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73-579: The Jewish community of Rome is probably the oldest in the world outside of the Middle East, with a continuous existence from classical times down to the present day. The first record of Jews in Rome is in 161 BC, when Jason b. Eleazar and Eupolemus b. Johanan are said to have gone there as envoys from Judah Maccabee . The Roman Ghetto was established as a result of papal bull Cum nimis absurdum , promulgated by Pope Paul IV on 14 July 1555. The bull also required

146-561: A battle near Adasa , on the 13th Adar 161 BCE, the Seleucid army was destroyed, and Nicanor was killed. The annual "Day of Nicanor" was instituted to commemorate this victory. The Roman–Jewish Treaty was an agreement made between Judah Maccabee and the Roman Republic in 161 BCE according to 1 Maccabees 8:17–20 and Josephus . It was the first recorded contract between the Jewish people and

219-615: A book by Alfred J. Church and Richmond Seeley. Several 20th-century Jewish authors have also written works devoted to Judah Maccabee and the Maccabean Revolt. Jacob Benjamin Katznelson (1855–1930) wrote the poem, "Alilot Gibbor ha-Yehudim Yehudah ha-Makkabi le-Veit ha-Hashmona'im" (1922); the Yiddish writer Moses Schulstein wrote the dramatic poem, "Yehudah ha-Makkabi" (in A Layter tsu der Zun , 1954); Jacob Fichman 's "Yehudah ha-Makkabi"

292-543: A gilded chariot. The main inscription used to be ornamented by letters made of perhaps silver, gold or some other metal. The original inscription is attached to the east side of the Arch. It is written in Roman square capitals and reads: SENATVS POPVLVSQVE·ROMANVS DIVO·TITO·DIVI·VESPASIANI·F(ILIO) VESPASIANO·AVGVSTO (Senatus Populusque Romanus divo Tito divi Vespasiani filio Vespasiano Augusto), which means The Senate and

365-549: A later date it came to signify all the Hasmoneans who fought during the Maccabean revolt. Mindful of the superiority of Seleucid forces during the first two years of the revolt, Judah's strategy was to avoid any engagement with their regular army and resort to guerrilla warfare to give them a feeling of insecurity. The strategy enabled Judah to win a string of victories. At the battle of Nahal el-Haramiah (wadi haramia), he defeated

438-543: A parody song is named "Judah Macabee". Arch of Titus The Arch of Titus ( Italian : Arco di Tito ; Latin : Arcus Tītī ) is a 1st-century AD honorific arch , located on the Via Sacra , Rome , just to the south-east of the Roman Forum . It was constructed in c. 81 AD by Emperor Domitian shortly after the death of his older brother Titus to commemorate Titus's official deification or consecratio and

511-467: A small Seleucid force under the command of Apollonius, governor of Samaria , who was killed. Judah took possession of Apollonius's sword and used it until his death as a symbol of vengeance. After Nahal el-Haramiah, recruits flocked to the Jewish cause. Shortly after that, Judah routed a larger Seleucid army under the command of Seron near Beth-Horon , largely thanks to a good choice of battlefield. Then, in

584-451: A small area, together with the poverty of the population, caused terrible hygienic conditions. The district, lying very low and near the Tiber, was often flooded, and diseases like cholera and malaria were endemic. During the plague of 1656, 800 of the ghetto's 4,000 inhabitants died. In 1867, just three years before the abolition of the ghetto, there was a cholera epidemic. Sant'Angelo, which

657-566: Is El Macabeo ( Naples , 1638), a Castilian epic by the Portuguese Marrano Miguel de Silveyra . Two other 17th-century works are La chevalerie de Judas Macabé , by French poet Pierre Du Ries , and the anonymous Neo-Latin work Judas Machabaeus (Rome, 1695). Handel wrote his Judas Maccabaeus oratorio (1746) on the subject. There has been interest in Judah in every century. Giuda Macabeo, ossia la morte di Nicanore... (1839)

730-602: Is an Italian " azione sacra " based on which Vallicella composed an oratorio . One of the best-known literary works on the theme is Judas Maccabaeus (1872), a five-act verse tragedy by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . A Hebrew version of Longfellow's play was published in 1900. Two later 19th-century interpretations of the story are Judas Makkabaeus , a novella by the German writer Josef Eduard Konrad Bischoff , which appeared in Der Gefangene von Kuestrin (1885), and The Hammer (1890),

803-461: Is large with both fluted and unfluted columns, the latter being a result of 19th-century restoration. The Arch of Titus measures: 15.4 meters (50 ft) in height, 13.5 meters (44 ft) in width, 4.75 meters (15.5 ft) in depth. The inner archway is 8.3 meters (27 ft) in height, and 5.36 meters (17.5 ft) in width. The spandrels on the upper left and right of the arch contain personifications of victory as winged women. Between

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876-595: Is one of the heroic tales included in Sippurim le-Mofet (1954). Amit Arad 's historical novel "Lions of Judea – The miraculous story of the Maccabees" (2014). Many children's plays have also been written on the theme by various Jewish authors. In addition, the American writer Howard Fast penned the historical novel , My Glorious Brothers , which was published in 1948, during the 1947–1949 Palestine war . During World War II

949-757: Is one remaining piece of the ghetto wall, which was built into the wall of one of the courtyards off the Piazza delle Cinque Scole. It is described as "one of the Rome's most charming and eclectic neighborhoods, [...with] restaurants serving up some of the best food in the city", such as the Roman Jewish speciality of fried artichokes , carciofi alla giudìa and filled zucchini blossoms, fiori di zucca . Judas Maccabeus Judas Maccabaeus or Maccabeus ( / ˌ m æ k ə ˈ b iː ə s / MAK -ə- BEE -əs ), also known as Judah Maccabee ( Hebrew : יהודה המכבי , romanized :  Yehudah HaMakabi ),

1022-476: Is significant in that it is one of the first examples of divinities and humans being present in one scene together. This contrasts with the panels of the Ara Pacis , where humans and divinities are separated. The sculpture of the outer faces of the two great piers was lost when the Arch of Titus was incorporated in medieval defensive walls. The attic of the arch was originally crowned by more statuary, perhaps of

1095-477: Is that the name derives from the Aramaic maqqaba ("makebet" in modern Hebrew ), "hammer" or "sledgehammer" ( cf. the cognomen of Charles Martel , the 8th century Frankish leader), in recognition of his ferocity in battle. Others believe it is in reference to his weapon of choice. According to Jewish folklore , the name Maccabee is an acronym of the verse M i k amokha b a'elim Adonai ( Y HWH ) , "Who among

1168-517: The Battle of Elasa , Judah and those who remained faithful to him were killed. His body was taken by his brothers from the battlefield and buried in the family sepulcher at Modiin . The death of Judah Maccabee (d. 160 BCE) stirred the Jews to renewed resistance. After several additional years of war under the leadership of two of Mattathias' other sons (Jonathan and Simon), the Jews finally achieved independence and

1241-452: The Battle of Emmaus , Judah proceeded to defeat the Seleucid forces led by generals Nicanor and Gorgias . This force was dispatched by Lysias , whom Antiochus left as viceroy after departing on a campaign against the Parthians . By a forced night march, Judah succeeded in eluding Gorgias, who had intended to attack and destroy the Jewish forces in their camp with his cavalry. While Gorgias

1314-517: The Portico d'Ottavia ; from there it ran along today's Via del Portico d'Ottavia (not including the ancient fish market ( Italian : La Pescheria )); at Piazza Giudea (which was cut in two), it bent again, running along Vicolo Cenci (today Via del Progresso) until it reached the Tiber again. The total area amounted to three hectares. At the time of Sixtus V (late 1580s), roughly 3,500 inhabitants were living in inhuman conditions. The bull also revoked all

1387-471: The Romans . The agreement with Rome failed to affect Demetrius' policy. On receiving the news of Nicanor's defeat, he dispatched a new army, again commanded by Bacchides. This time, the Seleucid forces of 20,000 men were numerically so superior that most of Judah's men left the battlefield and advised their leader to do likewise and await a more favorable opportunity. However, Judah decided to stand his ground. In

1460-499: The 17th century onwards. William Houghton's Judas Maccabaeus , performed in about 1601 but now lost, is thought to have been the first drama on the theme; however, Judas Macabeo , an early comedia by crucial Spanish playwright Pedro Calderón de la Barca , is extant. Fernando Rodríguez-Gallego details its history in his critical edition: the play was performed in the 1620s in different versions and finally published as part of an anthology by Vera Tassis in 1637. Following on its heels

1533-542: The 1930s. Due to the three hundred plus years of isolation from the rest of the city, the Jews of the Roman Ghetto developed their own dialect , known as Giudeo-romanesco , which differs from the dialect of the rest of the city in its preservation of 16th-century dialectical forms and its liberal use of romanized Hebrew words. Today, the district of the former ghetto is the home of the Great Synagogue of Rome . There

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1606-608: The Catholic Church were treated as liberators and conquering heroes by many Jewish residents. In 1888, the ghetto walls were torn down, and the ghetto itself was almost completely demolished. In 1904 the Great Synagogue of Rome and a number of apartment buildings were erected on the site. Embankments were created to prevent flooding and reduce the spread of disease. The Roman Ghetto was the last remaining ghetto in Western Europe until ghettos were reintroduced by Nazi Germany in

1679-486: The Jews nor raise rents. Gates were added as the ghetto was successively enlarged. Initially, there were two gates in the wall. The number increased to three in the 16th century and under Sixtus V to five, and finally, during the 19th century to eight. The gates were opened at dawn and closed every night, one hour after sunset between November and Easter, and two hours at other times. The area contained hardly any noteworthy buildings. The only important square — Piazza Giudea —

1752-420: The Jews of Rome, which had existed as a community since before Christian times and which numbered about 2,000 at the time, to live in the ghetto. The ghetto was a walled quarter with its gates locked at night. The wall was built under the direction of the architect Giovanni Sallustio Peruzzi . The cost of the wall's construction, 300 Roman scudi , had to be paid by the Jewish community. The area of Rome chosen for

1825-469: The Maccabees, and Judah was forced to withdraw to Jerusalem. Beth-Zur was compelled to surrender, and Lysias reached Jerusalem and laid siege on the city. The defenders found themselves in a precarious situation because their provisions were exhausted; it was a sabbatical year during which the fields were left uncultivated. However, just as capitulation seemed imminent, Lysias and Eupator had to withdraw when Antiochus Epiphanes's commander-in-chief Philip, whom

1898-506: The Papal States were restored in 1799, the ghetto was reestablished and Jews who had left its confines were compelled to return. During the 19th century it became clear the ghetto was becoming less and less sustainable. On 17 April 1847, a group of young men from Trastevere broke open the gates of the ghetto after they had been closed for the night. In 1848, at the liberal beginning of his pontificate, Pius IX permitted Jews to live outside

1971-688: The Pope at the Arch of Titus , which celebrates the Roman sack of Jerusalem of 70 CE. Each year, on the Campidoglio , the Rabbi had to pay homage to the chief of the city councillors ("Caporione"), receiving by him in exchange for it a kick to his bottom. This "ceremony" meant that the Jewish community had been allowed to stay one more year in Rome. Every Saturday, the Jewish community was forced to hear compulsory sermons in front of

2044-984: The Roman people (dedicate this) to the deified Titus Vespasian Augustus, son of the deified Vespasian." The opposite side of the Arch of Titus received new inscriptions after it was restored during the pontificate of Pope Pius VII by Giuseppe Valadier in 1821. The restoration was intentionally made in travertine to differentiate between the original and the restored portions. The inscription reads: INSIGNE · RELIGIONIS · ATQVE · ARTIS · MONVMENTVM VETVSTATE · FATISCENS PIVS · SEPTIMVS · PONTIFEX · MAX(IMVS) NOVIS · OPERIBVS · PRISCVM · EXEMPLAR · IMITANTIBVS FVLCIRI · SERVARIQVE · IVSSIT ANNO · SACRI · PRINCIPATVS · EIVS · XXIIII (Insigne religionis atque artis, monumentum, vetustate fatiscens: Pius Septimus, Pontifex Maximus, novis operibus priscum exemplar imitantibus fulciri servarique iussit. Anno sacri principatus eius XXIV), which means (This) monument, remarkable in terms of both religion and art, had weakened from age: Pius

2117-533: The Swiss-German writer Karl Boxler published his novel Judas Makkabaeus; ein Kleinvolk kaempft um Glaube und Heimat (1943), the subtitle of which suggests that Swiss democrats then drew a parallel between their own national hero, William Tell , and the leader of the Maccabean revolt against foreign tyranny. The modern play Playing Dreidel with Judah Maccabee by Edward Einhorn is about a contemporary boy who meets

2190-663: The arch despite being described as hateful towards Titus by Cassius Dio . The medieval Latin travel guide Mirabilia Urbis Romae noted the monument, writing: "the arch of the Seven Lamps of Titus and Vespasian; [where Moses' candlestick is having seven branches, with the Ark, at the foot of the Cartulary Tower"]. During the Middle Ages , the Frangipani family added a second story to

2263-430: The background in blue. In 2012 the Arch of Titus Digital Restoration Project discovered remains of yellow ochre paint on the menorah relief. The north inner panel depicts Titus as triumphator attended by various genii and lictors , who carry fasces . A helmeted Amazonian, Valour, leads the quadriga or four horsed chariot, which carries Titus. Winged Victory crowns him with a laurel wreath . The juxtaposition

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2336-667: The biblical story in the context of the Jacobite rising of 1745 . This work, with libretto by Thomas Morell , had been written for the celebrations following the Duke of Cumberland 's victory over the Scottish Jacobite rebels at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. The oratorio's most famous chorus is "See, the conqu'ring hero comes". The tune of this chorus was later adopted as a Christian Easter hymn tune Thine Be The Glory, Risen Conquering Son . A Hebrew translation of Handel's Judas Maccabee

2409-636: The campaign in Transjordan, taking his brother Jonathan with him. After fierce fighting, he defeated the Transjordanian tribes and rescued the Jews concentrated in fortified towns in Gilead. The Jewish population of the areas taken by the Maccabees was evacuated to Judea. After the fighting in Transjordan, Judah turned against the Edomites in the south, captured and destroyed Hebron and Maresha . He then marched on

2482-578: The coast of the Mediterranean, destroyed the altars and statues of the pagan gods in Ashdod , and returned to Judea with many spoils. Judah then laid siege to the Seleucid garrison at the Acra , the Seleucid citadel of Jerusalem. The besieged, who included not only Syrian-Greek troops but also Hellenistic Jews, appealed for help to Lysias, who effectively became the regent of the young king Antiochus V Eupator after

2555-464: The dead; the painting illustrates an episode from 2 Maccabees 12:39–48 in which Judah's troops find stolen idolatrous charms on the corpses of Jewish warriors slain on the battlefield. He therefore offers prayers and an expiatory sacrifice for these warriors who have died in a state of sin. During the Counter-Reformation the passage was used by Catholics against Protestants in order to justify

2628-622: The death of Antiochus Epiphanes at the end of 164 BCE during the Parthian campaign. Lysias and Eupator set out for a new campaign in Judea. Lysias skirted Judea as he had done in his first campaign, entering it from the south and besieging Beth-Zur . Judah raised the siege of the Acra and went to meet Lysias. In the Battle of Beth-zechariah , south of Bethlehem , the Seleucids achieved their first major victory over

2701-706: The doctrine of purgatory . Accordingly, Rubens painted the scene for the Chapel of the Dead in Tournai cathedral. In the 19th century, Paul Gustave Doré executed an engraving of Judah Maccabee victoriously pursuing the shattered troops of the Syrian enemy. In music, almost all the compositions inspired by the Hasmonean rebellion revolve around Judah. In 1746, the composer George Frideric Handel composed his oratorio Judas Maccabeus , putting

2774-523: The feet of each newly-crowned pope. In 1716, Adriaan Reland published his De spoliis templi Hierosolymitani in arcu Titiano Romae conspicuis , in English: "The spoils of the temple of Jerusalem visible on the Arch of Titan at Rome". It was one of the first buildings sustaining a modern restoration, starting with Raffaele Stern in 1817 and continued by Valadier under Pius VII in 1821, with new capitals and with travertine masonry , distinguishable from

2847-471: The focus of Franz Wickhoff 's appreciation of Roman art in contrast to the then-prevailing view. Based on the style of sculptural details, Domitian 's favored architect Rabirius , sometimes credited with the Colosseum , may have executed the arch. Without contemporary documentation, however, attributions of Roman buildings on the basis of style are considered shaky. The brother and successor of Titus built

2920-520: The fountain, the Fontana delle Tartarughe (Turtle Fountain), located in the Piazza Mattei, in front of his residence. As the Jewish community inside the ghetto grew, there was severe overcrowding. Since the area could not expand horizontally, the Jews built vertical additions to their houses, which blocked the sun from reaching the already dank and narrow streets. The great number of people living in such

2993-503: The garrison in the citadel of Acra . He purified the defiled Temple of Jerusalem and, on the 25th of Kislev (December 14, 164 BCE), restored the service in the Temple. The reconsecration of the Temple became a permanent Jewish holiday, Hanukkah , which continued even after the Temple was destroyed in 70 CE. Hanukkah is still celebrated annually. The liberation of Jerusalem was the first step on

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3066-563: The ghetto was one of the most undesirable quarters of the city, subject to constant flooding by the Tiber River , but where Jews amounted already to 80% of the population. At the time of its founding, the area was a trapezoid whose bases (parallel to the river) measured respectively 270 m (890 ft) (near the Tiber) and 180 m (590 ft), and whose sides was about 150 m (490 ft) long. The wall started from Ponte Fabricio reaching

3139-411: The ghetto. Following a brief period of exile, however, during which time Rome was controlled by a second Roman Republic which strongly opposed Church power, the Pope issued a new series of anti-liberal measures, including re-instituting the ghetto. The Jewish head tax was abolished in 1850. The Papal States ceased to exist on 20 September 1870, when they were combined with the rest of the peninsula into

3212-503: The gods is like you, O Adonai?", the Maccabean battle-cry to motivate troops ( Exodus 15:11) as well as a part of the daily Jewish morning and evening liturgy (see mi chamokha ). Some scholars maintain that the name is a shortened form of the Hebrew maqqab-Yahu (from naqab , "to mark, to designate"), meaning "the one designated by Yahweh." Although originally the surname Maccabee was exclusive to Judah (his brothers had different surnames), at

3285-456: The hatred of many Christians against them. In the lottery game, they were allowed to bet only on low numbers (from 1 through 30), and all belonging to the same group of 10. In case of a draw of five numbers of that kind, the Romans said that on that day in the ghetto there was taking place a great feast. When Jews went outside the ghetto, the men had to wear a yellow cloth (the "sciamanno"), and

3358-454: The historical figure. In the medieval Christian art, Judah Maccabee was regarded as one of the heroes of the Old Testament . He figures in a tenth-century illustrated manuscript Libri Maccabaeorum . The late medieval French artist Jean Fouquet painted an illustration of Judah triumphing over his enemies for his famous manuscript of Josephus. Rubens painted Judah Maccabee praying for

3431-582: The late Seleucus IV Philopator , who returned from years as a hostage in Rome. Demetrius appointed Alcimus (Jakim), a Hellenistic Jew , as high priest, a choice the Hasidim (Pietists) might have accepted since he was of priestly descent. When war against the external enemy ended, an internal struggle broke out between the party led by Judah and the Hellenist party. The influence of the Hellenizers all but collapsed in

3504-509: The late Antiochus IV Epiphanes, fled from Rome in defiance of the Roman Senate and arrived in Syria. Declaring himself the rightful king, he captured and killed Lysias and Antiochus Eupator, taking the throne. It was thus Demetrius to whom the delegation, led by Alcimus, complained of the persecution of the Hellenist party in Judea. Demetrius granted Alcimus's request to be appointed High Priest under

3577-449: The late ruler appointed regent before his death, rebelled against Lysias and was about to enter Antioch and seize power. Lysias proposed a peaceful settlement, which was concluded at the end of 163 BCE. The peace terms were based on the restoration of religious freedom, the permission for the Jews to live per their own laws, and the official return of the Temple to the Jews. Lysias defeated Philip, only to be overthrown by Demetrius , son of

3650-577: The liberty to worship freely. As a warrior hero and national liberator, Judah Maccabee has inspired many writers, and several artists and composers. In the Divine Comedy , Dante sees his spirit in the Heaven of Mars with the other "heroes of the true faith". In Shakespeare 's Love's Labour's Lost , he is enacted along with the other Nine Worthies , but heckled for sharing a name with Judas Iscariot . Most significant works dedicated solely to him date from

3723-672: The narrative of the Roman procession described a decade prior in Josephus ' The Jewish War . It became a symbol of the Jewish diaspora , and the menorah depicted on the arch served as the model for the menorah used as the emblem of the State of Israel . The arch has provided the general model for many triumphal arches erected since the 16th century. It is the inspiration for the Arc de Triomphe in Paris . It holds an important place in art history , being

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3796-531: The newly created Kingdom of Italy. With this dramatic change in governments, the requirement that Jews live in the ghetto came to an end. But the centuries of crowds, restrictions, and disease had taken their toll. While the Roman ghetto had once been home to some 10,000 Jews, by 1870 the population was less than half that—and half of those remaining relied on charity to survive. Indeed, the Risorgimento troops who arrived to wrest control of Rome's government away from

3869-507: The original marble. The restoration was a model for the countryside of Porta Pia . At an unknown date, a local ban on Jews walking under the arch was placed on the monument by Rome's Chief Rabbinate ; this was rescinded on the foundation of the State of Israel in 1947, and at a Hanukkah event in 1997 the change was made public. The arch was never mentioned in Rabbinic literature . The arch

3942-464: The protection of the king's army and sent to Judea an army led by Bacchides . The weaker Jewish army could not oppose the enemy and withdrew from Jerusalem, so Judah returned to wage guerrilla warfare. Soon after, the Seleucid Army needed to return to Antioch because of the turbulent political situation. Judah's forces returned to Jerusalem, and the Seleucids dispatched another army led by Nicanor. In

4015-498: The revolt per the deathbed disposition of his father. The First Book of Maccabees praises Judah's valor and military talent, suggesting that those qualities made Judah a natural choice for the new commander. In the early days of the rebellion, Judah received the surname Maccabee. It is not known whether this surname should be understood in Greek, Hebrew, or Aramaic. Several explanations have been put forward for this surname. One suggestion

4088-439: The rights of the Jewish community and imposed on Jews a variety of new restrictions, such as prohibition on property ownership and practicing medicine on Christians and compulsory Catholic sermons on the Jewish sabbath . Jews were not allowed to own any property, even in the ghetto. Christian owners of houses in the ghetto could keep their property, but, because of the jus gazzagà (right of possession), they could neither evict

4161-499: The road to ultimate independence. Upon hearing the news that the Jewish communities in Gilead , Transjordan , and Galilee were under attack by neighboring Greek cities, Judah immediately went to their aid. Judah sent his brother, Simeon, to Galilee at the head of 3,000 men; Simeon was successful, achieving numerous victories. He transplanted a substantial portion of the Jewish settlements, including women and children, to Judea. Judah led

4234-540: The small church of San Gregorio a Ponte Quattro Capi , just outside the wall. At the time of its construction, in the ghetto – as almost everywhere in Rome – there was no fresh water. However, some years later the Popes built several fountains in the rione. One fountain, designed by Giacomo della Porta , was to be placed in the Piazza Giudea, the site of a market, inside the ghetto, but Muzio Mattei used his influence to have

4307-406: The spandrels is the keystone , on which there stands a female on the east side and a male on the west side. The soffit of the axial archway is deeply coffered with a relief of the apotheosis of Titus at the center. The sculptural program also includes two panel reliefs lining the passageway within the arch. Both commemorate the joint triumph celebrated by Titus and his father Vespasian in

4380-403: The special rights and privileges enjoyed by aristocratic and religious figures; conversely, they also removed the special restrictions and burdens placed on Jewish communities. In many countries, this meant an end to Jewish ghettos. Rome was no exception: when Napoleon's forces made their triumphant entrance into the city, a special point was made of physically demolishing the old ghetto walls. This

4453-562: The summer of 71. The south inner panel depicts the spoils taken from the Temple in Jerusalem . The golden candelabrum or Menorah is the main focus and is carved in deep relief. Other sacred objects being carried in the triumphal procession are the Gold Trumpets, the fire pans for removing the ashes from the altar, and the Table of Showbread . These spoils were likely originally colored gold, with

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4526-411: The third son of Mattathias , the Hasmonean , a Jewish priest from the village of Modi'in . In 167 BCE, Mattathias, together with his sons Judah, Eleazar , Simon , John , and Jonathan , started a revolt against the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes , who since 169/8 BCE had issued decrees that forbade Jewish religious practices. After Mattathias died in 166 BCE, Judah assumed leadership of

4599-406: The vault, converting it into a fortified tower; beam holes from the construction remain in the panels. A chamber was built in the upper half, and the roadway was lowered to expose the travertine foundations. Pope Paul IV (papacy 1555-9), having established the Roman Ghetto in the bull Cum nimis absurdum , made the arch the place of a yearly oath of submission , forcing Jewish elders to kiss

4672-435: The victory of Titus together with their father, Vespasian , over the Jewish rebellion in Judaea . The arch contains panels depicting the triumphal procession celebrated in 71 AD after the Roman victory culminating in the fall of Jerusalem , and provides one of the few contemporary depictions of artifacts from Herod's Temple . Although the panels are not explicitly stated as illustrating this event, they closely parallel

4745-430: The wake of the Seleucid defeat. The Hellenizing High Priest Menelaus was removed from office and executed. His successor was another Hellenizer Alcimus . When Alcimus executed sixty priests who were opposed to him, he found himself in open conflict with the Maccabees. Alcimus fled from Jerusalem and went to the Seleucid king, asking for help. Meanwhile, Demetrius I Soter , son of Seleucus IV Philopator and nephew of

4818-440: The women a yellow veil (the same color worn by prostitutes). During the feasts they had to amuse the Christians, competing in humiliating games. They had to run naked, with a rope around the neck, or with their legs closed into sacks. Sometimes they were also ridden by soldiers. Jews had to petition annually for permission to live there. They paid a yearly tax for the privilege. Jews of Rome were required to swear yearly loyalty to

4891-470: The word ghetto came into use in the late 16th century. The modern Roman Jewish usage is ghétte . Life in the Roman Ghetto was one of crushing poverty, due to the severe restrictions placed upon the occupations that Jews were allowed to perform. Roman Jews were allowed to work only at unskilled jobs, such as ragmen, secondhand dealers or fish mongers. They were permitted to be pawnbrokers (which had been prohibited to Christians); and this activity excited

4964-402: Was a Jewish priest ( kohen ) and a son of the priest Mattathias . He led the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire (167–160 BCE). The Jewish holiday of Hanukkah ("Dedication") commemorates the restoration of Jewish worship at the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 164 BCE after Judah Maccabee removed all of the statues depicting Greek gods and goddesses and purified it. Judah was

5037-405: Was divided in two parts by the wall. All the churches which stood in the ghetto were deconsecrated and demolished soon after its construction. In common with many other Italian ghettoes, the ghetto of Rome was not initially so called, but was variously referred to in documents in Italian as serraglio degli Ebrei or claustro degli Ebrei , both meaning "enclosure of the Hebrews". Various forms of

5110-433: Was not just a simple act of altruism. Napoleon was determined to show the Catholic Church that he was now the dominant power in Rome. In 1798 he abolished the Papal States and replaced them with a new Roman Republic , which quickly annulled the papal law requiring Jews to reside in the ghetto. To commemorate the event a Tree of Liberty was planted in Piazza delle Cinque Scole ("Piazza of the Five Synagogues"). However, when

5183-442: Was prepared for the 1932 Maccabiah Games and is now popular in Israel with the motif of "conqu'ring hero" becoming a Hanukkah song. Beethoven composed a set of theme and variations 12 Variations on 'See the conqu'ring hero comes' for Cello and Piano, WoO 45. Tom Lehrer refers to Judas Maccabeus in his song "Hanukkah in Santa Monica". Mirah refers to Judah Maccabee in her song "Jerusalem". In " The Goldbergs Mixtape",

5256-545: Was searching for him in the mountains, Judah surprisedly attacked the Seleucid camp and defeated the Seleucids at the Battle of Emmaus. The Seleucid commander had no alternative but to withdraw to the coast. The defeat at Emmaus convinced Lysias that he must prepare for a serious and prolonged war. He accordingly assembled a new and larger army and marched with it on Judea from the south via Idumea . After several years of conflict, Judah drove out his foes from Jerusalem, except for

5329-471: Was the smallest rione by area, also had the highest population density because of the presence of the ghetto. The first great upheaval since Paul IV established the ghetto came during the Napoleonic Wars . Eager to promulgate his own set of universal laws, Napoleon determined that every citizen under his rule would enjoy equal protection under the law. The Napoleonic Code eliminated many, if not all, of

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