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101-696: In 1277 King Narathihapate of Bagan had an ambassador from Kublai Khan executed and then invaded the state of Kanngai along the Taping river, 70 miles north of Bhamo, for submitting to the Mongols . The Chinese defeated the Burmese in the Battle of Ngasaunggyan , a vivid account of which was reported back to Europe later by Marco Polo . The Chinese army advanced to Kaungsin but turned back because of excessive heat. They returned however in 1283, destroying Kaungsin and advancing into

202-498: A 1968 analysis by historian Nai Pan Hla . Pan Hla re-translated one of the versions back to Mon in 1958. He also wrote a new (tenth) version in 1968, synthesising the Burmese versions of Razadarit , Pak Lat' s version, and the accounts in Hmannan as well as modern research. ) Other extant chronicles are even more limited in scope: they are mainly supplementary chronicles dealing with specific topics. Nidana Arambhakatha ("Preface to

303-625: A Burma Mon scholar as of 2005.) Pak Lat weaves together all existing Mon narratives, including the history of Thaton Kingdom, Gavampati's linkage with the Buddha, the Hanthawaddy Chronicle from monarchs Wareru to Shin Sawbu (1287–1472), and Nidana's genealogy of kings. Although the earliest extant work of Arakanese literature in Arakanese (Burmese) script, Rakhine Minthami Eigyin ("Lullaby for

404-580: A Princess of Arakan"), was written only in 1455, Arakanese chronicle tradition most likely began at least a century earlier. (The Burmese script had already been in use at the Arakanese court at least since the 1330s when the future King Swa Saw Ke of Ava was educated there. According to Pamela Gutman, the use of Burmese script appeared for the first time in the Le-Mro period (11th to 15th centuries) on stone inscriptions. ) Much earlier Devanagari inscriptions exist (as early as c. 550 CE) but it does not appear that

505-412: A ceasefire but insisted on a full submission. They repeated their 1281 demand that the Burmese king send a formal delegation to the emperor. A tentative agreement was reached among the negotiators on 3 March 1286; Central Burma would now be organized as a sub-province of Mianzhong ( Chinese : 緬中 ; Wade–Giles : Mien-Chung ), and the Burmese king would send a formal embassy to the emperor. After

606-813: A colonial period scholar, found the extant Shan chronicles "consistently reckless with regard to dates, varying a couple of centuries on every other leaf", and discarded them. The Shan local histories were written in a variety of Shan scripts . Jinakalamali was originally written in Pali, Zinme Yazawin in Lan Na script , and Kengtung Yazawin in Khun script, for example. (At least six Shan scripts—Tai Long, Tai Hkamti, Tai Neu, Khun, Tai Yun (Kengwi), Tai Yun (Lan Na) were in use in Burmese Shan states. ) Excluding Lan Na chronicles, only Kengtung Yazawin has been fully translated into English as

707-478: A formal method". ) Its author, Twinthin Taikwun Maha Sithu , consulted over 600 stone inscriptions, which he had collected and copied from around the kingdom between 1783 and 1793 per King Bodawpaya's decree, to verify the accuracy of Maha Yazawin . It was the only Burmese chronicle (other than Zatadawbon Yazawin ) to organise itself by dynasties and periods whereas all others had been organised strictly along

808-509: A long deliberation, in June 1286, the Burmese king decided to agree to the terms, and sent an embassy led by Shin Ditha Pamauk , the chief primate, to the emperor's court. In January 1287, the embassy arrived at Beijing, and was received by the emperor. The Burmese delegation formally acknowledged Mongol suzerainty of their kingdom, and agreed to pay annual tribute tied to the agricultural output of

909-730: Is actually the first half of the Hanthawaddy chronicle. At least two Alaungpaya biographies by different original authors exist. Hsinbyushin Ayedawbon is actually about the reign of King Bodawpaya , not the more famous Hsinbyushin and Bodawpaya's brother, King Hsinbyushin . Regional chronicles are the histories of various small kingdoms such as ( Hanthawaddy Kingdom and Mrauk-U Kingdom ) and tributary vassal states (Early Toungoo, Prome, major Shan states of Lan Na , Kengtung , Hsenwi and Hsipaw ) which maintained their own court and court historians. The regional chronicles were most relevant during

1010-626: Is known in Burmese history as the " Taruk-Pyay Min " ("the King who fled from the Taruks ") for his flight from Pagan (Bagan) to Lower Burma in 1285 during the first Mongol invasion (1277–87) of the kingdom. He eventually submitted to Kublai Khan , founder of the Yuan dynasty in January 1287 in exchange for a Mongol withdrawal from northern Burma. But when the king was assassinated six months later by his son Thihathu ,

1111-405: Is said to have been compiled in 1527. The rest of the smaller Shan state chronicles (Hsenwi, Hsipaw, etc.) date only from the 19th century. Like their Burmese and Mon counterparts, various Shan chronicles also claim their sawbwas' descent from the clan of the Buddha, which British colonial period scholars took to be a sign of copying from Hmannan and as a sign of their recent nature. G.E. Harvey,

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1212-517: Is the Rosetta Stone that helped unlock the Pyu language .) Likewise, King Bayinnaung 's Shwezigon Pagoda Bell Inscription (1557) provides the exact dates of 17 key events of his first six years in power, enabling modern historians to check the chronicles. However, not all inscriptions are reliable records of secular events. The famous Kalyani Inscriptions (1479), for example, make claims of legitimacy of

1313-449: Is unkindly remembered in Burmese history as the "Taruk-Pyay Min" ("the King who Fled from the Taruk [Chinese]") for his flight to the south, instead of defending the country. The royal chronicles paint an especially harsh description of the king, portraying him as "an ogre" and "glutton" who was "great in wrath, haughtiness and envy, exceeding covetous and ambitious." According to scholarship, he

1414-633: The Ayutthaya Chronicle ) together to form a consistent national narrative. Kala wrote three versions by length: Maha Yazawin Gyi (full version, 21 volumes), Yazawin Lat (medium version, 10 volumes), Yazawin Gyok (abridged version, 1 volume). Since it was written in the late Toungoo period, Maha Yazawin provides its most specific information on dates and descriptions of various events Toungoo kings partook. It traces

1515-773: The Padaeng Chronicle and the Jengtung State Chronicle . (Two Lan Na chronicles of the Chiang Mai Chronicle and the Nan Chronicle have also been translated into English.) There are also chronicles that fall outside of general categorisation. Pawtugi Yazawin covers the history of the Portuguese, especially their rule at Syriam (Thanlyin) from 1599 to 1613. Dawei Yazawin and Myeik Yazawin are chronicles of Tavoy (Dawei) and Myeik (Mergui), compiled after

1616-500: The Buddha and Buddhist mythology . Indeed, the most complete compilation of the history of Mon kingdoms would have to wait until 1910 and 1912 when Pak Lat Chronicles was published in a two-volume set. It was reportedly based on the stash of manuscripts found at Pak Lat , then an ethnic Mon enclave east of Bangkok . (The provenance and chronology of the manuscripts used in the publications are uncertain, and had not yet been studied by

1717-622: The Japanese 56th Division along the Taping in a successful attempt at capturing Myothit in late October and subsequently driving the enemy out of their main defense positions in Bhamo, thus spearheading the drive in the construction of the Ledo Road. A rhinoceros was shot in 1946 after it had crossed the Irrawaddy and then the Taping river. The Americans hunted sambar (deer) , pheasants , and bear during

1818-590: The Song refugees , and in the process went on to occupy a Burmese vassal state in present-day Dehong Prefecture ). Narathihapate sent the army to reclaim the region but the army was driven back in April 1277 at the battle of Ngasaunggyan (modern Yingjiang ). The Mongol troops reached as far south as Kaungsin, which guarded the Bhamo Pass , the gateway into the Irrawaddy, before retreating in 1278 due to excessive heat. Later in 1278,

1919-449: The Viceroy of Prome , the 250-year-old Pagan Empire broke apart into multiple petty states. The political fragmentation of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery would last for another 250 years until the mid-16th century. The king is unkindly remembered in the royal chronicles , which in addition to calling a cowardly king who fled from the invaders, also call him "an ogre" and "glutton" who

2020-481: The Viceroy of Prome . On 1 July 1287, the king was forced to take poison. To refuse would have meant death by the sword, and with a prayer on his lips that in all his future existences "may no male-child be ever born to him again", the king swallowed the poison and died. Narathihapate's death was promptly followed by the breakup of the kingdom. Nearly 250 years of Pagan's rule over the Irrawaddy basin and its periphery

2121-494: The "Discarded Chronicle"). Nonetheless, when Hmannan Yazawin , the first officially accepted chronicle of Konbaung Dynasty, appeared in 1832, it had incorporated many of Yazawin Thit's corrections, in particular regnal dates of Pagan period kings. Modern scholarship notes the chronicle's innovative use of epigraphy but does not find the chronicle's criticisms harsh. Rather, scholarship maintains that for its criticisms and corrections,

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2222-554: The "sophistication in use and manipulation of an expanded Burmese vocabulary and grammar" are legacies of the Ava period . The Burmese chronicles have been used in Thai historians' effort to reconstruct the Thai history before 1767 for the original Siamese chronicles were destroyed during the sack of Ayutthaya by the Burmese army. In particular, the pre-1767 chronology of Thai history follows that of Burmese chronicles. (The prior reconstructed dates of

2323-476: The 12th century while the more well known Mon language Wareru Dhammathat dates from the 1290s. The earliest dhammathats were mainly written in Pali, and were accessible only to the court elite and clergy. Though modeled after the Hindu legal treatise Manusmriti in terms of organization, the content of Burmese dhammathats is mostly Burmese customary law with early dhammathats containing "between 4% and 5%" of

2424-642: The 18th and 19th centuries have also survived. The often lengthy thanbauks list the pairings of year dates to historical events. With their poetical imagery and excessive glorification, eigyins , mawguns and thanbauks are of high literary value but of limited historical value. Some of the more well known chronicles in verse are: Court scholars also wrote administrative treatises and precedents. The two most well known, Zabu Kun-Cha Po Yaza Mu Haung ( ဇမ္ဗူကွန်ချ ဖိုးရာဇာ မူဟောင်း ) ( c. early 15th century) and Mani Yadanabon ( မဏိရတနာပုံ ) (1781) are compilations of precedents but also provide an outline of

2525-402: The 19th century, similar to what other vassal states such as Prome and Toungoo did in the 14th and 16th centuries. ( Lan Na was tributary to Burma from 1558 to 1775.) At any rate, only Lan Na and Kengtung, the two largest Shan states, had sizeable chronicles. Moreover, the earliest extant copies of Lan Na date only from the 18th century even though the original copy of Jinakalamali of Chiang Mai

2626-607: The 5th to the 10th centuries but from the 11th, there is literally a deluge of them". The earliest original inscription in Burmese is dated 1035 CE; an 18th-century recast stone inscription points to 984 CE. Inscriptions have been invaluable in verifying the events described in the chronicles written centuries later. The Myazedi inscription (1112), for example, confirmed the reign dates of kings Anawrahta to Kyansittha given in Zatadawbon Yazawin while disproving Hmannan's dates for those. (Myazedi, inscribed in four scripts,

2727-460: The Arakanese accounts need to be checked since "the references to Arakan in the chronicles of Arakan’s neighbors, such as Pegu, Ayudhya, and Ava are on the whole biased or ill-informed." The rulers of Shan states , called saophas (sawbwas) , held court even as they paid tribute to their larger neighbours. Some of the larger Shan states such as Lan Na (Chiang Mai), Kengtung, Hsenwi, Hsipaw and Mong Yawng also maintained their own histories down to

2828-416: The Arakanese chronicles consulted the inscriptions in any case because later court historians could not read the earliest inscriptions. Indeed, to date, most of the inscriptions have not been fully examined, or translated. Though Arakanese chronicles may have been written circa the 14th century, the earliest extant manuscripts date only from the 18th century. Most of Mrauk-U's historical works did not survive

2929-503: The Ava period as literacy rates improved, and the Burmese literature "grew more voluminous and diverse". Even then, most did not survive warfare, the main factor in destruction of historical records in Burmese history. Burmese history is littered with instances of conquering forces destroying the conquered's records: Pagan records in 1287 during the Mongol invasions ; Ava records in 1525 and in 1527 by

3030-419: The Burmese conquest of Tenasserim in 1765 . The chronicles were also written in verse , chiefly in eigyin or mawgun forms, and secondarily in the form of yazawin thanbauk . Eigyins are elaborate lullabies for young princes and princesses, written to inform the royal children of their genealogy and the achievements of their forebears. Since the antiquity of the royal family's genealogy mattered greatly,

3131-452: The Burmese chronicles are the most detailed historical records in the region. Yet much of the extant Burmese records have not been properly maintained, and many of the less well-known chronicles are yet to be studied systematically. The Burmese royal chronicles are "detailed and continuous registers of events in chronological order", revolving "chiefly around the Burmese kings". The chronicles by themselves offer little or no commentary on

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3232-571: The Burmese kingdom came from the north. The Mongols , who conquered the Dali Kingdom (later renamed as Yunnan in 1274) in 1253–57, first demanded tribute from Pagan in 1271–72. When the Burmese king refused, Emperor Kublai Khan himself sent a mission in 1273 to demand tribute once again. The king refused again. The Mongol army of the Yuan dynasty in 1275–76 consolidated the Pagan–Yunnan borderlands as part of their drive to close off escape routes of

3333-432: The Hanthawaddy monarchy on religious grounds. Myanmar possesses the largest number of historical stone inscriptions as well as most complete historical records in all of Southeast Asia . The first systematic effort to preserve the inscriptions was launched by King Bodawpaya per the royal order dated 23 July 1783 to check then existing chronicles with inscriptional evidence. By 1793, over 600 inscriptions from throughout

3434-572: The Hindu legal treatise Manusmriti . The Wareru was translated into Burmese, Pali and Siamese, and was the basic law of the First Toungoo Empire . After the empire's fall in 1599, the Code lived on—albeit in adapted forms—in the main successor states. In Siam, it coexisted with other legal codes until King Rama I compiled a new legal code in 1805. The new Siamese law's core 18 chapters share "substantial similarities to King Wareru's code", and

3535-590: The Irrawaddy valley culminating in the fall of Bagan. Trade with China had taken place along the Taping river for centuries through Kaungsin until Bhamo became more important from the 15th century onwards. During the Second World War the Allies built the Ledo Road from India to China across northern Burma, and before Christmas 1944, completed 354 miles to reach Myothit on the Taping river in order to link up with

3636-458: The Irrawaddy valley. In the 15th century, when the literacy rate was still low, the scribal work was chiefly handled by monks, but by the late 18th century, it was routinely handled by commoners as adult male literacy exceeded 50 percent. As a result, the earliest surviving "chronicles" were not even the full official chronicles of their own era. The earliest extant chronicle, Zatadawbon Yazawin ("The Royal Horoscopes Chronicle") first written in

3737-527: The Legend") covers the genealogy of kings, and was supposedly part of a larger treatise called Ramann'-uppatti-dipaka ("An Explanation of the Origins of Ramannadesa"). The surviving copy of Nidana is dated to the 18th century although the copy says its original manuscript was compiled in year 900 ME (1538/39 CE). Another chronicle called Gavampati , likely compiled between the 18th and 19th centuries, mainly covers

3838-685: The Mongols found the heat excessive and retreated from Tagaung. The Burmese forces retook Tagaung on 10 May 1284. The Mongol resumed their drive southward in the following dry season (1284–85), and reached as far south as Hanlin by February 1285. Although the Mongols did not have the order to attack Pagan, the king nonetheless fled south to Lower Burma. At Lower Burma, Narathihapate found himself isolated. Although his three sons controlled three key ports ( Bassein (Pathein), Dala and Prome (Pyay)) there, he could not gain their support. He did not trust them in any case, and settled at Hlegya, west of Prome, at

3939-465: The Taping and the Irrawaddy, and up to 36 km upstream to Sinkan at the upstream end of the second defile of the Irrawaddy. Dam building upstream along the Taping is causing concerns as the reduced flow during the dry season could lead to loss of habitat and decline in their numbers. Hydropower projects are under way in the region along the Taping, and 3 dams are being built - one on the Chinese side of

4040-459: The Upper Burmese chronicles still have many gaps and lack specificity, especially with regard to pre-Toungoo (pre-16th century) eras. Still, Myanmar has the highest amount of historical source material in all of Southeast Asia . British colonial period scholars, who were the first ones to reconstruct Burma's history in a "scientific" way and made invaluable efforts to systematically preserve

4141-504: The armies of Confederation of Shan States ; Hanthawaddy records in 1565 by a rebellion; Toungoo records in 1600 by Mrauk-U forces ; more Toungoo records in 1754 by Restored Hanthawaddy ; remaining Hanthawaddy records in 1757 by Konbaung forces ; Arakanese records in 1785 by Konbaung; Konbaung records in 1885 by the British. Perhaps not surprisingly, the most complete surviving chronicles are those of Upper Burma-based dynasties, which often were

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4242-484: The army reestablished its forts at Kaungsin and Ngasaunggyan. Narathihapate's troubles were not over. In 1281, the Mongol emperor again demanded tribute. When the king refused, the emperor ordered an invasion of northern Burma. In September 1283, the Mongol forces again attacked the Burmese fort at Ngasaunggyan, which fell on 3 December 1283. Kaungsin fell six days later, and the Mongols took Tagaung on 5 February 1284. But

4343-443: The arrival of a white elephant at the court to the conquest of Siam, from the completion of a canal to an essay on cosmology. The earliest mawgun dates from 1472. The poet's duty was to glorify the event in an ornate language in verse. There are more than 60 extant mawguns . Both eigyin and mawgun were composed in four-syllable lines, albeit in different styles. A few yazawin thanbauks , or historical epigrams or chronograms, from

4444-488: The average life of a palm leaf record is only 100 to 150 years. Though some stone inscriptions too were recast, and some copying errors (mostly in spelling) have been identified, they do not show the same degree of copying errors of palm-leaf records, many of which were recopied many times over. The oldest extant inscriptions in Burma are dated to the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE in Pyu city-states . Inscriptions were still "rare in

4545-454: The border between Central Burma and Lower Burma. The presence of the king and his small army impressed no one. Pegu (Bago) revolted soon after, and drove back the king's small army twice. With Martaban (Mottama) also in rebellion, the breakaway of Pegu meant the entire eastern half of Lower Burma was now in revolt. His three sons remained in control of the western half of Lower Burma but he could not count on them for their support. At Hlegya,

4646-496: The border, and 2 in Burma jointly by China Datang Corporation (CDT) and the Burmese military government namely Taping 1, 33 miles from Bhamo (240 MW), and Taping 2, 26 miles from Bhamo (168 MW). Narathihapate Narathihapate ( Burmese : နရသီဟပတေ့ , pronounced [nəɹa̰ θìha̰pətḛ] ; also Sithu IV of Pagan ; 23 April 1238 – 1 July 1287) was the last king of the Pagan Empire who reigned from 1256 to 1287. The king

4747-681: The burning of the royal library by the Konbaung forces in 1785. Only portions escaped the indiscriminate destruction. An Arakanese monk tried to salvage the wreckage as much as he could by promptly compiling the Dhanyawaddy Yazawin . He completed it in 1788 but the chronicle may not be as reliable as it is "a third-hand piece of work". Colonial period scholars had to piece together the extant portions of Maha Razawin (148 angas or 1776 palm-leaves), Do We's Rakhine Razawin (48 angas / 576 leaves), Saya Mi's Maha Razawin (24 angas / 288 leaves). In

4848-639: The chronicle largely retains traditional narratives, and "was —as elsewhere in the world —written with didactic intentions". Hmannan Yazawin , known in English as the "Glass Palace Chronicle", was compiled by the Royal Historical Commission in 1829–1832. The chronicle covers events right up to 1821, right before the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). The commission consulted several existing chronicles and local histories ( thamaings ) and

4949-554: The chronicles is rather narrow. The coverage mostly revolves around the activities of the monarch and the royal family, and offers little perspective on the general situation of the kingdom outside the palace unless the monarch happened to be involved in the event. Remote regions would make an appearance only if they were part of the king's itinerary, or were involved in rebellions or military campaigns. Other records—legal and administrative treatises, censuses and regional chronicles—do provide valuable complementary views. On balance, however,

5050-510: The chronicles outside the inscriptions is "modest" due to their destruction in the country's repeated bouts of warfare. Most of the extant material is that of Upper Burmese dynasties, which by the virtue of winning the majority of the wars "possessed an abiding palace and a continuous tradition". The sparseness of the chronicles of Ramanya (Lower Burma), Arakan and Shan states belies the long histories of these former sovereign states, which for centuries were important polities in their own right. Even

5151-661: The chronicles. In general, Yazawins ("chronicle of kings" from Pali rāja-vaṃsa ) are a record of events in chronological order of kings organised by dynasties whereas ayedawbons ("memoirs of royal events/struggles") are more detailed records of more celebrated kings. These definitions are loose generalisations: some ayedawbons are full-fledged chronicles of several kings (e.g., Razadarit Ayedawbon ) or even dynasties (e.g., Dhanyawaddy Ayedawbon ) while some yazawins such as Zatadawbon Yazawin and Yazawin Kyaw have narrower scopes. Inscriptions, most of which were set up by

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5252-513: The chronicles. Other royal records include administrative treatises and precedents, legal treatises and precedents, and censuses. The chronicle tradition was maintained in the country's four historical polities: Upper Burma , Lower Burma , Arakan and the Shan states . The majority of the chronicles did not survive the country's numerous wars as well as the test of time. The most complete extant chronicles are those of Upper Burma-based dynasties, with

5353-473: The country were copied (recast), and kept at the capital Amarapura . European scholars in the British colonial period greatly expanded the collection effort, with a 1921 edition of Epigraphia Birmanica by Charles Duroiselle listing some 1500 inscriptions in original spelling and a large photograph of each text. The most complete set of inscriptions, called She-haung Myanma Kyauksa Mya ( ရှေးဟောင်း မြန်မာ ကျောက်စာများ ; lit. "Ancient Inscriptions of Myanmar")

5454-476: The country. Northern Burma would continue to be organized as Zhengmian (Cheng-Mien) while central Burma would be organized as Mianzhong (Mien-Chung). In exchange, the emperor agreed to withdraw his troops. The Burmese embassy arrived back at Hlegya in May 1287, and reported the terms to the king. About a month later, the king and his small retinue left Hlegya for Pagan. But he was captured en route by his son Thihathu ,

5555-507: The depleted royal treasury, which had been deteriorating for years because the continued growth of tax-free religious landholdings. But unlike his grandfather Kyaswa , who would rather build a small temple than to resort to forced labor, Narathihapate built a lavish temple, the Mingalazedi Pagoda with forced labor. The people, sinking under his rule, whispered: "When the pagoda is finished, the king shall die". The existential threat to

5656-413: The earliest extant chronicle dating from the 1280s and the first standard national chronicle from the 1720s. The subject matter of the chronicles is mainly about the monarchs, and the chronicles provide little information about the general situation of the kingdom. Nor were they written solely from a secular history perspective but rather at times to provide "legitimation according to religious criteria" of

5757-444: The earliest extant chronicles are only parts of the original chronicles. The first half (1287–1421) of the original Hanthawaddy Yazawin had been translated into Burmese by Binnya Dala as Razadarit Ayedawbon before the 1565 rebellion, and the Burmese translation has survived. (To be precise, four oldest palm-leaf copies conjecturally dated to mid 18th century survived. In all, nine slightly different versions of existed according to

5858-410: The early (legendary) history, claiming its early monarchs' linkage to the Buddha. Another 18th-century chronicle, Slatpat Rajawan Datow Smim Ron ("History of Kings"), written by a monk, was also a religion/legend-centric chronicle although it does cover secular history from Sri Ksetra and Pagan to Hanthawaddy periods. Like Gavampati , and Hmannan of the same period, Slatpat too linked its kings to

5959-584: The events. The next major chronicle, Yazawin Thit ("New Chronicle"), written in 1798, was an attempt to check Maha Yazawin with epigraphic evidence. (It is the first historical document in Southeast Asia compiled in consultation with epigraphic evidence. It shows that historians in Southeast Asia were using epigraphy for sourcing and verification around the same time as the practice was first used in Europe, even if Twinthin 's methods may not have "evolved into

6060-500: The first chronicle. The Maha Yazawin ( Great Chronicle ), completed in 1724 with a minor update in 1729, was composed by U Kala , an official at the Toungoo court . It was the first major chronicle in Burma to synthesize all the ancient, regional, foreign and biographic histories to which he had access. Kala weaved all the regional Burmese chronicles as well as foreign ( Mahavamsa and

6161-413: The inscriptions collected by Bodawpaya, as well as eigyins , poetry describing epics of kings and mawguns , panegyric poems. Although the compilers disputed some of the earlier accounts, they by and large retained the accounts of Maha Yazawin and Yazawin Thit . The most important development was Hmannan's disposal of the hitherto prevalent pre-Buddhist origin story of Burmese monarchy, and linkage of

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6262-518: The king of Pagan. By then, the Pagan Empire had ceased to exist. The Mongols had occupied down to Tagaung, and the occupation would last until April 1303. Even in central Burma, Kyawswa controlled only around the capital. The real power now rested with the three brothers from Myinsaing who would later found the Myinsaing Kingdom in 1297, replacing over four centuries of Pagan Kingdom. The king

6363-428: The king was literally at the periphery of Lower Burma. He decided to return to central Burma even if it meant making peace with the Mongols. In December 1285, he sent the chief minister and general Ananda Pyissi and Gen. Maha Bo to negotiate a ceasefire. The Mongol commanders at Hanlin, who had organized northern Burma as a protectorate named Zhengmian ( Chinese : 征緬 ; Wade–Giles : Cheng-Mien ) agreed to

6464-436: The kings respectively were grandfather and paternal uncle to King Mindon who had commissioned the chronicle. The third instalment came in 1905, nearly twenty years after the end of Burmese monarchy, and was written by Maung Maung Tin , who had a distinguished career in the British administration. Tin updated the chronicle to 1885, to the fall of the monarchy, relying mainly on the court records obtained from several members of

6565-416: The kings to determine their tax collection and military manpower base. The censuses collected data on the size of population, number and description of villages, arable land, products and taxes. Kings since Pagan times had graded each town and village by the taxes and levy it could raise. The first known instance of a sittan was ordered per the royal decree dated 12 March 1359 while the first nationwide census

6666-530: The kings, the royal families and their court officials as well as wealthy families, are the earliest surviving royal records. Most surviving inscriptions are from religious dedications, and contain valuable historical material; indeed, they represent the primary extant historical record down to the 16th century. Inscriptions are considered most accurate of all Burmese historiographic material because they are less susceptible to copying errors due to their longevity. A typical stone inscription lasts many centuries while

6767-483: The late 13th and early 15th centuries survived. The rest of early chronicles date only from the 16th century. Many of the early chronicles did not survive for a number of reasons. First, the earliest manuscripts prior to the 15th century were rare and extremely costly. (A 1273 Pagan manuscript of Tripiṭaka cost 3000 kyats of silver, which could buy over 2000 hectares of paddy fields. ) The cost of producing manuscripts (creating as well as recopying) did come down in

6868-477: The late 13th century by court astrologers was primarily a record of regnal dates of Upper Burma's kings. Likewise, the next surviving chronicle, the Yazawin Kyaw ("The Celebrated Chronicle"), written in 1502, was mainly a religious document; only one-seventh of the treatise concerned the affairs of Burmese kings down to 1496. Indeed, it was not even meant to be an authoritative chronicle as its author stated there

6969-436: The late 20th century, historian San Tha Aung could confirm only eight of the supposed 48 historical works of Arakanese history. Even of the extant eight, he was unsure of the reliability of the information prior to 1000 CE. All Arakanese Arakanese chronicles remain untranslated into English. It means the Arakanese accounts have not been open to (non-Burmese reading) international scholars. According to historian Michael Charney,

7070-417: The life of each king chronologically, wherever possible, from his birth to the grave or his dethronement. However, its narrative of the earlier periods is far more sketchy, offering only the year, not the specific date, in most cases. It shows that Kala did not have the full versions of earlier chronicles, and that he did not check any inscriptions, which would have yielded more specific dates and double-checked

7171-430: The linear order of kings, and the first to link the origins of Burmese monarchy to Buddhism. The chronicle updates the events up to 1785, and contains several corrections and critiques of earlier chronicles. However, the chronicle was not well received, and ultimately rejected by the king and the court who found the critiques of earlier chronicles excessively harsh. It became known as A-pe-gan Yazawin ( အပယ်ခံ ရာဇဝင် ,

7272-542: The man who put him on the throne, into exile. But he soon had to recall Yazathingyan to quell the rebellions in Martaban (Mottama) (1258–1259) and Arakan (1258–1260). Yazathingyan put down the rebellions but died on the return journey. With the old minister's death removed the only person that could have controlled the ruthless, inexperienced king. Narathihapate was incompetent in both domestic and foreign affairs. Like his father and grandfather before him, he too failed to fix

7373-421: The monarchy to the clan of the Buddha and the first king of Buddhist mythology, Maha Sammata . (The head of the Royal Historical Commission, Monywe Sayadaw , also wrote a similar chronicle to Hmannan called Maha Yazawin Kyaw ("Great Celebrated Chronicle") in 1831. The learned monk had been writing the chronicle prior to his appointment, and completed his own chronicle because he did not agree with some of

7474-464: The monarchy. Nevertheless, the chronicles' "great record of substantially accurate dates" goes back at least to the 11th century. Latest research shows that even the pre-11th century narratives, dominated by legends, do provide a substantially accurate record of "social memory", going back over three millennia. Myanmar possesses the most extensive historical source material in Southeast Asia , and

7575-402: The national historical records of the countries which comprised the Burmese empire is remarkable. They represent a marked contrast to the scantiness, or total absence of such writings, among the ancient Hindu kingdoms. The annals of Siam do not appear to have been kept with the same regularity and fullness as those of Burma, though they furnish an outline of prominent events. The overall number of

7676-444: The new code adds 21 more chapters. In Burma, the Code morphed into a more Buddhist-centric version by 1640. The new treatise often supports Burmese customary law "with explicitly Buddhist scriptural justifications". An 1899 analysis by historian U Gaung lists a total of 36 dhammathats that had survived in some form. Some of the more well known law treatises and precedents are: Sittans , or censuses/revenue inquests, were used by

7777-476: The old Burma Road at Bhamo. American GIs in the road gang had pleasant recollections of their time along the river trading with locals for souvenirs and hunting in the jungle. Pontoon bridges were built by engineers across 10 major rivers including the Taping. Earlier in the war, the Chinese 38th Division led by General Sun Li-Jen under the Northern Combat Area Command (NCAC) had fought

7878-630: The palace. The royal records were written on different media and in different literary styles. They can be inscriptions on stone ( ကျောက်စာ ) and bells ( ခေါင်းလောင်းစာ ), or more commonly, they were written on palm-leaf manuscripts ( ပေစာ ) and on special thick sheets of paper called parabaiks ( ပုရပိုက် ). They also came in different literary styles: in prose ( yazawins ( ရာဇဝင် and ayedawbons ( အရေးတော်ပုံ ); in verse ( eigyins ( ဧချင်း ) and mawguns ( မော်ကွန်း )); and as chronograms ( yazawin thanbauk ( ရာဇဝင် သံပေါက် )). The prose versions are those most commonly referred to as

7979-540: The passages of the chronicles directly quoted in Maha Yazawin shows that the referenced chronicles were most probably 16th century copies of the original chronicles, judging by their use of language, and most likely incomplete and partial copies, judging by their lack of specific dates, prior to the Toungoo period. The first comprehensive national chronicle emerged only in 1724. Subsequent chronicles were heavily influenced by

8080-442: The poets did their best to trace the ancestors as far back as they could, with considerable use of their own imagination. The earliest eigyin ( Mauktaw Eigyin , or more commonly known as Rakhine Minthami Eigyin ) dates from 1455, and is also the earliest extant Burmese poetry on palm-leaf. Over 40 royal eigyins are on record. Mawguns are panegyric poems, composed as a rule to commemorate an important event. The subjects range from

8181-694: The points in Hmannan . ) The second part of Hmannan , also called the Second Chronicle, was written in 1867–1869 by another committee of scholars. It covers the events up to 1854, including the first two Anglo-Burmese wars . The Second Chronicle's account of the two wars, according to historian Htin Aung , was "written with the objectivity of a true historian, and the great national defeats were described faithfully in detail." The posthumous names of "Bodawpaya" ("Royal Lord Grandfather") and "Bagyidawpaya" ("Royal Lord Paternal Uncle") were introduced in this chronicle;

8282-564: The powerful chief minister Yazathingyan did not accept a head-strong Thihathu, and placed their preferred candidate, Khwe Chi, whom they believed they could control, on the throne on 6 May 1256. Thihathu was arrested and executed. Narathihapate held the coronation ceremony in November 1256. He assumed the regnal name "Śrī Tribhuvanādityapavara Dhammarāja" (ၐြီတြိဘုဝနာဒိတျပဝရဓမ္မရာဇ). The young king turned out be quick-tempered, arrogant, and ruthless. Soon after his accession, he sent Yazathingyan,

8383-603: The prior dynasties down to the era in which they were written. Mani Yadanabon , for example, is "a repository of historical examples illustrating pragmatic political principles worthy of Machiavelli". Furthermore, many of these treatises—expositions on institutions, royal insignia, ranks and technical terms—help interpret the chronicles since many of the terms are obsolete. Dhammathats are treatises on law used by Burmese royal courts. Hpyat-htons (also spelled pyattons ) are legal precedents by earlier kings. The earliest extant legal treatise Dhammavisala Dhammathat dates from

8484-442: The records, and cast a highly sceptical eye toward the chronicle narratives, nonetheless praised the relative completeness of the extant Burmese material compared to those of Southeast Asian and even Indian states. D.G.E. Hall summarises that "Burma is not the only Southeast Asian country to have large collections of this indispensable source material and precious heritage of the past; no other country surpasses her." The scope of

8585-428: The religious dedications by the royalty and the wealthy donors. Each thamaing purports to give the history of the founder of the building and of its subsequent benefactors. Such documents include notices of secular events. In addition, some learned monks also wrote chronicles on the history of Buddhism from the time of the Buddha to their present day. The two well known religious chronicles are: The general fullness of

8686-562: The royal library and also on the papers seized by the British and kept in libraries. (Almost all the records of the Konbaung Dynasty had gone up in flames as drunken British soldiers burned down the royal library soon after King Thibaw 's surrender in 1885.) Tin updated the chronicle in 1921, and included the death of King Thibaw in 1916 as a postscript. The following is a list of standard chronicles with two notable exceptions. Though officially commissioned by King Bodawpaya, Yazawin Thit

8787-512: The royal records overall remain heavily monarch-centered: they "tell little of general conditions, and their story is not of the people of Burma but simply that of the dynasties of Upper Burma." The earliest chronicles, such as Yazawin Kyaw and Maha Yazawin were modelled after Mahavamsa . The early Buddhist history (and mythology) came right from the Sri Lankan chronicle. But much of the extant chronicle tradition (both in prose and verse) and

8888-620: The rulers of Pagan. Various royal chronicles report different dates about his life. Burmese chronicles The royal chronicles of Myanmar ( Burmese : မြန်မာ ရာဇဝင် ကျမ်းများ [mjəmà jàzəwɪ̀ɰ̃ tɕáɰ̃ mjá] ; also known as Burmese chronicles ) are detailed and continuous chronicles of the monarchy of Myanmar (Burma). The chronicles were written on different media such as parabaik paper, palm leaf , and stone; they were composed in different literary styles such as prose , verse , and chronograms . Palm-leaf manuscripts written in prose are those that are commonly referred to as

8989-413: The situation of the kingdom of the regular people inside or outside the capital unless the king happened to be involved in the event. Other royal records such as legal treatises and precedents ( dhammathats ( ဓမ္မသတ် )) and censuses ( sittans ( စစ်တန်း )) and the chronicles of regional courts as well as temple histories ( thamaings ( သမိုင်း )) need to be consulted to get a glimpse of the life outside

9090-437: The small kingdoms (warring states) period of Burmese history (14th to 16th centuries). The tradition of local court histories vanished in the Irrawaddy valley starting in the 17th century when Restored Toungoo kings integrated the entire valley into the core administrative system. The chronicle tradition continued only in farther major tributaries such as Kengtung and Lan Na, and indeed in the independent kingdom of Mrauk-U until it

9191-416: The victors of the wars. Even for those that survived the wars, "there were no record-room methods; mildew, ants, the accident of fire prevented many manuscripts reaching a great age". Those that survived did so only because private individuals outside the capital had painstakingly copied the original palm leaf manuscripts. The survival of the manuscripts was also facilitated by the increasing literacy rates in

9292-453: The war, and a tame pet otter was traded for 2 boxes of matches. The Irrawaddy dolphin has been known to enter the upper tributaries of the Irrawaddy including the Taping especially when the rivers are flooded. They were observed in the 19th century up to 30 km above Bhamo called "Dolphin Point". More recent surveys in 2002-2004 reported sightings in the deep pool area at the confluence of

9393-441: Was "great in wrath, haughtiness and envy, exceeding covetous and ambitious." According to scholarship, he was certainly an ineffective ruler but unfairly scapegoated by the chronicles for the fall of the empire, whose decline predated his reign, and in fact had been "more prolonged and agonized". The future king was born to Crown Prince Uzana and a commoner concubine from Myittha on 23 April 1238. For much of his early years, he

9494-439: Was already an existing chronicle of the Ava court. In general, the early chronicles can be categorised as (1) histories of the rival kingdoms of 14th to 16th centuries, (2) ancient histories of kingdoms of previous eras (pre-14th century), and (3) biographies of famous kings. Many of the early chronicles in some form had survived at least to the early 18th century since they were referenced by Maha Yazawin . An analysis of

9595-412: Was certainly an ineffective ruler but unfairly scapegoated by the chronicles for the fall of the empire, whose descent predated his reign and in fact had been "more prolonged and agonized." As per historical records, it is documented that King Narathihapate was about to take a meal, he satisfied only when there were three hundred dishes. This characteristic earned him a reputation as a notorious king among

9696-407: Was commissioned in 1638. The next two national censuses were commissioned in 1784 and 1803. The 1784 census shows the kingdom had a population of 1,831,487, excluding "wild tribes" and the recently conquered Arakan. The country's many pagodas and temples also maintain a historical record, usually a stone and/or bell inscription, called thamaing . They furnish important historical information about

9797-621: Was conquered by Konbaung Dynasty in 1785. The original Mon language chronicles of the two main Mon-speaking kingdoms of the second millennium did not survive in their full form. The chronicles of the Hanthawaddy Kingdom (1287–1539, 1550–1552) were destroyed in 1565 during a rebellion led by ex-Hanthawaddy officials that burned down the whole city of Pegu (Bago). Likewise, most of the records of Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom (1740–1757) were destroyed in 1757 by Konbaung forces. Therefore,

9898-455: Was known at the palace as Min Khwe-Chi (lit. "Prince Dog's Dung") as a harmless royal. Even when his father became king in 1251, Khwe-Chi was not in line for the throne; the position belonged to his half-brother Thihathu , the eldest son of the chief queen Thonlula . But fate came calling. In early May 1256, Uzana died from a hunting accident, and Thihathu claimed the throne. The court led by

9999-532: Was not accepted by the Konbaung court as its official chronicle. It is included in this list because Hmannan retains many of Yazawin Thit's corrections. Likewise, Konbaung Set Yazawin or Hmannan Yazawin Part III was written after the monarchy was abolished, and thus not official. Usually named ayedawbons , biographic chronicles cover the life of more celebrated kings such as Razadarit , Bayinnaung , Nyaungyan and Alaungpaya in detail. Note: Razadarit Ayedawbon

10100-556: Was only recently published by Yangon University 's Department of Archaeology in five volumes from 1972 to 1987. Aside from over 500 Pagan period inscriptions, most of the other stone inscriptions have not been studied systematically. Early chronicles on palm-leaf manuscripts are those written prior to the 18th century when national chronicles first emerged. Of the earliest chronicles, those of Pagan and early Ava (to early 15th century), whose names have been mentioned in inscriptions and later chronicles, only two supplementary chronicles from

10201-641: Was over. In Lower Burma, the Hanthawaddy Kingdom of the Mons emerged in 1287. In the west, Arakan was now de jure independent. In the north, the Shans who came down with the Mongols came to dominate Kachin hills and Shan hills, and went on dominate much of western and central mainland Southeast Asia. The Mongols deemed the treaty void and invaded south toward Pagan. But the invaders suffered heavy casualties, and retreated back to Tagaung. It would be nearly two years until 30 May 1289 when one of his sons Kyawswa emerged as

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