133-719: The Liberty Tree (1646–1775) was a famous elm tree that stood in Boston , Massachusetts near Boston Common in the years before the American Revolution . In 1765, Patriots in Boston staged the first act of defiance against the British government at the tree. The tree became a rallying point for the growing resistance to the rule of Britain over the American colonies , and the ground surrounding it became known as Liberty Hall . The Liberty Tree
266-521: A Stampman hanging on a Tree!" This was the first public show of defiance against the Crown and spawned the resistance that led to the American Revolutionary War 10 years later. The tree became a central gathering place for protesters, and the ground surrounding it became popularly known as Liberty Hall. A liberty pole was installed nearby with a flag that could be raised above the tree to summon
399-413: A bayonet, and with the other knocked the man down." However, two witnesses contradict this statement, testifying that Attucks was 12–15 feet (3.7–4.6 m) away from the soldiers when they began firing, too far away to take hold of a bayonet. Adams stated that it was Attucks' behavior that, "in all probability, the dreadful carnage of that night is chiefly to be ascribed." He argued that the soldiers had
532-642: A boot with its sole painted green. This second effigy represented two members of the Grenville ministry who were considered responsible for the Stamp Act: the Earl of Bute (the boot being a pun on "Bute") and George Grenville (the green being a pun on "Grenville"). Peering up from inside the boot was a small devil figure holding a copy of the Stamp Act and bearing a sign that read: "What Greater Joy did ever New England see / Than
665-639: A distinction in the human mind rather than a measured degree of genetic variation'. Eight species are endemic to North America and three to Europe, but the greatest diversity is in Asia with approximately two dozen species. The oldest fossils of Ulmus are leaves dating Paleocene , found across the Northern Hemisphere. The classification adopted in the List of elm species is largely based on that established by Brummitt. A large number of synonyms have accumulated over
798-405: A fair inquiry into the shootings if the crowd dispersed. Hutchinson immediately began investigating the affair, and Preston and the eight soldiers were arrested by the next morning. Boston's selectmen then asked him to order the troops to move from the city out to Castle William on Castle Island , while colonists held a town meeting at Faneuil Hall to discuss the affair. The governor's council
931-831: A familiar symbol of the American Revolution. The Loyal Nine eventually became part of the Sons of Liberty . They continued to use the Liberty Tree as a gathering place for protests, leading loyalist Peter Oliver to write bitterly in 1781: This Tree stood in the Town, & was consecrated for an Idol for the Mob to Worship; it was properly the Tree ordeal , where those, whom the Rioters pitched upon as State delinquents, were carried to for Trial, or brought to as
1064-661: A few days. They are planted in sandy potting soil at a depth of 1 cm, and germinate in three weeks. Slow-germinating American elm will remain dormant until the second season. Seeds from autumn-flowering elms ripen in the fall and germinate in the spring. Since elms may hybridize within and between species, seed propagation entails a hybridisation risk. In unfavourable seasons, elm seeds are usually sterile. Elms outside their natural range, such as English elm U. minor 'Atinia' , and elms unable to pollinate because pollen sources are genetically identical, are sterile and are propagated by vegetative reproduction . Vegetative reproduction
1197-434: A request to John Adams , pleading for him to work on the case. Adams was already a leading Patriot and was contemplating a run for public office, but he agreed to help in the interest of ensuring a fair trial. He was joined by Josiah Quincy II after Quincy was assured that the Sons of Liberty would not oppose his appointment, and by Loyalist Robert Auchmuty. They were assisted by Sampson Salter Blowers , whose chief duty
1330-468: A result, the population of American elms planted on the Mall and its surrounding areas has remained intact for more than 80 years. Elm wood is valued for its interlocking grain, and consequent resistance to splitting, with significant uses in wagon -wheel hubs, chair seats, and coffins . The bodies of Japanese Taiko drums are often cut from the wood of old elm trees, as the wood's resistance to splitting
1463-405: A set of people a mob, I can't conceive, unless the name is too respectable for them. The sun is not about to stand still or go out, nor the rivers to dry up because there was a mob in Boston on the 5th of March that attacked a party of soldiers." Adams also described the former slave Crispus Attucks , saying "his very look was enough to terrify any person" and that "with one hand [he] took hold of
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#17328479167161596-523: A single variety that possessed of any significant resistance. The first, less aggressive strain of the disease fungus, Ophiostoma ulmi , arrived in Europe from Asia in 1910, and was accidentally introduced to North America in 1928. It was steadily weakened by viruses in Europe and had all but disappeared by the 1940s. However, the disease had a much greater and longer-lasting impact in North America, owing to
1729-430: A small bronze plaque in the sidewalk across the street from the bas relief plaque. The plaque bears the inscription "SONS OF LIBERTY, 1766; INDEPENDENCE of their COUNTRY, 1776." In December 2018, the city opened Liberty Tree Plaza at 2 Boylston Street, across the street from the original bas relief. The plaza has tables and chairs, landscaping, lighting, an elm tree to commemorate the original tree cut down in 1775 before
1862-673: A somewhat safer position on the steps of the Custom House, and he sought assistance. Runners alerted Captain Thomas Preston , the officer of the watch at the nearby barracks. According to his report, Preston dispatched a non-commissioned officer and six privates from the grenadier company of the 29th Regiment of Foot to relieve White with fixed bayonets. The soldiers were Corporal William Wemms and Privates Hugh Montgomery , John Carroll, William McCauley, William Warren, and Matthew Kilroy , accompanied by Preston. They pushed their way through
1995-445: Is hermaphroditic , having apetalous perfect flowers which are wind-pollinated. Elm leaves are alternate, with simple, single- or, most commonly, doubly serrate margins, usually asymmetric at the base and acuminate at the apex . The fruit is a round wind-dispersed samara flushed with chlorophyll , facilitating photosynthesis before the leaves emerge. The samarae are very light, those of British elms numbering around 50,000 to
2128-599: Is a nationwide trial to assess strengths and weaknesses of the 19 leading cultivars raised in the US over a 10-year period; European cultivars have been excluded. Meanwhile, in Europe, American and European cultivars are being assessed in field trials started in 2000 by the UK charity Butterfly Conservation . The oldest American elm trees in New York City's Central Park were planted in the 1860s by Frederick Law Olmsted , making them among
2261-453: Is also resistant to decay when permanently wet, and hollowed trunks were widely used as water pipes during the medieval period in Europe. Elm was also used as piers in the construction of the original London Bridge , but this resistance to decay in water does not extend to ground contact. The Romans, and more recently the Italians, planted elms in vineyards as supports for vines. Lopped at 3 m,
2394-480: Is also used to produce genetically identical elms (clones). Methods include the winter transplanting of root suckers ; taking hardwood cuttings from vigorous one-year-old shoots in late winter, taking root cuttings in early spring; taking softwood cuttings in early summer; grafting ; ground and air layering ; and micropropagation . A bottom heat of 18 °C and humid conditions are maintained for hard- and softwood cuttings. The transplanting of root suckers remains
2527-577: Is as much in the hands of the people as it was in the time of the Stamp Act ." Commodore Samuel Hood responded by sending the 50-gun warship HMS Romney , which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768. On June 10, 1768, customs officials seized Liberty , a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock , on allegations that the ship had been involved in smuggling. Bostonians were already angry because
2660-569: Is being paid to trees as sources of energy. In Italy, the Istituto per la Protezione delle Piante is (2012) in the process of releasing to commerce very fast-growing elm cultivars, able to increase in height by more than 2 m (6 ft) per year. Elm bark , cut into strips and boiled, sustained much of the rural population of Norway during the great famine of 1812. The seeds are particularly nutritious, containing 45% crude protein, and less than 7% fibre by dry mass. Elm has been listed as one of
2793-401: Is caused by phytoplasmas that infect the phloem (inner bark) of the tree. Infection and death of the phloem effectively girdles the tree and stops the flow of water and nutrients. The disease affects both wild-growing and cultivated trees. Occasionally, cutting the infected tree before the disease completely establishes itself and cleanup and prompt disposal of infected matter has resulted in
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#17328479167162926-479: Is highly desired for nailing the skins to them, and a set of three or more is often cut from the same tree. The elm's wood bends well and distorts easily. The often long, straight trunks were favoured as a source of timber for keels in ship construction. Elm is also prized by bowyers ; of the ancient bows found in Europe, a large portion are elm. During the Middle Ages , elm was also used to make longbows if yew
3059-546: Is invariably carried by the female parent. Some of these cultivars, notably those with the Siberian elm ( Ulmus pumila ) in their ancestry, lack the forms for which the iconic American elm and English elm were prized. Moreover, several exported to northwestern Europe have proven unsuited to the maritime climate conditions there, notably because of their intolerance of anoxic conditions resulting from ponding on poorly drained soils in winter. Dutch hybridizations invariably included
3192-491: Is no longer monitored. Sapsucker woodpeckers have a great love of young elm trees. One of the earliest of ornamental elms was the ball-headed graft narvan elm, Ulmus minor 'Umbraculifera' , cultivated from time immemorial in Persia as a shade tree and widely planted in cities through much of south-west and central Asia. From the 18th century to the early 20th century, elms, whether species, hybrids, or cultivars , were among
3325-547: Is not favoured by the vector bark beetles. Thus it becomes colonized and infected only when no other elms are available, a rare situation in western Europe. Research in Spain has suggested that it may be the presence of a triterpene , alnulin , which makes the tree bark unattractive to the beetle species that spread the disease. This possibility, though, has not been conclusively proven. More recently, field elms Ulmus minor highly resistant to DED have been discovered in Spain, and form
3458-588: Is shown ordering his men to fire, and a musket is seen shooting out of the window of the customs office, which is labeled "Butcher's Hall". Artist Christian Remick hand-colored some prints. Some copies of the print show a man with two chest wounds and a somewhat darker face, matching descriptions of Attucks; others show no black victim. The image was published in the Boston Gazette and circulated widely, and it became an effective anti-British editorial. The image of soldiers in red uniforms and wounded men with red blood
3591-458: Is thought to have originated in Asia. The two subspecies have now hybridized in Europe where their ranges have overlapped. The hypothesis that O. novo-ulmi arose from a hybrid of the original O. ulmi and another strain endemic to the Himalayas , Ophiostoma himal-ulmi , is now discredited. No sign indicates the current pandemic is waning, and no evidence has been found of a susceptibility of
3724-466: Is true, but you will determine whether a man just stepping into eternity is not to be believed, especially in favor of a set of men by whom he had lost his life". Carr's testimony is one of the earliest recorded uses of the dying declaration exception to the inadmissibility of hearsay evidence in United States legal code. The four civilians were tried on December 13. The principal prosecution witness
3857-506: The Boston Herald began running stories pointing out that the only commemoration of the Liberty Tree site was a grimy plaque installed in the 1850s on a building at 630 Washington Street, three stories above the intersection of Essex and Washington Streets. Reporter Ronald Kessler found that the plaque was covered with bird droppings and obscured by a Kemp's hamburger sign. Local guidebooks did not mention it. To call attention to how obscure
3990-472: The Boston Custom House on King Street (today known as State Street). A wigmaker's apprentice, approximately 13 years old, named Edward Garrick called out to Captain-Lieutenant John Goldfinch, accusing him of refusing to pay a bill due to Garrick's master. Goldfinch had settled the account the previous day, and ignored the insult. Private White called out to Garrick that he should be more respectful of
4123-748: The Boston Massacre Monument was erected on the Boston Common in memory of the men killed in the massacre, and the five victims were reinterred in a prominent grave in the Granary Burying Ground . The massacre is reenacted annually on March 5 under the auspices of the Bostonian Society . The Old State House, the massacre site, and the Granary Burying Ground are part of Boston's Freedom Trail , connecting sites important in
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4256-664: The Boston Stone . During an 1825 tour of Boston, the Marquis de Lafayette declared, "The world should never forget the spot where once stood Liberty Tree, so famous in your annals." At the 1964 New York World's Fair , a sculpture of the tree designed by Albert Surman was a featured exhibit in the New England Pavilion. When the Liberty Tree Mall was opened in 1972, the sculpture was installed at center court. In October 1966,
4389-580: The Iliad , when the River Scamander , indignant at the sight of so many corpses in his water, overflows and threatens to drown Achilles, the latter grasps a branch of a great elm in an attempt to save himself ("ὁ δὲ πτελέην ἕλε χερσὶν εὐφυέα μεγάλην". The nymphs also planted elms on the tomb in the Thracian Chersonese of "great-hearted Protesilaus " ("μεγάθυμου Πρωτεσιλάου"), the first Greek to fall in
4522-656: The Incident on King Street ) was a confrontation in Boston on March 5, 1770, in which nine British soldiers shot several of a crowd of three or four hundred who were harassing them verbally and throwing various projectiles. The event was heavily publicized as "a massacre" by leading Patriots such as Paul Revere and Samuel Adams . British troops had been stationed in the Province of Massachusetts Bay since 1768 in order to support crown-appointed officials and to enforce unpopular Parliamentary legislation. Amid tense relations between
4655-592: The Siberian elm is drought tolerant, in dry countries, new varieties of elm are often root-grafted onto this species. Dutch elm disease (DED) devastated elms throughout Europe and much of North America in the second half of the 20th century. It derives its name "Dutch" from the first description of the disease and its cause in the 1920s by Dutch botanists Bea Schwarz and Christina Johanna Buisman . Owing to its geographical isolation and effective quarantine enforcement, Australia has so far remained unaffected by DED, as have
4788-466: The Southern Hemisphere , notably Australasia . Some individual elms reached great size and age. However, in recent decades, most mature elms of European or North American origin have died from Dutch elm disease , caused by a microfungus dispersed by bark beetles . In response, disease-resistant cultivars have been developed, capable of restoring the elm to forestry and landscaping . The genus
4921-405: The pound (454 g ). (Very rarely anomalous samarae occur with more than two wings. ) All species are tolerant of a wide range of soils and pH levels but, with few exceptions, demand good drainage. The elm tree can grow to great height, the American elm in excess of 30 m (100 ft), often with a forked trunk creating a vase profile. There are about 30 to 40 species of Ulmus (elm);
5054-544: The "foundation of American independence was laid" on March 5, 1770, and Samuel Adams and other Patriots used annual commemorations ( Massacre Day ) to encourage public sentiment toward independence. Christopher Monk was the boy who was wounded in the attack and died in 1780, and his memory was honored as a reminder of British hostility. Later events such as the Gaspee Affair and the Boston Tea Party further illustrated
5187-467: The 19th century, while in northern Japan Japanese elm ( U. davidiana var. japonica ) was widely planted as a street tree. From about 1850 to 1920, the most prized small ornamental elm in parks and gardens was the 'Camperdown' elm ( U. glabra 'Camperdownii') , a contorted, weeping cultivar of the wych elm grafted on to a nonweeping elm trunk to give a wide, spreading, and weeping fountain shape in large garden spaces. In northern Europe, elms were among
5320-654: The 38 substances that are used to prepare Bach flower remedies , a kind of alternative medicine . Chinese elm ( Ulmus parvifolia ) is a popular choice for bonsai owing to its tolerance of severe pruning. In 1997, a European Union elm project was initiated, its aim to coordinate the conservation of all the elm genetic resources of the member states and, among other things, to assess their resistance to Dutch elm disease. Accordingly, over 300 clones were selected and propagated for testing. Many elm trees of various kinds have attained great size or otherwise become particularly noteworthy. Many artists have admired elms for
5453-685: The Action of that Night a Massacre, nor is it any Argument in favour of the Governor or Minister, who caused them to be sent here. But it is the strongest Proofs of the Danger of Standing Armies. The government was determined to give the soldiers a fair trial so that there could be no grounds for retaliation from the British and so that moderates would not be alienated from the Patriot cause. Several lawyers refused to defend Preston due to their Loyalist leanings, so he sent
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5586-673: The American elm ( U. americana ), resulting in the release of DED-resistant clones, notably the cultivars 'Valley Forge' and 'Jefferson' . Much work has also been done into the selection of disease-resistant Asiatic species and cultivars. In 1993, Mariam B. Sticklen and James L. Sherald reported the results of experiments funded by the US National Park Service and conducted at Michigan State University in East Lansing that were designed to apply genetic engineering techniques to
5719-718: The French Republic and the Batavian Republic . A liberty tree was also planted in Rome's Piazza delle Scole in 1798 to mark the legal abolition of the Roman Ghetto (which was, however, re-instated with the resumption of Papal rule). The last surviving liberty elm in Italy, planted in 1799 to celebrate the new Parthenopean Republic , stood until recently in Montepaone , Calabria . The tree
5852-569: The Himalayan elm ( Ulmus wallichiana ) as a source of antifungal genes and have proven more tolerant of wet ground; they should also ultimately reach a greater size. However, the susceptibility of the cultivar 'Lobel', used as a control in Italian trials, to elm yellows has now (2014) raised a question mark over all the Dutch clones. Several highly resistant Ulmus cultivars have been released since 2000 by
5985-645: The Institute of Plant Protection in Florence, most commonly featuring crosses of the Dutch cultivar 'Plantijn' with the Siberian elm to produce resistant trees better adapted to the Mediterranean climate. Elms take many decades to grow to maturity, and as the introduction of these disease-resistant cultivars is relatively recent, their long-term performance and ultimate size and form cannot be predicted with certainty. The National Elm Trial in North America, begun in 2005,
6118-530: The Liberty Tree an object of ridicule. Soldiers from the 29th Regiment of Foot tarred and feathered a colonist named Thomas Ditson and forced him to march in front of the tree as punishment for attempting to buy a musket from them. In April 1775, colonial forces barricaded Boston Neck in the Siege of Boston , including the Common and the Liberty Tree. Only British troops and a small number of Loyalist merchants remained on
6251-728: The Liberty Tree of Boston. The last surviving liberty elm in France stands in the parish of La Madeleine at Faycelles in the Département de Lot. Liberty trees were also planted on the Place Royale in Brussels on July 9, 1794 after the occupation of the Austrian Netherlands by French revolutionary forces, and on Dam Square in Amsterdam on January 19, 1795 in celebration of the alliance between
6384-508: The Neck, and sometime between August 28 and 31, a party of Loyalists led by Nathaniel Coffin Jr. or by Job Williams cut down the tree and used it for firewood. One soldier was killed in the process. Following the British evacuation of Boston in 1776, patriots returning to the city erected a liberty pole at the site. For many years, the tree stump was used as a reference point by local citizens, similar to
6517-476: The Netherlands in 1928 and continued, uninterrupted by World War II, until 1992. Similar programmes were initiated in North America (1937), Italy (1978) and Spain (1986). Research has followed two paths: In North America, careful selection has produced a number of trees resistant not only to DED, but also to the droughts and cold winters that occur on the continent. Research in the United States has concentrated on
6650-576: The Test of political Orthodoxy. Townspeople dragged a customs commissioner's boat out of the harbor all the way to the Liberty Tree during the Liberty Riot of 1768, protesting the seizure of John Hancock 's ship by Boston customs officials. The commissioner's boat was condemned at a mock trial and burned on Boston Common. Two years later, a funeral procession for the victims of the Boston Massacre passed by
6783-753: The Trojan War. These elms grew to be the tallest in the known world, but when their topmost branches saw far off the ruins of Troy, they immediately withered, so great still was the bitterness of the hero buried below, who had been loved by Laodamia and slain by Hector . The story is the subject of a poem by Antiphilus of Byzantium (first century AD) in the Palatine Anthology : Boston Massacre Captain Thomas Preston None The Boston Massacre (known in Great Britain as
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#17328479167166916-508: The absence of the predators in their native lands. In Australia, introduced elm trees are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus Aenetus . These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Circa 2000, the Asian Zig-zag sawfly Aproceros leucopoda appeared in Europe and North America, although in England, its impact has been minimal and it
7049-516: The age of three, the infant goddess Artemis practised her newly acquired silver bow and arrows, made for her by Hephaestus and the Cyclopes , by shooting first at an elm, then at an oak, before turning her aim on a wild animal: The first reference in literature to elms occurs in the Iliad . When Eetion , father of Andromache , is killed by Achilles during the Trojan War , the mountain nymphs plant elms on his tomb ("περί δὲ πτελέας ἐφύτευσαν νύμφαι ὀρεστιάδες, κoῦραι Διὸς αἰγιόχoιo"). Also in
7182-403: The ambiguity in number results from difficulty in delineating species, owing to the ease of hybridization between them and the development of local seed-sterile vegetatively propagated microspecies in some areas, mainly in the Ulmus field elm ( Ulmus minor ) group. Oliver Rackham describes Ulmus as the most critical genus in the entire British flora, adding that 'species and varieties are
7315-451: The basis of a major breeding programme. Owing to their innate resistance to DED, Asiatic species have been crossed with European species, or with other Asiatic elms, to produce trees that are both highly resistant to disease and tolerant of native climates. After a number of false dawns in the 1970s, this approach has produced a range of reliable hybrid cultivars now commercially available in North America and Europe. Disease resistance
7448-428: The beetles, invade the xylem or vascular system. The tree responds by producing tyloses , effectively blocking the flow from roots to leaves. Woodland trees in North America are not quite as susceptible to the disease because they usually lack the root grafting of the urban elms and are somewhat more isolated from each other. In France, inoculation with the fungus of over 300 clones of the European species failed to find
7581-422: The captain of Romney had been impressing local sailors; they began to riot, and customs officials fled to Castle William for protection. Daniel Calfe declares, that on Saturday evening the 3rd of March, a camp-woman, wife to James McDeed, a grenadier of the 29th, came into his father's shop, and the people talking about the affrays at the ropewalks, and blaming the soldiers for the part they had acted in it,
7714-540: The civilians and the soldiers, a mob formed around a British sentry and verbally abused him. He was eventually supported by seven additional soldiers, led by Captain Thomas Preston, who were hit by clubs, stones, and snowballs. Eventually, one soldier fired, prompting the others to fire without an order by Preston. The gunfire instantly killed three people and wounded eight others, two of whom later died of their wounds. The crowd eventually dispersed after acting governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry, but they reformed
7847-442: The colonies, and in Boston a group of businessmen calling themselves the Loyal Nine began meeting in secret to plan a series of protests against it. On August 14, 1765, a crowd gathered in Boston under a large elm tree at the corner of Essex Street and Orange Street to protest the Stamp Act. Hanging from the tree was a straw-stuffed effigy labeled "A. O." for Andrew Oliver , the lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts. Beside it hung
7980-440: The colonies. The Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Acts by sending a petition to King George III asking for the repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. The House also sent the Massachusetts Circular Letter to other colonial assemblies, asking them to join the resistance movement, and called for a boycott of merchants importing the affected goods. Lord Hillsborough had recently been appointed to
8113-410: The colonists planned the attack on the soldiers On March 27, the eight soldiers, Captain Preston, and four civilians were indicted for murder; the civilians were in the Customs House and were alleged to have fired shots. Bostonians continued to be hostile to the troops and their dependents. General Gage was convinced that the troops were doing more harm than good, so he ordered the 29th Regiment out of
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#17328479167168246-593: The countryside, the former in northern areas including Scandinavia and northern Britain , the latter further south. The hybrid between these two, Dutch elm ( U. × hollandica ) , occurs naturally and was also commonly planted. In much of England, the English elm later came to dominate the horticultural landscape. Most commonly planted in hedgerows, it sometimes occurred in densities over 1000/km . In south-eastern Australia and New Zealand, large numbers of English and Dutch elms, as well as other species and cultivars, were planted as ornamentals following their introduction in
8379-436: The crowd. Henry Knox took Preston by the coat and told him, "For God's sake, take care of your men. If they fire, you must die." Captain Preston responded "I am aware of it." When they reached Private White on the custom house stairs, the soldiers loaded their muskets and arrayed themselves in a semicircular formation. Preston shouted at the crowd, estimated between 300 and 400, to disperse. The crowd continued to press around
8512-418: The crowd. The jury's decisions suggest that they believed that the soldiers had felt threatened by the crowd but should have delayed firing. The convicted soldiers pled benefit of clergy , the right to a lesser sentence for a first offender. This reduced their punishment from a death sentence to branding of the thumb in open court. Patrick Carr's deathbed account of the event also played a role in exonerating
8645-488: The crumbling relationship between Britain and its colonies. Five years passed between the massacre and outright war, and Neil York suggests that there is only a tenuous connection between the two. It is widely perceived as a significant event leading to the violent rebellion that followed. Howard Zinn argues that Boston was full of "class anger". He reports that the Boston Gazette published in 1763 that "a few persons in power" were promoting political projects "for keeping
8778-458: The development of DED-resistant strains of American elm trees. In 2007, A. E. Newhouse and F. Schrodt of the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry in Syracuse reported that young transgenic American elm trees had shown reduced DED symptoms and normal mycorrhizal colonization. In Europe, the European white elm ( U. laevis ) has received much attention. While this elm has little innate resistance to DED, it
8911-511: The ease and grace of their branching and foliage, and have painted them with sensitivity. Elms are a recurring element in the landscapes and studies of, for example, John Constable , Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller , Frederick Childe Hassam , Karel Klinkenberg , and George Inness . In Greek mythology, the nymph Ptelea (Πτελέα, Elm) was one of the eight hamadryads , nymphs of the forest and daughters of Oxylos and Hamadryas. In his Hymn to Artemis , poet Callimachus (third century BC) tells how, at
9044-422: The easiest most and common propagation method for European field elm and its hybrids. For specimen urban elms, grafting to wych-elm rootstock may be used to eliminate suckering or to ensure stronger root growth. The mutant-elm cultivars are usually grafted, the "weeping" elms 'Camperdown' and 'Horizontalis' at 2–3 m (7–10 ft), the dwarf cultivars 'Nana' and 'Jacqueline Hillier' at ground level. Since
9177-466: The eight defendants of murder charges. The testimony of John Jeffries is reprinted below: Q: Were you Patrick Carr's surgeon? A: I was. Q: Was he [Carr] apprehensive of his danger? A: He told me... he was a native of Ireland, that he had frequently seen mobs, and soldiers called upon to quell them... he had seen soldiers often fire on the people in Ireland, but had never seen them bear half so much before they fired in his life. Q: When had you
9310-451: The elms' quick growth, twiggy lateral branches, light shade, and root suckering made them ideal trees for this purpose. The lopped branches were used for fodder and firewood. Ovid in his Amores characterizes the elm as "loving the vine": ulmus amat vitem, vitis non deserit ulmum (the elm loves the vine, the vine does not desert the elm), and the ancients spoke of the "marriage" between elm and vine . The mucilaginous inner bark of
9443-447: The event heightened tensions throughout the Thirteen Colonies , notably the colored engraving produced by Paul Revere. In the 18th century, Boston was the capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , an important shipping town, and along with Philadelphia and present-day New York City , one of the most influential political, economic, and cultural cities in the Thirteen Colonies of pre-Revolutionary British America . Boston also
9576-566: The few trees tolerant of saline deposits from sea spray, which can cause "salt-burning" and die-back. This tolerance made elms reliable both as shelterbelt trees exposed to sea wind, in particular along the coastlines of southern and western Britain and in the Low Countries, and as trees for coastal towns and cities. This belle époque lasted until the First World War , when the elm began its slide into horticultural decline. The impact of
9709-508: The first of four British Army regiments began disembarking in Boston on October 1, 1768. Two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769, but the 14th and the 29th Regiments of Foot remained. The Journal of Occurrences were an anonymous series of newspaper articles which chronicled the clashes between civilians and soldiers in Boston, feeding tensions with its sometimes exaggerated accounts, but those tensions rose markedly after Christopher Seider , "a young lad about eleven Years of Age",
9842-483: The flags that flew above the Liberty Tree, and one of the original lanterns hung from the tree during the Stamp Act repeal celebration in 1766. Many other towns designated their own Liberty Trees. Most have been lost over time, although Randolph, New Jersey claims a white oak Liberty Tree dating to 1720. A 400 year-old tulip poplar stood on the grounds of St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland until 1999, when it
9975-538: The fungus to a disease of its own caused by d-factors : naturally occurring virus-like agents that severely debilitated the original O. ulmi and reduced its sporulation. Elm phloem necrosis (elm yellows) is a disease of elm trees that is spread by leafhoppers or by root grafts. This very aggressive disease, with no known cure, occurs in the Eastern United States , southern Ontario in Canada, and Europe. It
10108-767: The genus Ulmus in the family Ulmaceae . They are distributed over most of the Northern Hemisphere, inhabiting the temperate and tropical - montane regions of North America and Eurasia, presently ranging southward in the Middle East to Lebanon and Israel, and across the Equator in the Far East into Indonesia. Elms are components of many kinds of natural forests . Moreover, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, many species and cultivars were also planted as ornamental street, garden, and park trees in Europe , North America, and parts of
10241-510: The greater susceptibility of the American elm, Ulmus americana , which masked the emergence of the second, far more virulent strain of the disease Ophiostoma novo-ulmi . It appeared in the United States sometime in the 1940s, and was originally believed to be a mutation of O. ulmi . Limited gene flow from O. ulmi to O. novo-ulmi was probably responsible for the creation of the North American subspecies O. novo-ulmi subsp. americana . It
10374-510: The hostilities on Germany , the origin of at least 40 cultivars, coincided with an outbreak of the early strain of DED, Ophiostoma ulmi . The devastation caused by the Second World War , and the demise in 1944 of the huge Späth nursery in Berlin , only accelerated the process. The outbreak of the new, three times more virulent, strain of DED Ophiostoma novo-ulmi in the late 1960s, brought
10507-499: The immediate area of the custom house but continued to grow in nearby streets. Captain Preston immediately called out most of the 29th Regiment, which adopted defensive positions in front of the state house. Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson was summoned to the scene and was forced by the movement of the crowd into the council chamber of the state house. From its balcony, he was able to minimally restore order, promising that there would be
10640-533: The intention of causing harm. In the interest of minimizing impact on the jury pool, city leaders held back local distribution of the pamphlet, but they sent copies to other colonies and to London, where they knew that depositions were headed which Governor Hutchinson had collected. A second pamphlet entitled Additional Observations on the Short Narrative furthered the attack on crown officials by complaining that customs officials were abandoning their posts under
10773-413: The landlord of the house that it was to collect the mob. Mr. Gillespie upon this resolved to go home, and in his way met numbers of people who were running past him, of whom many were armed with clubs and sticks, and some with other weapons. At the same time a number of people passed by him with two fire-engines, as if there had been a fire in the town. But they were soon told that there was no fire, but that
10906-413: The last conversation with him? A: About four o'clock in the afternoon, preceding the night on which he died, and he then particularly said, he forgave the man whoever he was that shot him, he was satisfied he had no malice, but fired to defend himself. Justices Edmund Trowbridge and Peter Oliver instructed the jury, and Oliver specifically addressed Carr's testimony: "this Carr was not upon oath, it
11039-510: The last three centuries; their currently accepted names can be found in the list of Elm synonyms and accepted names . Botanists who study elms and argue over elm identification and classification are called "pteleologists", from the Greek πτελέα (elm). As part of the suborder urticalean rosids , they are distantly related to cannabis , mulberries , figs , hops , and nettles . Elm propagation methods vary according to elm type and location, and
11172-414: The legal right to fight back against the mob and so were innocent. If they were provoked but not endangered, he argued, they were at most guilty of manslaughter . The jury agreed with Adams' arguments and acquitted six of the soldiers after 2 1 ⁄ 2 hours of deliberation. Two of the soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter because there was overwhelming evidence that they had fired directly into
11305-715: The majority of the trees, although several are still lost each year. Younger American elms that have been planted in Central Park since the outbreak are of the DED-resistant 'Princeton' and 'Valley Forge' cultivars. Several rows of American elm trees that the National Park Service (NPS) first planted during the 1930s line much of the 1.9-mile-length (3 km) of the National Mall in Washington, DC. DED first appeared on
11438-472: The massacre as part of an ongoing scheme to "quell a Spirit of Liberty", and harped on the negative consequences of quartering troops in the city. Henry Pelham was an engraver and half-brother of celebrated portrait painter John Singleton Copley , and he depicted the event in an engraving. Silversmith and engraver Paul Revere closely copied the image and is often credited as its originator. The engraving contained several inflammatory details. Captain Preston
11571-663: The most gallant, generous, manly and disinterested Actions of my whole Life, and one of the best Pieces of Service I ever rendered my Country. Judgment of Death against those Soldiers would have been as foul a Stain upon this Country as the Executions of the Quakers or Witches , anciently. As the Evidence was, the Verdict of the Jury was exactly right. This however is no Reason why the Town should not call
11704-408: The most widely planted ornamental trees in both Europe and North America. They were particularly popular as a street tree in avenue plantings in towns and cities, creating high-tunnelled effects. Their quick growth and variety of foliage and forms, their tolerance of air-pollution, and the comparatively rapid decomposition of their leaf litter in the fall were further advantages. In North America,
11837-782: The newly created office of Colonial Secretary , and he was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768, he sent a letter to the colonial governors in America instructing them to dissolve any colonial assemblies that responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. He also ordered Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to direct the Massachusetts House to rescind the letter. The house refused to comply. Boston's chief customs officer Charles Paxton wrote to Hillsborough for military support because "the Government
11970-482: The next day, prompting the withdrawal of the troops to Castle Island . Eight soldiers, one officer, and four civilians were arrested and charged with murder, and they were defended in court by attorney, and future U.S. president, John Adams . Six of the soldiers were acquitted; the other two were convicted of manslaughter and given reduced sentences. The two found guilty of manslaughter were sentenced to branding on their hand. Depictions, reports, and propaganda about
12103-409: The officer, and the two exchanged insults. Garrick then started poking Goldfinch in the chest with his finger; White left his post, challenged the boy, and struck him on the side of the head with his musket. Garrick cried out in pain, and his companion Bartholomew Broaders began to argue with White, which attracted a larger crowd. Henry Knox was a 19-year old bookseller who later served as a general in
12236-641: The oldest stands of American elms in the world. Along the Mall and Literary Walk four lines of American elms stretch over the walkway forming a cathedral-like covering. A part of New York City's urban ecology , the elms improve air and water quality, reduce erosion and flooding, and decrease air temperatures during warm days. While the stand is still vulnerable to DED, in the 1980s the Central Park Conservancy undertook aggressive countermeasures such as heavy pruning and removal of extensively diseased trees. These efforts have largely been successful in saving
12369-642: The outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, and a stone monument inscribed with the history of the Liberty Tree. The Liberty Tree "became a rallying point for colonists protesting the British-imposed Stamp Act in 1765 and became an important symbol of their cause," the inscription says. "These 'Sons of Liberty' began the struggle that led to the Revolutionary War and American independence." Boston's Old State House museum houses one of
12502-547: The pandemic, and a number may survive, or have regenerated, unrecognised. Enthusiasm for the newer clones often remains low owing to the poor performance of earlier, supposedly disease-resistant Dutch trees released in the 1960s and 1970s. In the Netherlands, sales of elm cultivars slumped from over 56,000 in 1989 to just 6,800 in 2004, whilst in the UK , only four of the new American and European releases were commercially available in 2008. Efforts to develop DED-resistant cultivars began in
12635-423: The people poor in order to make them humble." The massacre was remembered in 1858 in a celebration organized by William Cooper Nell , a black abolitionist who saw the death of Crispus Attucks as an opportunity to demonstrate the role of African Americans in the Revolutionary War . Artwork was produced commemorating the massacre, changing the color of a victim's skin to black to emphasize Attucks' death. In 1888,
12768-461: The people were going to fight the soldiers, upon which they immediately quitted the fire-engines, and swore they would go to their assistance. All this happened before the soldiers near the custom-house fired their muskets, which was not till half an hour after nine o'clock; and it [shows] that the inhabitants had formed, and were preparing to execute, a design of attacking the soldiers on that evening. —Excerpt from A Fair Account , suggesting that
12901-475: The plant's survival via stump sprouts. Most serious of the elm pests is the elm leaf beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola , which can decimate foliage, although rarely with fatal results. The beetle was accidentally introduced to North America from Europe. Another unwelcome immigrant to North America is the Japanese beetle Popillia japonica . In both instances, the beetles cause far more damage in North America owing to
13034-434: The plantsman's needs. Native species may be propagated by seed. In their natural setting, native species, such as wych elm and European white elm in central and northern Europe and field elm in southern Europe, set viable seed in "favourable" seasons. Optimal conditions occur after a late warm spring. After pollination, seeds of spring-flowering elms ripen and fall at the start of summer (June); they remain viable for only
13167-472: The pretense that it was too dangerous for them to do their duties; one customs official had left Boston to carry Hutchinson's gathered depositions to London. Hutchinson's depositions were eventually published in a pamphlet entitled A Fair Account of the Late Unhappy Disturbance in Boston , drawn mainly from the depositions of soldiers. Its account of affairs sought to blame Bostonians for denying
13300-554: The province in May. Governor Hutchinson took advantage of the on-going high tensions to orchestrate delays of the trials until later in the year. In the days and weeks following the incident, a propaganda battle was waged between Patriots and Loyalists in Boston . Both sides published pamphlets that told strikingly different stories, and which were principally published in London in a bid to influence opinion there. The Boston Gazette 's version of events, for example, characterized
13433-402: The provinces of Alberta and British Columbia in western Canada . DED is caused by a micro fungus transmitted by two species of Scolytus elm-bark beetles , which act as vectors . The disease affects all species of elms native to North America and Europe, but many Asiatic species have evolved antifungal genes and are resistant. Fungal spores, introduced into wounds in the tree caused by
13566-466: The revolution; he came upon the scene and warned White that, "if he fired, he must die for it." As the evening progressed, the crowd around Private White grew larger and more boisterous. Church bells were rung, which usually signified a fire, bringing more people out. More than 50 Bostonians pressed around White, led by a mixed-race former slave named Crispus Attucks , throwing objects at the sentry and challenging him to fire his weapon. White had taken up
13699-427: The shooting and other lesser incidents that took place in the days before as unprovoked attacks on peaceful, law-abiding inhabitants and, according to historian Neal Langley York, was probably the most influential description of the event. The account which it provided was drawn from more than 90 depositions taken after the event, and it included accusations that the soldiers sent by Captain Preston had been deployed with
13832-483: The site had become, Kessler interviewed waitresses at the Essex Delicatessen below the bas relief plaque on Washington Street. None knew what the Liberty Tree was. "The Liberty Tree? That's a roast beef sandwich with a slice of Bermuda onion, Russian dressing, and a side of potato salad," said one waitress who had worked beneath the plaque for 20 years. Kessler persuaded Massachusetts Governor John A. Volpe to visit
13965-597: The site. A photo of Volpe examining the plaque from a fire engine ladder appeared on page one of the October 6, 1966 edition of the Boston Herald . In 1974, funding was approved for a small park at Washington and Essex, which was part of an area known as the Combat Zone at the time. Plans to plant trees there had to be scrapped because there were too many underground utilities. The Boston Redevelopment Authority ultimately placed
14098-587: The slippery elm ( Ulmus rubra ) has long been used as a demulcent , and is still produced commercially for this purpose in the US with approval for sale as a nutritional supplement by the Food and Drug Administration . Elms also have a long history of cultivation for fodder , with the leafy branches cut to feed livestock . The practice continues today in the Himalaya, where it contributes to serious deforestation. As fossil fuel resources diminish, increasing attention
14231-403: The soldiers, taunting them by yelling "Fire!", by spitting at them, and by throwing snowballs and other small objects. Innkeeper Richard Palmes was carrying a cudgel, and he came up to Preston and asked if the soldiers' weapons were loaded. Preston assured him that they were, but that they would not fire unless he ordered it; he later stated in his deposition that he was unlikely to do so, since he
14364-402: The species most commonly planted was the American elm ( U. americana ), which had unique properties that made it ideal for such use - rapid growth, adaptation to a broad range of climates and soils, strong wood, resistance to wind damage, and vase-like growth habit requiring minimal pruning . In Europe, the wych elm ( U. glabra ) and the field elm ( U. minor ) were the most widely planted in
14497-440: The streets in parties, to the number, as he thinks, of forty or fifty persons; and that while he was sitting with his friends there, several persons of his acquaintance came in to them at different times, and took notice of the numbers of persons they had seen in the street armed in the above manner [with clubs].… About half an hour after eight the bells rung, which [Gillespie] and his company took to be for fire; but they were told by
14630-419: The town. The first four victims were buried with ceremony on March 8 in the Granary Burying Ground , one of Boston 's oldest burial grounds. Patrick Carr, the fifth and final victim, died on March 14 and was buried with them on March 17. Mr. John Gillespie, in his deposition, (No. 104) declares that, as he was going to the south end of the town, to meet some friends at a public house, he met several people in
14763-505: The townspeople to a meeting. Ebenezer Mackintosh was a shoemaker who handled much of the hands-on work of hanging effigies and leading angry mobs, and he became known as "Captain General of the Liberty Tree." Paul Revere included the Liberty Tree in an engraving, "A View of the Year 1765". When the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, townspeople gathered at the Liberty Tree to celebrate. They decorated
14896-452: The tree to its nadir. Since around 1990, the elm has enjoyed a renaissance through the successful development in North America and Europe of cultivars highly resistant to DED. Consequently, the total number of named cultivars, ancient and modern, now exceeds 300, although many of the older clones, possibly over 120, have been lost to cultivation. Some of the latter, however, were by today's standards inadequately described or illustrated before
15029-464: The tree with flags and streamers and hung dozens of lanterns from its branches when darkness fell. A copper sign was fastened to the trunk which read, "This tree was planted in the year 1646, and pruned by order of the Sons of Liberty , Feb. 14th, 1766." Soon colonists in other towns began naming their own liberty trees, from Newport, Rhode Island to Charleston, South Carolina , and the Tree of Liberty became
15162-517: The tree. It was also the site of protests against the Tea Act . In 1774, a customs official and staunch loyalist named John Malcolm was stripped to the waist, tarred and feathered , and forced to announce his resignation under the tree. The following year, Thomas Paine published an ode to the Liberty Tree in The Pennsylvania Gazette . In the years leading up to the war, the British made
15295-406: The trees during the 1950s and reached a peak in the 1970s. The NPS used a number of methods to control the epidemic , including sanitation , pruning , injecting trees with fungicide , and replanting with DED-resistant cultivars. The NPS combated the disease's local insect vector , the smaller European elm bark beetle ( Scolytus multistriatus ), by trapping and by spraying with insecticides . As
15428-437: The troops' removal. Secretary of State Andrew Oliver reported that, had the troops not been removed, "they would probably be destroyed by the people—should it be called rebellion, should it incur the loss of our charter, or be the consequence what it would." The 14th was transferred to Castle Island without incident about a week later, with the 29th following shortly after, leaving the governor without effective means to police
15561-588: The validity of Parliamentary laws. It also blamed the city's citizens for the lawlessness preceding the event, and claimed that they set up an ambush of the soldiers. As it was not published until well after the first pamphlet had arrived in London, it had a much smaller impact on the public debate there. The Part I took in Defence of Cptn. Preston and the Soldiers, procured me Anxiety, and Obloquy enough. It was, however, one of
15694-606: The woman said, "the soldiers were in the right;" adding, "that before Tuesday or Wednesday night they would wet their swords or bayonets in New England people's blood." —Excerpt from A Short Narrative , suggesting that the soldiers were contemplating violence against the colonists Given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed General Thomas Gage , Commander-in-Chief, North America , to send "such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston", and
15827-680: Was a center of resistance to unpopular acts of taxation by the British Parliament in the 1760s. In 1768, the Townshend Acts were enacted in the Thirteen Colonies, placing tariffs on a variety of common items that were manufactured in Britain and imported in the colonies. Colonists objected that the Acts were a violation of the natural, charter, and constitutional rights of British subjects in
15960-437: Was a pause of uncertain length (eyewitness estimates ranged from several seconds to two minutes), after which the soldiers fired into the crowd. It was not a disciplined volley, since Preston gave no orders to fire; the soldiers fired a ragged series of shots which hit 11 men. Three Americans died instantly: rope maker Samuel Gray, mariner James Caldwell, and Crispus Attucks. Samuel Maverick, a 17-year old apprentice ivory turner,
16093-404: Was a servant of one of the accused who made claims that were easily rebutted by defense witnesses. They were all acquitted, and the servant was eventually convicted of perjury, whipped, and banished from the province. The Boston Massacre is considered one of the most significant events that turned colonial sentiment against King George III and British Parliamentary authority. John Adams wrote that
16226-545: Was badly damaged in a storm in 2008 and has been replaced by a clone. Besides actual trees, the term "Tree of Liberty" is associated with a quotation from a 1787 letter written by Thomas Jefferson to William Stephens Smith : "The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants." 42°21′09″N 71°03′45″W / 42.3523994194°N 71.0625636583°W / 42.3523994194; -71.0625636583 Elm See Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous trees comprising
16359-564: Was felled after Hurricane Floyd caused irreparable damage to it. The Liberty Tree in Acton, Massachusetts was an elm tree that lasted until about 1925. Acton students planted the Peace Tree in 1915, a maple that still stands today. The Arbres de la liberté ("Liberty Trees") were a symbol of the French Revolution, the first being planted in 1790 by a pastor of a Vienne village, inspired by
16492-449: Was felled in August 1775 by Loyalists led by Nathaniel Coffin Jr. or by Job Williams. In 1765, the British Parliament introduced the Stamp Act , which was directed at Britain's American colonies . It required all legal documents, permits, commercial contracts, newspapers, pamphlets, and playing cards in the American colonies to carry a tax stamp . The act was met with widespread anger in
16625-521: Was first recognized in Britain in the early 1970s, believed to have been introduced via a cargo of Canadian rock elm destined for the boatbuilding industry, and rapidly eradicated most of the mature elms from western Europe. A second subspecies, O. novo-ulmi subsp. novo-ulmi , caused similar devastation in Eastern Europe and Central This subspecies, which was introduced to North America, and like O. ulmi ,
16758-495: Was hung in farmhouses throughout New England. Anonymous pamphlets were published describing the event from significantly different perspectives. A Short Narrative of the Horrid Massacre was published under the auspices of the Boston town meeting, principally written by James Bowdoin , a member of the governor's council and a vocal opponent of British colonial policy, along with Samuel Pemberton and Joseph Warren. It described
16891-429: Was initially opposed to ordering the troop withdrawal, and Hutchinson explained he did not have the authority to order the troops to move. Lieutenant Colonel William Dalrymple was the commander of the troops, and he did not offer to move them. The town meeting became more restive when it learned of this; the council changed its position and unanimously ("under duress", according to Hutchinson's report) agreed to request
17024-479: Was killed by a customs employee on February 22, 1770. Seider's death was covered in the Boston Gazette , and his funeral was described as one of the largest of the time in Boston. The killing and subsequent media coverage inflamed tensions, with groups of colonists looking for soldiers to harass, and soldiers also looking for confrontation. On the evening of March 5, Private Hugh White stood on guard duty outside
17157-420: Was standing in front of them. A thrown object then struck Private Montgomery, knocking him down and causing him to drop his musket. He recovered his weapon and angrily shouted "Damn you, fire!", then discharged it into the crowd although no command was given. Palmes swung his cudgel first at Montgomery, hitting his arm, and then at Preston. He narrowly missed Preston's head, striking him on the arm instead. There
17290-420: Was struck by a ricocheting musket ball at the back of the crowd and died early the next morning. Irish immigrant Patrick Carr was shot in the abdomen, an inevitably fatal wound at that time, and died two weeks later. Apprentice Christopher Monk was seriously wounded; he was crippled and died in 1780, purportedly due to the injuries that he had sustained in the attack a decade earlier. The crowd moved away from
17423-409: Was to investigate the jury pool, and by Paul Revere, who drew a detailed map of the bodies to be used in the trial. Massachusetts Solicitor General Samuel Quincy and private attorney Robert Treat Paine were hired by the town of Boston to handle the prosecution. The defense team believed it was advantageous for Preston and the enlisted men to be tried separately and obtained such a separation. Preston
17556-490: Was tried in late October 1770 and acquitted after the jury was convinced that he had not ordered the troops to fire. The trial of the eight other soldiers opened on November 27, 1770. Adams told the jury to look beyond the fact that the soldiers were British. He referred to the crowd that had provoked the soldiers as "a motley rabble of saucy boys, negroes, and molattoes, Irish teagues and outlandish Jack Tarrs" (sailors). He then stated, "And why we should scruple to call such
17689-589: Was unavailable. The first written references to elm occur in the Linear B lists of military equipment at Knossos in the Mycenaean period . Several of the chariots are of elm (" πτε-ρε-ϝα ", pte-re-wa ), and the lists twice mention wheels of elmwood. Hesiod says that ploughs in Ancient Greece were also made partly of elm. The density of elm wood varies between species, but averages around 560 kg/m . Elm wood
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