structures that might never otherwise be able to be studied. In addition, one can freely move around models of fossils in virtual 3D space to inspect it without damaging the fossil. X-ray CT and micro-CT can also be used for

26208-453: The view that physicians generally have in reality when positioned in front of patients. Pixels in an image obtained by CT scanning are displayed in terms of relative radiodensity . The pixel itself is displayed according to the mean attenuation of the tissue(s) that it corresponds to on a scale from +3,071 (most attenuating) to −1,024 (least attenuating) on the Hounsfield scale . A pixel

26376-529: The window are displayed as a gray intensity proportional to position within the window. The window used for display must be matched to the X-ray density of the object of interest, in order to optimize the visible detail. Window width and window level parameters are used to control the windowing of a scan. Multiplanar reconstruction (MPR) is the process of converting data from one anatomical plane (usually transverse ) to other planes. It can be used for thin slices as well as projections. Multiplanar reconstruction

26544-553: The workings of the Antikythera mechanism or the text hidden inside the charred outer layers of the En-Gedi Scroll . However, they are not optimal for every object subject to these kinds of research questions, as there are certain artifacts like the Herculaneum papyri in which the material composition has very little variation along the inside of the object. After scanning these objects, computational methods can be employed to examine

26712-409: Was accessible, with several buried corridors which lead into further, later uncovered, halls. A 3 m (9.8 ft) deep stratigraphic sequence is divided in 5 layers (1 to 5), which are divided into further sub-levels (2a, 2a2, 2a3, 2b, 2c, 3a-3c, 4a-4d, 5a-5d). Level 1 is sterile. Typical Mousterian artefacts are found throughout the 2nd layer, while the Charentian industries were discovered in

26880-436: Was awarded jointly to South African-American physicist Allan MacLeod Cormack and British electrical engineer Godfrey Hounsfield "for the development of computer-assisted tomography". On the basis of image acquisition and procedures, various type of scanners are available in the market. Sequential CT, also known as step-and-shoot CT, is a type of scanning method in which the CT table moves stepwise. The table increments to

27048-623: Was beads, though he made no reference to Boucher de Perthes' find, possibly because he was unaware of it. In 2005, Robert Bednarik reexamined the material, and concluded that—because all the Bedfordshire P. globularis fossils are sub-spherical and range 10–18 mm (0.39–0.71 in) in diameter, despite this species having a highly variable shape—they were deliberately chosen. They appear to have been bored through completely or almost completely by some parasitic creature (i. e., through natural processes), and were then percussed on what would have been

27216-453: Was conducted to create a 3D image of the mandible, while the U-series method of radiometric dating was originally used to determine the jaw's age. Due to the limitation of the process, and some unusual readings, it was tentatively dated to 113,000+72,000-43,000 years, as older specimen was never discovered in this part of Europe. This was set as the minimum age. The mandible was excavated in

27384-580: Was difficult at the time to properly define a unique species), they argued that at least these Middle Pleistocene specimens should be allocated to H. (s.?) heidelbergensis or " H. (s.?) rhodesiensis " (depending on, respectively, the inclusion or exclusion of the Mauer mandible) to formally recognize their similarity. Further work most influentially by Stringer, palaeoanthropologist Ian Tattersall , and human evolutionary biologist Phillip Rightmire reported further differences between Middle Pleistocene Afro-European specimens and H. erectus sensu stricto ("in

27552-526: Was made of hard yew wood. The Schöningen spears may have had a range of up to 35 m (115 ft), though would have been more effective short range within about 5 m (16 ft), making them effective distance weapons either against prey or predators. Besides these two localities, the only other site which provides solid evidence of European spear technology is the 120,000-year-old Lehringen site, district of Verden , in Lower Saxony , Germany, where

27720-465: Was maturing. If so, the individual from the Berg Aukas Mine would probably have had proportions similar to Kabwe 1. The human body plan had evolved in H. ergaster , and characterises all later Homo species, but among the more derived members there are two distinct morphs: A narrow-chested and gracile build like modern humans, and a broader-chested and robust build like Neanderthals. It

27888-456: Was once assumed that the Neanderthal build was unique to Neanderthals based on the gracile H. ergaster partial skeleton "KNM WT-15000" (" Turkana Boy "), but the discovery of some Middle Pleistocene skeletal elements (though generally fragmentary and few and far between) seems to suggest Middle Pleistocene humans overall featured a more Neanderthal morph. Thus, the modern human morph may be unique to modern humans, evolving quite recently. This

28056-698: Was published in the State Gazette No. 50/12 on 18 May. It was registered in the local register of the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments Niš on 28 May 2012 (designation AN 53), with the institute being placed in charge of the administration over the protected area. The monument was inducted in the state register of cultural monuments on 17 August 2012, under the designation AN 165. Homo heidelbergensis Homo heidelbergensis (also H. erectus heidelbergensis , H. sapiens heidelbergensis )

28224-420: Was speaking with some early form of language . Nonetheless, these traits do not absolutely prove the existence of language and humanlike speech, and its presence so early in time despite such anatomical arguments has been primarily opposed by cognitive scientist Philip Lieberman . CT scan A computed tomography scan ( CT scan ), formerly called computed axial tomography scan ( CAT scan ),

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