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55-498: The Tai Le script is approximately 700–800 years old and has used several different orthographic conventions. The traditional Tai Le script is a Brahmic script that is found in the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan , China. The script is known by a variety of names. It is known as Lik Tho Ngok ( Tai Nüa : lik4 tho2 ŋɔk4 , "bean sprout script") by the Tai Nua ,

110-625: A dependent vowel sign. When vowels occur initially in a word or syllable, they are preceded by the vowel carrier ᥟ. Note that old orthography tone diacritics combine with short letters (as in /ka²/ ᥐ̈ ) but appear to the right of tall letters (as in /ki²/ ᥐᥤ̈ ). There are differences between the numerals employed by the Tai Le script in China and Myanmar. The Chinese Tai Le numerals are similar to Chinese Shan and Burmese numerals. Burmese Tai Le numerals are similar to Burmese Shan numerals. The Tai Le script

165-570: A peaceful manner, Indianization , or the spread of Indian learning. The scripts spread naturally to Southeast Asia, at ports on trading routes. At these trading posts, ancient inscriptions have been found in Sanskrit, using scripts that originated in India. At first, inscriptions were made in Indian languages, but later the scripts were used to write the local Southeast Asian languages. Hereafter, local varieties of

220-557: A population of 20,000. Baoshan historian Xiao Zhengwei believes the kingdom of Dianyue was a powerful tribe under Ailao. In 69 AD, Liu Mao ( 柳貌 ), the king of Ailao, led the tribal alliance to surrender to the Han dynasty, and Han set "Ailao County" here. During the Southern dynasty Qi period, the name was changed to "Xicheng County" ( 西城县 ). During the end of the Liang dynasty , Xicheng County

275-511: Is controversial, it can be determined that Dehong belonged to Nanzhao and Dali in the medieval period of Yunnan. In Nanzhao, it was divided into " Yongchang Jiedu" ( 永昌节度 , south of Dehong) and "Lishui Jiedu" ( 丽水节度 , north of Dehong). In Dali, it was under the division of "Zhenxi Zhen" ( 镇西镇 ). In 1253, Kublai Khan conquered the Dali Kingdom, and the Dehong Dai people capitulated to

330-418: Is the name denoted by Yuan, and "Mong Mao" is a self-claimed name. Si Kefa enthroned the chieftain of Luchuan Lu in 1340 and sent troops to the surrounding states such Hsenwi , Mongyang , and Mongmit . After that, he attacked Mangshi , Zhenxi , Pingmian , and Nandian . The Yuan dynasty initiated wars in 1342, 1345, 1346, and 1347 to counterattack Luchuan, but all the attempts failed. Luchuan conquered

385-587: Is the origin language of the word "Dehong", in Tai Le script (the script used to write the Tai Nüa language by the Tai Nua people ) is written as " ᥖᥬᥳ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ ", transliterated to Latin as Taue Xoong . Dehong means the lower reaches of the Nu River . The Chinese characters for Dehong are " 德宏 ". These two characters are a compound of 德 , "moral" or "value"; and 宏 , "magnificent" or "great". Dianyue and Ailao were

440-542: The Brahmi script . Brahmi is clearly attested from the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka , who used the script for imperial edicts . Northern Brahmi gave rise to the Gupta script during the Gupta period , which in turn diversified into a number of cursives during the medieval period . Notable examples of such medieval scripts, developed by the 7th or 8th century, include Nagari , Siddham and Sharada . The Siddhaṃ script

495-554: The Indian subcontinent , Southeast Asia and parts of East Asia . They are descended from the Brahmi script of ancient India and are used by various languages in several language families in South , East and Southeast Asia : Indo-Aryan , Dravidian , Tibeto-Burman , Mongolic , Austroasiatic , Austronesian , and Tai . They were also the source of the dictionary order ( gojūon ) of Japanese kana . Brahmic scripts descended from

550-860: The Mongol Empire . The Mongols set up an administrative division called "Jinchi Anfu Si" ( 金齿安抚司 ) to manage the west of Yunnan. In 1276, during the Yuan dynasty , the Anfu Si was upgraded to "Jinchi Xuanfu Si" ( 金齿宣抚司 ), and established the agency "6 Lu governor Fu " ( 六路总管府 ) to manage the Dehong area. The 6 Lu were: Luchuan Lu ( 麓川路 , modern Ruili and Longchuan ), Pingmian Lu ( 平缅路 , modern southern Lianghe and northern Longchuan), Zhenxi Lu ( 镇西路 , modern Yingjiang ), Zhenkang Lu ( 镇康路 , modern Zhenkang , out of Dehong), Mangshi Lu ( 茫施路 , modern Mangshi ), and Rouyuan Lu ( 柔远路 , modern Lujiang , out of Dehong). In addition,

605-719: The Toungoo dynasty . After the Mong Mao kingdom declined, the Chinese central government gained efficient control in the Dehong area. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the central government canonized 10 Tusi in Dehong: During the Ming dynasty, two Sino-Burmese wars occurred in Dehong. In 1594, Yunnan grand coordinator Chen Yongbin ( 陈用宾 ) built up 8 border defense military checkpoints to guard

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660-587: The " Margary Affair ". This event was followed by the signing of the Yantai Treaty . In 1894, during a Britain-China border convention, certain sections of the China–Myanmar border to the south of the "High Conical Peak"( 尖高山 ) were delimited, and an agreement was reached that the Qing dynasty would open two border ports between Burma and China: Manyun ( 蛮允 ) and Zhanxi ( 盏西 ). In 1897, another agreement

715-465: The "Guozhanbi"( 果占璧 ) Kingdom, also called " Kawsampi " ( 憍赏弥 ). In 364 AD, a descendant of Gelaba named Zhaowuding ( 召武定 ) inherited the throne. He became a famous deity , sovereign, and culture hero of the Dai people. In the 7th century, the Dai area was in chaos, and the descendants of Zhaowuding could not effectively control the area. At the same time, the kingdom of Nanzhao was rising and conquered

770-625: The Brahmi script began to diversify further from around the 5th century AD and continued to give rise to new scripts throughout the Middle Ages. The main division in antiquity was between northern and southern Brahmi . In the northern group, the Gupta script was very influential, and in the southern group the Vatteluttu and Kadamba / Pallava scripts with the spread of Buddhism sent Brahmic scripts throughout Southeast Asia. As of Unicode version 16.0,

825-588: The Burmese military of 40,000 to 50,000 soldiers with 10,000 horses and 800 elephants. It was the prelude to the First Mongol invasion of Burma . During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Dehong Dai people immigrated to modern Assam in India and built up the kingdom of Ahom . They formed the latter-day Ahom people . The local Dai chief was the leader of Luchuan Lu, and they were the successors of "Guozhanbi". "Luchuan"

880-476: The Dai people in Dehong Prefecture and nearby counties and cities belong to Tai Nua and speak Tai Nua Language . Dehong extends 122 km (76 mi) from east to west and 170 km (110 mi) from north to south, and its area is 11,526 km (4,450 sq mi). Dehong is divided into three counties and two county level cities : The prefectural government seat is Mangshi . Dehong

935-411: The Dehong area. Piluoge , the king of Nanzhao, canonized another Dai tribe chief named Hundeng ( 混等 ) to be the "King of Mong Mao " and managed the whole Dai area in 762. In 1995, Dehong historian Yang Yongsheng published research on the ancient Dai civilization. He put forward a new opinion during the Dai legend research — The "Kingdom of Daguang" ( 达光 ) is the first country of the Dai people which

990-521: The Dehong area. However, some historians disagree with this opinion. Lou Zichang believes Dianyue Chengxiang was not a country in western Yunnan, nor was it a country established by the Dai people. Ai Lao ( 哀牢 ) was an ancient tribal alliance country in the west of Yunnan from the Spring and Autumn to the Eastern Han periods, and modern historians say the area included Dehong. In Chronicles of Huayang ,

1045-669: The Lik Tho Ngok script first emerged, and it has only been attested after the 18th century. Broadly speaking, only Lik Tho Ngok and Lik To Mon ('round' or 'circular' script), used in Shan State , are still in use today. Government-led reforms of the main Tai Nuea traditional scripts began in Dehong the 1950s. Between 1952 and 1988 the Dehong script went through four reforms, initially adding a consonant, vowel symbols and tone markers, then in 1956 changing many graphemes and tone markers. A third reform

1100-636: The Lik Tho Ngok script is used for secular purposes, while the Tham script is used for Buddhist manuscripts. In Yunnan, China, Lik Tho Ngok is still used in the Jinggu Dai and Yi Autonomous County , the Menglian Dai, Lahu and Va Autonomous County , and the Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County . Lik Tho Ngok and the reformed Tai Le script are used in the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture , as well as Lik To Mon and

1155-558: The Lik Tho Ngok script used in Mueang Sing, representing 15 phonemes in the spoken dialect plus two rarer phonemes (/d/ and /b/). The script used by the Tai Dehong and Tai Mao has consonant and vowel glyphs similar to the reformed Tai Le script, while the script used by the Tai Nuea differs somewhat from the other scripts. However, the scripts used by the Tai Nuea, Tai Dehong and Tai Mao are all considered Lik Tho Ngok. In Muang Sing , Laos,

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1210-504: The Lik Tho Ngok script, used for secular purposes and only in manuscripts. The script is not taught in temples, in favor of the Tai Tham script . The local government’s "Intangible Cultural Heritage Protection Center" is working to obtain and protect manuscripts written in the Dai traditional scripts, as of 2013. Between 1952 and 1988, the script went through four reforms. The third reform (1963/1964) used diacritics to represent tones , while

1265-578: The Lik Tho Ngok script. Other "Lik" scripts are used for the Khamti , Phake , Aiton and Ahom languages , as well as for other Tai languages across Northern Myanmar and Assam , in Northeast India. The Lik scripts have a limited inventory of 16 to 18 consonant symbols compared to the Tai Tham script, which possibly indicates that the scripts were not developed for writing Pali. It is unknown when, where and how

1320-447: The Lik scripts have a common origin from an Old Burmese or Mon prototype before the fifteenth century, most probably in the polity of Mong Mao . The Lik Tai script featured on a 1407 Ming dynasty scroll exhibits many features of the Burmese script, including fourteen of the nineteen consonants, three medial diacritics and the high tone marker. According to the scholar Daniels, this shows that

1375-777: The Luchuan territory. During Si Xingfa's rule in the 1410s, the Mong Mao territory decreased to include only modern Ruili , Mangshi , and Namhkam . After Si Xingfa, Si Renfa was enthroned in 1413, and he tried to restore the kingdom to its former glory. In 1439, a conflict between Mong Mao and Ming reoccurred. This was the beginning of the Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns . In 1441, Ming sent troops to Mong Mao, and Si Renfa fled to Mongyang . Several wars occurred between 1443 and 1449, and finally, Mong Mao lost Dehong. The imperial family continued to live in Mongyang until they were attacked in 1604 by

1430-529: The Mong Mao Tusi and Si Lunfa surrendered. Ming granted him the title "Xuanwei Commissioner of Luchuan Pingmian" ( 麓川平缅宣慰使 ) and changed the division name "Luchuan Pingmian Xuanwei Si". In 1385, the leader of Jingdong renegaded the Mong Mao regime, and Si Lunfa sent troops to attack Jingdong. However, Mu Ying , the general of Yunnan, was protecting the Jingdong leader. The wars between the Mong Mao regime and

1485-462: The Old Tay or Old Dai script, Lik Tay La/Na ( Tai Nüa : lik6 Tay2 lä1/nä1 , "Northern Tay script") and Lik To Yao ( Tai Nüa : lik6 to4 yaaw2 , "long script"). The Lik Tho Ngok script used by the Tai Nuea people is one of a number of "Lik Tai" scripts or "Lik" scripts used by various Tai peoples in northeastern India, northern Myanmar, southwestern Yunnan, and northwestern Laos. Evidence suggests that

1540-571: The Tai borrowed from the Burmese script to create their own script; the Lik Tai script was derived from the Burmese script, as it could only have been created by someone proficient in Burmese. Daniels also argues that, unlike previously thought, the Lik Tho Ngok script is not the origin of the other Lik Tai scripts, as the 1407 Lik Tai script shows greater similarity to the Ahom script , which has been attested earlier than

1595-510: The Tusi in Dehong surrendered to the Qing dynasty in 1659. The war between the Qing and Konbaung dynasties from 1765 to 1769 also extended to the Dehong area. In 1875, a British translator, Augustus Raymond Margary , and his four personal staff members were murdered in the west of Yingjiang County . This was an important non-governmental crisis in Sino-British relations and came to be known as

1650-535: The Tusi officials opposed the change. Therefore, special administrative divisions were formed to support the period of transition. The administrative titles included Suppress Committee ( 弹压委员 ) and Deputy County ( 县佐 ) between 1911 and 1917, District and Deputy County between 1917 and 1932, and Administrative Bureau ( 设治局 ) after 1932. The Tusi system existed until the land reform movement in 1955. The administrative bureaus after 1932 included Luxi , Ruili , Longchuan , Yingjiang , Lianshan , and Lianghe — they were

1705-450: The Yunnan local government occurred in 1387 and 1388. Finally, Mong Mao failed. In order to maintain the relationship with Ming, Si Lunfa sent a mission to Kunming to make peace. Mong Mao consented to compensate for the losses, and peace was restored. After Si Lunfa died in 1399, a minister of Mong Mao launched a rebellion. The Ming government felt threatened and separated 14 Tusi regions from

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1760-517: The ancient Dai civilization. The Dai legend of Daguang is the story of pre-period of the Pyu city-states . The story of the Pyu city-states spread to the Dehong Dai area, localized to a Dai legend, and was recorded in Dai literature. In Yang Yongsheng's research, the kingdom of "Guozhanbi" was the second kingdom established by the Dai people after Daguang. Dai language literatures were his sources of research. He said

1815-577: The ancient countries recorded in Chinese literature in the Dehong area, and Guozhanbi ( Kawsampi ) was an ancient country established by the Dai people and recorded in Dai legends. In the history book Records of the Grand Historian written by Sima Qian during the Han dynasty , a paragraph in volume 123 describes Dianyue as when Zhang Qian visited Daxia in Central Asia , he found some merchandise that

1870-544: The following Brahmic scripts have been encoded: Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture The Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture in western Yunnan province, China. It is bordered by Baoshan to the east and Myanmar's Kachin State to the west. Its titular ethnic minorities are the Dai and Jingpo , who make up 28 and 11 percent of the prefecture's population, respectively. Tai Nuea

1925-444: The fourth reform (1988–present) uses standalone tone letters . Today the reformed Tai Le script, which removes ambiguity in reading and adds tone markers, is widely used by the Tai Dehong and Tai Mao in the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture , but not in Tai Nuea communities in the Jinggu Dai and Yi Autonomous County , the Menglian Dai, Lahu and Va Autonomous County , and the Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County , where only

1980-575: The international border between Dehong and the Burmese Toungoo dynasty ; these checkpoints formed the early border between China and Myanmar. In 1658, the last emperor of the Southern Ming dynasty , Zhu Youlang , passed the Nandian and Ganya Tusi and fled to Myanmar. He granted Ganya Tusi a marquess title. Ganya Tusi helped Youlang to flee but was completely annihilated in the tussle. Thereafter, all

2035-567: The kingdom of Guozhanbi was in existence from 567 to 1488. According to the research of He Ping, "Guozhanbi" is the ancient state "Kawsampi" or Kosambi . There are many legends about Kawsampi in Thai - Shan folklore. The origin of the legend was a story in Buddhist texts . Therefore, He Ping thought the Kingdom of "Guozhanbi" or "Kawsampi" is an untrustworthy history. Whether or not the early history of Dehong

2090-413: The left of each column, and in their corresponding dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant k on the right. A glyph for ka is an independent consonant letter itself without any vowel sign, where the vowel a is inherent . Notes Notes The Brahmi script was already divided into regional variants at the time of the earliest surviving epigraphy around the 3rd century BC. Cursives of

2145-645: The predecessors of future counties. During World War II , Dehong was an important strategic location for China. By 1938, the Burma Road was built, and it was an important international transit channel after the Japanese army blocked the eastern coast of China. In 1939, the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company moved to Loiwing in the south-west corner of Ruili, and it was the biggest aircraft manufacturing plant in China at that time. The area

2200-404: The record of Ailao mentions its territory "3,000 li from west to east, and 4,600 li from south to north", approximately equal to 1,300 km west to east and 1,994 km south to north in modern units. It includes the southwest of Yunnan and most of Myanmar , and in modern research, it is called the generalized area of Ailao. In the Han period, Ailao was an influential tribal country with

2255-454: The reformed Shan script (in areas near the Myanmar border). Tai Nuea areas that use the reformed Tai Le script have seen a decline in the knowledge and use of the traditional script, but recently there has been renewed interest in the traditional script and manuscript tradition. The manuscript culture of the Tai Nuea people is maintained by small numbers of specialised scribes who are literate in

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2310-641: The rent of 1,000 Rupees a year. Finally, China didn't get this region back and used it to exchange another area in the west of Cangyuan in 1960. After the Wuchang Uprising occurred in October 1911, Ganya Tusi Dao Anren ( 刀安仁 ) launched an uprising at Tengyue on 27 October 1911. Under the Republic of China, the Yunnan government tried to eliminate the Tusi system and replace Tusi with state-appointed officials, but

2365-518: The scripts were developed. By the 8th century, the scripts had diverged and separated into regional scripts. Some characteristics, which are present in most but not all the scripts, are: Below are comparison charts of several of the major Indic scripts, organised on the principle that glyphs in the same column all derive from the same Brahmi glyph. Accordingly: The transliteration is indicated in ISO 15919 . Vowels are presented in their independent form on

2420-633: The special divisions named "Nan Dan" ( 南赕 ) and Nandian Fu ( 南甸府 , modern Lianghe ) were established. The scope of "6 Lu general manager Fu" was close to the modern Dehong territory. In 1277, Narathihapate , the king of the Burmese Pagan Kingdom , invaded the modern Dehong area. The Battle of Ngasaunggyan occurred on the bank of the Taping River , presently in Yingjiang County . The Yuan army only had 700 soldiers but eventually repelled

2475-459: The surrounding states successively. In 1355, Si Kefa asked the Yuan dynasty to canonize him. The Yuan central government admitted his local regime and canonized Si Kefa to be the first Mong Mao Tusi . The central government set a division of "Pingmian Xuanwei Si" ( 平缅宣慰司 ) at Mong Mao to legalize the regime, and Mong Mao Tusi was the leader of Xuanwei Si. In 1382, the Ming dynasty military arrived at

2530-411: The traditional scripts are used. Because of differing letters and orthographic rules, the traditional Tai Nuea and reformed Tai Le scripts are mutually unintelligible without considerable effort. In modern Tai Le orthographies, initial consonants precede vowels, vowels precede final consonants and tone marks, if present, follow the entire syllable. Consonants have an inherent vowel /a/, unless followed by

2585-560: Was abolished. Between 568 BC and 424 BC, during the Eastern Zhou dynasty in China, the ancestors of the Dai people had settled in the Shweli River valley area and entered the tribal period. In 364 BC, grand chief Gelaba ( 葛拉叭 ) unified the tribes in the Shweli basin. He became the chief of the tribal alliance and set the capital at Hansa ( 喊萨 , in modern Ruili ). It was the early stage of

2640-614: Was added to the Unicode Standard in April 2003 with the release of version 4.0. The Unicode block for Tai Le is U+1950–U+197F: The tone diacritics used in the old orthography (specifically the third reform) are located in the Combining Diacritical Marks Unicode block: Brahmic script The Brahmic scripts , also known as Indic scripts , are a family of abugida writing systems . They are used throughout

2695-466: Was declared an autonomous region in 1953. In May 1956, it became an autonomous prefecture. In 1960, when inter-provincial migration took place, many farmers came to Yunnan to farm bananas. This was during the "Great Leap Forward" when a biologist working for Mao Zedong wrote an article about the weather in Yunnan being very suitable for bananas to be planted. Before this, many Chinese were scared of going there because of an illness that lurked about. It

2750-521: Was especially important in Buddhism , as many sutras were written in it. The art of Siddham calligraphy survives today in Japan . The tabular presentation and dictionary order of the modern kana system of Japanese writing is believed to be descended from the Indic scripts, most likely through the spread of Buddhism . Southern Brahmi evolved into the Kadamba , Pallava and Vatteluttu scripts, which in turn diversified into other scripts of South India and Southeast Asia. Brahmic scripts spread in

2805-401: Was established in 424 BC, and the country "Dianyue Chengxiang" is another name for "Daguang". In 233 BC, the capital of Daguang moved to Pagan , and finally perished in 586 AD. The research was countered by He Ping, a history professor at Yunnan University . He Ping says that the Kingdom of Daguang is the legendary kingdom of Tagaung in Burmese history and there was no kingdom of "Daguang" in

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2860-400: Was later discovered that this was an identifiable tropical disease. The farmers helped to get rid of the disease. They made clearings, roads, and space for fields and plantations . Among the resident population, the Han population is 629,147, accounting for 51.93% of the total population; the ethnic minorities population is 582,293, accounting for 48.07% of the total population. Most of

2915-416: Was produced in Sichuan . And the Daxia merchant said it was purchased from Yuandu ( India ). There was a trade route, Shu-Yuandu Road ( 蜀身毒道 ), between Yuandu and Sichuan. The road passed a kingdom named "Dianyue" ( 滇越 ). The country is also called "Dianyue Chengxiang" ( 滇越乘象国 ) in modern books. Chinese historians generally said Tengyue was the center of Dianyue Chengxiang, and the territory included

2970-706: Was proposed in 1964, again adding and changing graphemes and making further changes to tone markers, and a fourth reform took place in 1988. In common with other Lik orthographies, Lik Tho Ngok is an alphasyllabary, but not fully an abugida, since occurrence of an inherent vowel is restricted to medial position, where it may take either /-a-/ or /-aa-/. In Mueng Sing today, the smaller glyphs are not used and two main styles of Lik Tho Ngok are recognised by local scribes: To Lem ( Tai Nüa : to1 lem3 ‘edged letters,’) which have straighter edges and more pointed angles, and To Mon ( Tai Nüa : to1 mon4 ‘rounded letters’) without sharp angles. There are 21 initial consonant graphemes in

3025-402: Was signed and three parts of the area around Dehong were incorporated into Burma, although the convention in 1894 had determined they were part of China, and four of the border checkpoints which were established by Chen Yongbin in the Ming dynasty were also incorporated into Burma. Under this agreement, the British government leased the " Namwan Assigned Tract " in the southwest of Dehong with

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