83-547: The Laogai Research Foundation is a human rights NGO located in Washington, D.C, United States. The foundation's mission is to "gather information on and raise public awareness of the Laogai —China's extensive system of forced-labor prison camps." The Laogai Research Foundation was founded in 1992 by Harry Wu , a former political prisoner in the People's Republic of China. Born in 1937 to
166-493: A coal shortage elsewhere in China. The National Development and Reform Commission responded by relaxing some environmental standards and the government allowed coal-fired power plants to defer tax payments. Trade policy was adjusted to permit the importation of a small amount of coal from Australia . The energy problems abated in a few weeks. The Chinese national carbon trading scheme began in 2021. China decided to close
249-455: A finding which the company's president eventually confirmed while testifying before Congress. In February 2010, the Foundation released a research report proving that China was actively advertising Laogai products and services online, including on Chinese government-sponsored sites, despite the fact that exporting Laogai products is illegal under Chinese law. Importing Laogai products is illegal in
332-410: A further 20% by 2010. The government has also vowed to close 4,000 small mines to improve industry safety. As of 2009, the government has been cracking down on unregulated mining operations, which in 2009 accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's 16,000 mines. The closure of about 1,000 dangerous small mines in 2008 helped to cut in half the average number of miners killed, to about six
415-491: A good workforce . The products manufactured by prison labor in China are of low quality and have become unsalable on the open market in competition with products made by non-imprisoned paid labor. In 1994 the laogai camps were renamed "prisons". However, Chinese criminal law still stipulates that prisoners able to work shall "accept education and reform through labor". The existence of an extensive network of forced-labor camps producing consumer goods for export to Europe and
498-638: A minority of hostile elements originating from exploiter classes." The estimated number of deaths in laogai varies substantially among authors on the subject: SARs: SARs: Coal in China China is the largest producer and consumer of coal and coal power in the world. The share of coal in the Chinese energy mix declined to 55% in 2021 according to the US Energy Information Agency. The Chinese central government has clamped down on
581-525: A nationwide effort to reduce overcapacity resulted in the closure of many small and dirty coal mines. Major coal-producing provinces like Shaanxi, Inner Mongolia, and Shanxi instituted administrative caps on coal output. These measures contributed to electricity outages in several northeastern provinces in September 2021 and a coal shortage elsewhere in China. The National Development and Reform Commission responded by relaxing some environmental standards and
664-648: A prosperous Shanghai family, Wu fell afoul of the Chinese Communist Party while in college and was deemed a counter-revolutionary rightist during the Anti-Rightist Movement . Wu was arrested in 1960 and sent to the Laogai, and he was eventually released some 19 years later. He emigrated to the United States in 1982 and began to publicize the systematic human rights abuses inflicted upon the Chinese people by
747-459: A single inmate's underpants would be as numerous as the words on the front page of a newspaper". He noted fleas would be so numerous that they would "turn his quilt purplish black with their droppings". Roundworms were also a common threat to the prisoners' health, especially in laogai farms, where human excrement was used as fertilizer . Along with a poor diet came many diet-related diseases: beriberi , edema , scurvy , and pellagra were
830-614: A two-year ban was ended. The levels of coal imports from Australia did not yet reach the pre-ban levels of 77.51 million metric tons. That year, Shanxi's major coal producers planned to boost production to address a significant output drop that resulted in a rare 4.1% national decline—the first since 2020. This downturn led to increased reliance on coal imports, which hit record levels. Expectations are for further increases in 2024, especially for high-quality coking and thermal coal. The China Coal Transportation and Distribution Association predicts continued import growth, driven by rising demand from
913-436: A wall. This wall is about 20 feet high and topped with electrical fencing. There were also sentry towers on each corner. Outside this wall was 40 feet of empty space, followed by another wall, similar to the first but larger. The Laogai camps were infested with many types of pests. Bed bugs were so numerous that at night they often moved in swarms. This behavior earned them the Laogai nickname of tanks or "tanke". They sucked
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#1732852748140996-422: A year were used by the iron industry in that zone. Chinese scientist Song Yingxing suggested that around 70% of iron was smelted with coal. Meanwhile, 30% used charcoal . Shanxi was the center of the iron industry in late traditional times. German scientist Ferdinand von Richthofen accounted for the use of coal in several areas of the province. Early descriptions of coal for household purposes go back until
1079-469: Is a criminal justice system involving the use of penal labor and prison farms in the People's Republic of China (PRC). Láogǎi is different from láojiào , or re-education through labor , which was the abolished administrative detention system for people who were not criminals but had committed minor offenses , and was intended to "reform offenders into law-abiding citizens". Persons who were detained in
1162-632: Is believed to provide motivation to work. During the Mao era, food in prisons was very scarce, not only because of a nationwide famine during the Great Leap Forward (1959–1962), but also because of the harsher rules . Since little food was available, prisoners would scavenge anything they came across while working. Cases were documented of prisoners eating "field mice, crickets, locusts, toads, grapevine worms, grasshoppers, insect larvae and eggs, and venomous snakes". Also, many inmates would steal produce from
1245-567: Is cause for concern on a global scale. Due in large part to the emissions caused by burning coal, China is now the number one producer of carbon dioxide, responsible for a full quarter of the world's CO 2 output. The country has taken steps towards battling climate change by pledging to cut its carbon intensity (the amount of CO 2 produced per dollar of economic output) by about 40 percent by 2020, compared to 2005 levels. China has said carbon dioxide from coal will peak by 2025. On average, China's coal plants work more efficiently than those in
1328-556: Is commonly burned raw in unvented stoves. This fills homes with high levels of toxic metals leading to bad indoor air quality (IAQ). In addition, food cooked over coal fires contains toxic substances. Toxic substances from coal burning include arsenic , fluorine , polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , and mercury . These cause health issues such as arsenic poisoning, skeletal fluorosis (over 10 million people afflicted in China), esophageal and lung cancers, and selenium poisoning. China
1411-487: Is distributed by the State Power Grid Corporation . It is a big source of greenhouse gas emissions by China . China's installed coal-based power generation capacity was 1080 GW in 2021, about half the total installed capacity of power stations in China . Coal-fired power stations generated 57% of electricity in 2020. Over half the world's coal-fired power is generated in China. 5 GW of new coal power
1494-603: Is estimated such measures could bring about a 70% reduction in NO x emissions from power plants. As part of China's efforts to achieve its pledges of peak coal consumption by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060, a nationwide effort to reduce overcapacity resulted in the closure of many small and dirty coal mines. Major coal-producing regions like Shaanxi , Inner Mongolia , and Shanxi instituted administrative caps on coal output. These measures contributed to electricity outages in several northeastern provinces in September 2021 and
1577-501: Is estimated that coal mine fires in China burn about 200 million kg of coal each year. Small illegal fires are frequent in the northern region of Shanxi . Local miners may use abandoned mines for shelter and intentionally set such fires. One study estimates that this translates into 360 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions per year, which is not included in the previous emissions figures. North China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region has announced plans to extinguish fires in
1660-803: Is favoured is by the rules guaranteeing its purchase – so dispatch order is not merit order . The think tank Carbon Tracker estimated in 2020 that the average coal fleet loss was about 4 USD/MWh and that about 60% of power stations were cashflow negative in 2018 and 2019. In 2020 Carbon Tracker estimated that 43% of coal-fired plants were already more expensive than new renewables and that 94% would be by 2025. According to 2020 analysis by Energy Foundation China, to keep warming to 1.5 degrees C all China's coal power without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045. But in 2023 many new coal power stations were approved. Coal power stations receive payments for their capacity. A 2021 study estimated that all coal power plants could be shut down by 2040, by retiring them at
1743-471: Is now aware of the impact of coal on the environment and is taking steps to change it. Currently, China is expanding the use of natural gas as an alternative to coal for heating. But if rural areas lose government subsidies, no one will continue to use natural gas. In 2007, the use of coal and biomass (collectively referred to as solid fuels) for domestic purposes was nearly ubiquitous in rural households but declining in urban homes. At that time, estimates put
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#17328527481401826-716: Is required of them. They sometimes receive extra or better quality food. It has been argued that this extra food is not worth the extra calories burned to be more productive, so many prisoners choose to do the minimum with minimum effort, thereby saving as much energy as possible. Working conditions in Laogai camps are substandard: Investigators from the Laogai Research Foundation have confirmed sites where prisoners mine asbestos and other toxic chemicals with no protective gear, work with batteries and battery acid with no protection for their hands, tan hides while standing naked in vats filled 3-feet deep with chemicals used for
1909-542: Is rich in low-sulfur steam coal. Mines in Inner Mongolia are rapidly expanding production, with 637 million tons produced in 2009. Transport of coal from this region to seaports on China's coast has overloaded highways such as China National Highway 110 resulting in chronic traffic jams and delays. In 2021, the government ordered all coal mines to operate at full capacity at all times, including holidays; approved new mines, and reduced restrictions on coal mining. China
1992-675: Is the world's largest importer of coal: with big imports from Russia and Indonesia in the 2020s. After boycotting Australian coal in 2020, coking coal imports from Mongolia and the US grew. Also Russia sought to expand its coal exports to China due to declining demand in Europe because of the energy transition and the political tensions between Russia and Western countries over the Russian invasion of Ukraine. In 2023 China imported 23.47 million metric tons of coal from Australia, an increase from 2.86 million after
2075-476: The Laogai Museum in Washington, D.C., calling it the first ever United States museum to directly address human rights in China. In 2008, the Laogai Research Foundation estimated that approximately 1,045 laogai facilities were operating in China, and contained an estimated 500,000 to 2 million detainees. Unlike Laojiao (re-education through labor) inmates, Laogai criminals are issued clothing. Depending on
2158-684: The Paris Agreement . Air pollution in China kills 750,000 people every year, according to a study by the World Bank. Issued in response to record-high levels of air pollution in 2012 and 2013, the State Council's September 2013 Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution reiterated the need to reduce coal's share in China's energy mix to 65% by 2017. As public concern grows, incidents of social unrest are becoming more frequent around
2241-405: The energy policy of China , aims to keep China's coal consumption below 3.8 billion tonnes per annum. The consumption of coal is largely in power production, aside from this, there is a lot of industry and manufacturing use along with a comparatively small amount of domestic use in poorer households for heating and cooking. Coal power in China is electricity generated from coal in China and
2324-527: The laojiao were detained in facilities that were separate from those which comprised the general prison system of the laogai . Both systems, however, were based on penal labor. Some writers have likened the laogai to slavery . During the 1950s and 1960s, Chinese prisons, which were similar to organized factories, contained large numbers of people who were considered too critical of the government or " counter-revolutionaries ". However, many people arrested for political or religious reasons were released in
2407-429: The zhiban arrives pulling a handcart with a large tub of vegetable soup, two hunks of cornbread for each prisoner, and a large tube of drinking water ... after about 30 minutes, work is resumed until the company chief announces quitting time in the evening. Generally the prisoners return to the barracks at about 6:30 p.m. Upon return it is once again a dinner of cornbread, corn gruel, and vegetable soup. At 7:30 p.m.,
2490-509: The 18th century, British observers realized that such mines in Guangdong were opening out directly on to a river. Slope mines were the second most common type, as mines in Leiyang , Hunan. In the 19th century, shaft mines were predominant, especially in north China . European observers interpreted that as a consequence of the lack of wood in the zone to hold up the roof in slope mines. Flooding
2573-409: The 2-hour study period begins... At 9:30 p.m., no matter what the weather, all prisoners gather together outside the barracks for roll call and a speech from the captain. At around 10:00 p.m., everyone goes to bed. During the night no lights are allowed and no one is allowed to move about. One must remain in one's assigned sleeping place and wait until 5:30 a.m. the next morning before getting up, when
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2656-471: The 6th century when a writer pointed out that food tastes different according to whether it was cooked over coal, charcoal, bamboo, or grass. From the 11th century, coal was the main option in the household in the capital at Kaifeng. At the beginning of the 12th century, twenty new coal markets were established and coal replaced charcoal in the zone. Increasing demand led to the development of mining in areas of Henan and Shandong . Marco Polo claimed that coal
2739-627: The CCP. Ten years later, his efforts culminated into the founding of the Laogai Research Foundation. The Laogai Research Foundation publishes an annually updated Laogai Handbook , which lists all known information about Laogai activities in China including individual camps' location, size, known inmates, manufactured products, and other statistics. The Foundation also researches American companies' ties to Laogai camps; in 1992, LRF documented Columbus McKinnon Chain Hoist Company's extensive use of Laogai products,
2822-632: The Chinese government, "approximately 200 different kinds of Laogai products that are exported to international markets". "A quarter of China's tea is produced in Laogai camps; 60 percent of China's rubber-vulcanizing chemicals are produced in a single Laogai camp in Shengyang ... one of the largest steel-pipe factories in the country is a Laogai camp ... " One camp alone, Ziangride, harvests more than 22,000 metric tons of grain every year. Dulan County prisoners have planted over 400,000 trees. The conditions in these camps are considered extremely harsh by most of
2905-431: The Chinese were involved in the surface mining of coal around 3490 BC, pioneering the pre-modern world. Fushan mine uses to be pointed out as the earliest coal mine in the ancient world and started around 1000 BC. In pre-modern China, coal was constrained both by the limitations of traditional technology and the weakness of demand. In the 3rd century BC, Chinese people began burning coal for heat. The spread of coal use
2988-861: The LRF opened the Laogai Museum at the foundation's headquarters in Washington. The Dalai Lama made a notable visit to the Museum in 2009 as part of a meeting with Wu and Kempton. In April 2011, the LRF celebrated the grand opening of its fully renovated Laogai Museum at its new location in Dupont Circle. The Laogai Research Foundation's extensive archive collection, comprising Chinese and U.S. government documents, personal testimonies from Laogai survivors, video, and press documents will be available online in Fall 2010. Laogai Laogai ( Chinese : 劳改 ), short for laodong gaizao ( 劳动改造 ), which means reform through labor ,
3071-584: The Laogai system with marketable skills were often assigned jobs utilizing these skills within the prison complex. Doctors, for example, were doctors within the Laogai camp often receiving preferential treatment, larger amounts of food, similar to the cadre, and a bed. "Inmates rarely leave with any new skills unless the training fits the camp's enterprising needs." More recently however, programs have been introduced to train prisoners in useful trades. While there are many types of Laogai complexes, most enterprises are farms, mines, or factories. There are, according to
3154-539: The United States became classified. Publication of information about China's prison system by Al Jazeera English resulted in its expulsion from China on May 7, 2012. In 2003, the word "laogai" entered the Oxford English Dictionary . It entered the German Duden in 2005, and French and Italian dictionaries in 2006. Harry Wu has written books, including Troublemaker and Laogai, that describe
3237-540: The United States, Germany, and Italy. Another recent project of the foundation includes Laogai: The Machinery of Repression in China , a full-length book detailing the history of the Laogai in China, which was edited by LRF Director Nicole Kempton and published in 2009 by Umbrage Editions. Other works have been published in Chinese. In addition, the LRF maintains two active blogs, one in English and one in Chinese, and Kempton maintains her own blog at The Huffington Post . In 2008,
3320-446: The United States, due to their relative youth. In September 2011, the Chinese government's Ministry of Environmental Protection announced a new emission standard for thermal power plants, for NO x and mercury, and a tightening of SO 2 and soot standards. New coal power plants have a set date of the beginning of 2012 and for old power plants by mid-2014. They must also abide by a new limit on mercury by beginning of 2015. It
3403-576: The announcement, while 18 projects which had secured financing and necessary permits could enter into construction. During the 2021 energy crisis in China, this dependency on coal units, depletion of reserves, increasing import prices, and slowdowns of shipment and production lead to widespread shutdowns of industrial energy use . In 2022, global coal phase-out efforts advanced, excluding China, which increased coal capacity, offsetting global reductions. Ancient people in current China started using coal around 6,000 years ago. Historians suspects that
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3486-405: The blood of the prisoners, leaving little red welts all over their bodies. These welts itched, and severe cases led to inmates scratching their skin raw, leading to dangerous infections. Another common pest was lice ; some prisoners were known to eat them to supplement their meager diet. No insecticide or pesticides were used in the camps. The prisoner Zhang Xianliang wrote that "the parasites on
3569-461: The context of smelting methods . The technology was spread from the central plain to outlying areas in China. In the 11th century, the iron produced in north China was smelted in coke-burning blast-furnaces . Deforestation in that zone forced to turn to the use of coke, mushrooming ironworking centers along the Henan - Hebei border. Accounts of that period estimate that at least 140 000 tons of coal
3652-496: The country. For example, in December 2011 the government suspended plans to expand a coal-fired power plant in the city of Haimen after 30,000 local residents staged a violent protest against it, because "the coal-fired power plant was behind a rise in the number of local cancer patients, environmental pollution and a drop in the local fishermen's catch." In addition to environmental and health costs at home, China's dependence on coal
3735-549: The dangers of such activities. While not directly attributable, many more deaths are resultant from dangerous emissions from coal plants. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), linked to exposure to fine particulates, SO 2 , and cigarette smoke among other factors, accounted for 26% of all deaths in China in 1988. A report by the World Bank in cooperation with the Chinese government found that about 750,000 people die prematurely in China each year from air pollution. Later,
3818-639: The end of their financial lifetime. To curtail the continued rapid construction of coal fired power plants, strong action was taken in April 2016 by the National Energy Administration (NEA), which issued a directive curbing construction in many parts of the country. This was followed up in January 2017 when the NEA canceled a further 103 coal power plants, eliminating 120 GW of future coal-fired capacity, despite
3901-615: The entire CO 2 emissions of Germany . China's largest open-pit coal mine is located in Haerwusu in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. It started production in 2008, and is operated by Shenhua Group . Its estimated coal output was forecast at 7 million tonnes in the fourth quarter of 2008. With a designed annual capacity of 20 million tonnes of crude coal, it will operate for approximately 79 years. Its coal reserves total about 1.73 billion tonnes. It
3984-442: The export of products made by forced labor, but also on the claims of detainees being held for political or religious violations , such as leadership of unregistered Chinese House Churches . Structural changes following the introduction of market reforms have reduced tax revenue to local governments, increasing pressure for local governments to supplement their income from elsewhere. At the same time, prisoners usually do not make
4067-491: The fields they worked on, smuggling vegetables back to their barracks. In Jiabiangou , Gansu , around 2,500 out of 3,000 prisoners died of starvation between 1960 and 1962, with some survivors resorting to cannibalism . Nutrition in the camps was a big problem, especially during the early 1950s through the 1960s, in the early years of the PRC (People's Republic of China). Before the CCP ( Chinese Communist Party ) took control, hunger
4150-407: The food to the rest of his group in large bowls on a cart. This often involves pushing the cart a great distance to the place where the others are working. Each day prisoners receive gruel, bread, and a watery vegetable soup made from the cheapest vegetables available. Some camps have reported two meals a day, while others allow three. Food is rationed according to rank and productive output, which
4233-466: The government allowed coal-fired power plants to defer tax payments. Trade policy was adjusted to permit the importation of a small amount of coal from Australia . The energy problems abated in a few weeks. One of the principal consumers of coal is the steel industry in China , which burns metallurgical coal . In Chinese cities, the domestic burning of coal is no longer permitted. In rural areas, coal can still be used by Chinese households, and
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#17328527481404316-429: The government asked the researchers to soften the conclusions. Many direct deaths happen in coal mining and processing. In 2007, 1,084 out of the 3,770 workers who died were from gas blasts. Small mines (comprising 90% of all mines) are known to have far higher death rates, and the government of China has banned new coal mines with a high gas danger and a capacity below 300,000 tons in an effort to reduce deaths
4399-552: The installation of a chimney and modernized bioenergy but need more support to make a larger difference. 2019 carbon emissions from coal in China are estimated at 7.24 billion tonnes CO 2 emissions , around 14% of the world total greenhouse gas emissions of around 50 billion tonnes. In 2021 the carbon price was about one-tenth of the EU carbon price. It is believed that a continued increase in coal power in China may undermine international initiatives to decrease carbon emissions, such as
4482-483: The last four coal-fired power and heating plants out of Beijing's municipal area, replacing them with gas-fired power plants , in an effort to improve air quality in the capital. The four plants, owned by Huaneng Power International , Datang International Power Generation Co Ltd, China Shenhua Energy and Beijing Jingneng Thermal Power Co Ltd, had a total power generating capacity of about 2.7 gigawatts (GW). All of them have been closed as of March 2019. It
4565-490: The late 1970s at the start of the Deng Xiaoping reforms (known as reform and opening ). In the 21st century, critics have said that Chinese prisons produce products for sale in foreign countries, with the profits going to the PRC government. Products include everything from green tea to industrial engines to coal dug from mines . According to James D. Seymour and Richard Anderson , who both teach at Chinese schools,
4648-405: The locale and its economic situation, the quality of clothing can vary significantly. Some prisoners may receive black or grey while others wear dark red or blue. Also depending on location, the clothing is available in different thicknesses. Commonly stamped on the uniforms are the Chinese characters for fan and lao gai meaning "criminal" and "reform through labor," respectively. Also issued to
4731-511: The mid-Deng-Jiang Era. Food distribution has varied much through time, similar to its variation across the "over 1,155 documented laogai" camps. One camp near Beijing distributes between 13.5 and 22.5 kg of food per person per month. This is about average. The food consists of sorghum and corn, which are ground into flour and made into bread or gruel. The prisoners of the Beijing camp also receive 3 ounces of cooking oil per month. Every 2 weeks,
4814-519: The most common, due to lack of vitamins. Other health problems caused by the lack of healthy food included severe diarrhea or constipation from the lack of oil and fiber. These two were often left untreated and, added to the continuous strain of 12 hours of manual labor, weakened the immune system. Eventually, death followed many of these conditions. Two diseases rampant among the populations of these camps were tuberculosis and hepatitis . Highly contagious, these were also often left untreated until it
4897-442: The north and northwest of the country. This poses a large logistical problem for supplying electricity to the more heavily populated coastal areas in the southeast. China is the largest coal producer in the world, with 3.84 billion tonnes in 2020 and China National Coal Association forecasting an increase in 2021. The coal production 1829 Mtoe in 2018 is more than the total aggregate of next nine top coal producers and 46.7% of
4980-545: The number of premature deaths due to indoor air pollution at 420,000 per year, which is even higher than due to outdoor air pollution, estimated at 300,000 deaths per year. The specific mechanisms for death cited have been respiratory illnesses , lung cancer , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), weakening of the immune system, and reduction in lung function. Measured pollution levels in homes using solid fuels generally exceeded China's IAQ air quality standards. Technologies exist to improve indoor air quality, notably
5063-573: The pace of new construction of coal plants and shifted to renewable, nuclear and natural gas sources. At the same time, coal consumption reached new heights in China with carbon dioxide emissions from coal-fired electricity production estimated to top 4.5 billion tonnes in 2022. Reuters noted in 2022, "China is set to delight and depress climate trackers in equal measure in 2022 by setting new global records in both clean power utilisation and coal-fired electricity emissions." Solar and wind-generated electricity surged by over 30% and 25% respectively during
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#17328527481405146-685: The period from January to October 2022 compared to the same period in 2021. Despite central government attempts to clamp down on construction and shifting demand in the market to renewable, nuclear and natural gas sources, 43 coal power units were announced in the first half of 2021 according to the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air in August 2021. In September 2021, China pledged to end financing of coal power plants abroad. A study by Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air in April 2022 stated at least 15 overseas coal power plants had been cancelled since
5229-461: The prisoners are a pair of shoes made of rubber or plastic. These minimums do not meet the needs of the prisoners, who must purchase underclothes, socks, hats, and jackets with their monthly earnings of 2.5–3 yuan (US$ 0.37–US$ 0.44 as of April 11, 2009). Jackets were rare in the Mao era and were commonly made from patches of old blankets rather than from original cloth. Washing clothes was also rare, but clothing supplies in prisons have improved since
5312-459: The prisoners receive "a special meal of pork broth soup and white-flour steamed buns". Important Chinese holidays, such as New Year's, National Day, and the Spring Festival, are celebrated with meat dumplings, an exception in an otherwise meatless diet. Food is distributed by one person per squad, which consists of about 10 people. This prisoner, called the zhiban or "duty prisoner," delivers
5395-457: The products made in laogai camps comprise an insignificant amount of mainland China 's export output and gross domestic product. They argue that the use of prison labor for manufacturing is not in itself a violation of human rights, and that most prisoners in Chinese prisons are serving time for what are generally regarded as crimes in the West . The West's criticism of the laogai is based not only on
5478-539: The region by 2012. Most of these fires were caused by bad mining practices combined with bad weather. 200 million yuan (US$ 29.3 million) has been budgeted to this effect. In 2003, the death rate per million tons of coal mined in China was 130 times higher than in the United States, 250 times higher than in Australia (open cast mines) and 10 times higher than the Russian Federation (underground mines). However
5561-607: The resistance of local authorities mindful of the need to create jobs. The decreasing rate of construction is due to the realization that too many power plants had been built and some existing plants were being used far below capacity. In 2020 over 40% of plants were estimated to be running at a net loss and new plants may become stranded assets . In 2021 some plants were reported close to bankruptcy due to being forbidden to raise electricity prices in line with high coal prices. As part of China's efforts to achieve its pledges of peak coal consumption by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060,
5644-405: The safety figures in the major state owned coal enterprises were significantly better. Even so, in 2007 China produced one third of the world's coal but had four fifths of coal fatalities. China's coal mining industry resorts to forced labor according to a 2014 U.S. Department of Labor report on child labor and forced labor around the world, and that these workers are all the more exposed to
5727-500: The softening of animal skins, and work in improperly run mining facilities where explosions and other accidents are a common occurrence. Career preparation has historically been used to justify forced labor prison systems around the world. In China, although this argument was used, career preparation was minimal until recently. Following release, the skills acquired within the Laogai prison (i.e. ditch-digging or manure-spreading) do not often lead to desirable employment. Inmates who entered
5810-403: The steel industry, revitalization efforts in the real estate sector, and favorable import conditions from Mongolia and Russia due to recent export duty waivers. 57% of energy consumption was from coal in 2020, and 49% for coal-fired power. The coal consumption was 1907 Mtoe in 2018 which is 50.2% of the global consumption. The National Development and Reform Commission , which determines
5893-426: The system as: Prisoners are roused from bed at 5:30 a.m., and at 6:00 a.m. the zhiban from the kitchen wheels in a cart with tubs of corn gruel and cornbread ... at 7:00 a.m. the company public security cadre (captain) comes in, gathers all the prisoners together, and authorizes any sick prisoners to remain in the barracks. Once at the worksite, the captain delegates production responsibilities ... At lunchtime
5976-491: The system from the 19(?)0s to the 1990s. Wu spent 19 years, from 1960 to 1979, as a prisoner in these camps, for having criticized the government while he was a young college student. After almost starving to death in the camps, he eventually moved to the United States as a visiting scholar in 1985. In 1992, Wu created the Laogai Research Foundation , a human rights NGO located in Washington, DC. In 2008, Wu opened
6059-514: The total global production. In 2011, seven Chinese coal mining companies produced 100 million tonnes of coal or more. These companies were Shenhua Group , China Coal Group , Shaanxi Coal and Chemical Industry , Shanxi Coking Coal Group , Datong Coal Mine Group , Jizhong Energy , and Shandong Energy . The largest metallurgical coal producer was Shanxi Coking Coal Group. In 2015, official statistics revealed that previous statistics had been systematically underestimated by 17%, corresponding to
6142-406: The whole cycle begins again. Quota filling was a big part of the inmates' lives in Laogai camps. Undershooting or overshooting the target productivity governs their quality of life. Not making the number may result in solitary confinement or loss of food privileges. Generally, food rations are cut by 10–20% if a worker fails to meet the standard. Some prisoners excel and are able to do more than what
6225-412: The world's cultures. However, the Chinese government considers Laogai to be effective in controlling prisoners and furthering China's economy. According to Mao Zedong, "The Laogai facilities are one of the violent component parts of the state machine. Laogai facilities of all levels are established as tools representing the interests of the proletariat and the people's masses and exercising dictatorship over
6308-405: Was "burnt through the province of Cathay" and pointed out that was used in bathhouses. Coal is the most abundant mineral resource in China by a large margin. China produces most of the thermal coal (both black and brown coal) it burns, but imports coking coal to make high quality steel. Inner Mongolia , Shanxi and Shaanxi are the main coal-producing provinces, and most coal is found in
6391-417: Was a bucket, and no furniture was provided. The prisoners slept on the floor in a space 30 cm wide, with 10 people per room. New prisoners were forced to sleep nearest to the latrine while more senior ones slept near the opposite wall. Baths and showers were very rare and often not mentioned at all in memoirs. The only form of washing was the use of a water basin, which was only slightly less rare. This
6474-429: Was a constant problem, and several mines were abandoned for that reason. Coal mines in China were as deep as those in Europe. In areas such as Shanxi with natural drainage, mines were as deep as 120 m. From Henan and Manchuria, mines had depths of 90 m or more. Coal consumption in traditional China was substantial but low on a per capita basis. Main coal demand came from industry. The earliest references to coal are in
6557-406: Was approved in the first half of 2021. Quotas force utility companies to buy coal power over cheaper renewable power. China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world and is the largest user of coal-derived electricity. Despite China (like other G20 countries) pledging in 2009 to end inefficient fossil fuel subsidies , as of 2020 there are direct subsidies and the main way coal power
6640-412: Was gradual until the late 11th century when a timber shortage in north China produced a fast-paced expansion in coal mining and consumption. In 1000 AD, Chinese mines were ahead of most mining advancements in the world. Coal mines in China faced similar problems to European ones. Both Chinese and European miners preferred to use drift mines sunk horizontally into the hillside for drainage of water. In
6723-420: Was ineffective because the entire squad used the same water. Basic essentials, such as a toothbrush and toothpaste, toilet paper, soap, and towels were not provided; prisoners had to spend their wages to acquire them. Prisoners were known to have spread manure, both human and animal, and been required to eat immediately without being able to wash their hands. The sleeping quarters were surrounded on all sides by
6806-505: Was rarely used to control prisoners. Early leaders of the CCP realized the power of withholding food from rebellious prisoners and, until recently, this practice was very common. Since the early 1990s, some camps in the coastal regions of Eastern China have improved the quality and amount of food. The living quarters, commonly referred to as barracks in most Laogai literature, were relatively primitive. Most had floors made of cement or wood, but some were of only straw and/or earth. The latrine
6889-568: Was too late. Each morning, the cadre of the camp decided who was sick enough to stay in the barracks and miss the day of work. Many prisoners were forced to work when they were ill. Mental illness used to be very common during the Mao era, when prisoners had to spend 2 hours each evening being indoctrinated. The brainwashing that occurred over the amount of time people were imprisoned could be so intense that they were driven to insanity and, in many cases, suicide . Forced labor defines Laogai prison camps, according to Harry Wu , who has characterized
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