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108-665: In the eighteenth century, the Spanish set up missions in the area and the Native Americans gradually lost their tribal identifications. After suffering severe population losses through infectious disease , the Spanish slave trade , and attacks by raiding Apache and Comanche , the La Junta Indians disappeared. Some intermarried with Spanish soldiers and their descendants became part of the Mestizo population of Mexico; others merged with

216-416: A jacal . The floors of the houses were usually dug about 18 inches below ground level, which helped protect against temperature extremes. Built on terraces above the river, their towns had populations averaging about 600 people. The people grew crops on the floodplains below their towns, planting in areas moistened by overflow from the rivers or near ephemeral streams. Agriculture under such conditions

324-456: A prion . The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is likely to be benign . The diagnosis is aided by the presenting symptoms in any individual with an infectious disease, yet it usually needs additional diagnostic techniques to confirm the suspicion. Some signs are specifically characteristic and indicative of

432-422: A runny nose . In certain cases, infectious diseases may be asymptomatic for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an asymptomatic carrier . An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in

540-425: A colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as Corynebacteria sp. and Viridans streptococci , prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with

648-414: A crossroads in the desert, they may have been different ethnic groups who spoke multiple languages. For instance, the nomadic Jumano were frequent visitors and trading partners; they may also have been part-time residents of the area and were known to be ethnically distinct from the full-time villagers. Given the limited amount of land suitable for agriculture and the austere environment, scholars estimate

756-469: A disease and are called pathognomonic signs; but these are rare. Not all infections are symptomatic. In children the presence of cyanosis , rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a petechial rash increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold. Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40 °C. Many diagnostic approaches depend on microbiological culture to isolate

864-399: A disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers , are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known if they are not already. Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically

972-512: A distinct people by 1750 due to infectious disease, the slave trade, and warfare, with remnants absorbed by the Apache or Comanche . Frederick Webb Hodge proposed that they merged into the Wichita people . Variant spellings of the name attested in Spanish documents include Jumana , Xumana , Humana , Umana , Xoman , Sumana , Chome , Humano , Juman , Xumano , and Xume . Spanish records from

1080-485: A generic term to refer to several different groups, as the references spanned peoples across a large geographic area. The Jumano have been identified in the historical record of present-day Texas. They combined and became a new people in a process of ethnogenesis , formed from refugees fleeing the effects of disease, Spanish missions, and Spanish slaving raids south of the Rio Grande. Cabeza de Vaca may have encountered

1188-602: A group of people he called Teyas at the headwaters of the Brazos River . Scholars have suggested that the Teyas were Apache, Wichita , or Jumano. American anthropologist Carroll Riley suggests that they were the nomadic relatives of the Pueblo villagers of Gran Quivira and the salines. Over the next two centuries, the people who became known as the Wichita were often referred to as Jumano in

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1296-423: A hospital stay. Lastly, a community-acquired infection is one in which the infection is acquired from a whole community. One manner of proving that a given disease is infectious, is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch ), which require that first, the infectious agent be identifiable only in patients who have the disease, and not in healthy controls, and second, that patients who contract

1404-524: A host with depressed resistance ( immunodeficiency ) or if they have unusual access to the inside of the body (for example, via trauma ). Opportunistic infection may be caused by microbes ordinarily in contact with the host, such as pathogenic bacteria or fungi in the gastrointestinal or the upper respiratory tract , and they may also result from (otherwise innocuous) microbes acquired from other hosts (as in Clostridioides difficile colitis ) or from

1512-502: A host. As bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms, it can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection. Distinguishing the two is important, since viral infections cannot be cured by antibiotics whereas bacterial infections can. There is a general chain of events that applies to infections, sometimes called the chain of infection or transmission chain . The chain of events involves several steps – which include

1620-434: A link between virulence and transmissibility. Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts , cutaneous abscesses , respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about

1728-610: A new threat from the Comanche , who had moved south from Colorado . Some La Junta Indians were forcibly transported to work in the silver mines of Parral; others intermarried with Spanish soldiers and their descendants became part of the Mestizo population; and still others joined their former enemies, the Apache and the Comanche. Infectious disease An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens , their multiplication, and

1836-518: A number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as Giemsa stain or crystal violet allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures

1944-404: A particular pathogen at all (no matter how little) but also is often used in a sense implying a clinically apparent infection (in other words, a case of infectious disease). This fact occasionally creates some ambiguity or prompts some usage discussion; to get around this it is common for health professionals to speak of colonization (rather than infection ) when they mean that some of

2052-493: A pathogen from the appropriate clinical specimen. In a microbial culture, a growth medium is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Many pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient agar , a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into

2160-429: A pathogen. A fluorescence microscope is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly. Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with

2268-432: A patient's blood or other body fluids for antigens or antibodies that indicate presence of a specific pathogen that the doctor suspects. Other techniques (such as X-rays , CAT scans , PET scans or NMR ) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone abscess or a spongiform encephalopathy produced by

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2376-470: A persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise. Persistent infections cause millions of deaths globally each year. Chronic infections by parasites account for a high morbidity and mortality in many underdeveloped countries. For infecting organisms to survive and repeat

2484-454: A population of 3,000 or 4,000 people at La Junta. But, the Spanish explorer Antonio de Espejo estimated the area's population at more than 10,000. The modern scholar Howard G. Applegate has calculated that the resources were sufficient to support such a population, but others disagree. The population during the year probably varied, as many of the Indians were semi-nomadic. The Spanish referred to

2592-403: A result of an infectious disease with immunosuppressive activity (such as with measles , malaria or HIV disease ). Primary pathogens may also cause more severe disease in a host with depressed resistance than would normally occur in an immunosufficient host. While a primary infection can practically be viewed as the root cause of an individual's current health problem, a secondary infection

2700-471: A result of their presence or activity within the normal, healthy host, and their intrinsic virulence (the severity of the disease they cause) is, in part, a necessary consequence of their need to reproduce and spread. Many of the most common primary pathogens of humans only infect humans, however, many serious diseases are caused by organisms acquired from the environment or that infect non-human hosts. Opportunistic pathogens can cause an infectious disease in

2808-411: A severe illness affecting the brain, remain undiagnosed, despite extensive testing using the standard of care ( microbiological culture ) and state-of-the-art clinical laboratory methods. Metagenomic sequencing-based diagnostic tests are currently being developed for clinical use and show promise as a sensitive, specific, and rapid way to diagnose infection using a single all-encompassing test. This test

2916-417: A specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS , the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring

3024-432: A visible mound on the surface of the plate called a colony , which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its strain ), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit

3132-509: Is a sequela or complication of that root cause. For example, an infection due to a burn or penetrating trauma (the root cause) is a secondary infection. Primary pathogens often cause primary infection and often cause secondary infection. Usually, opportunistic infections are viewed as secondary infections (because immunodeficiency or injury was the predisposing factor). Other types of infection consist of mixed, iatrogenic , nosocomial , and community-acquired infection. A mixed infection

3240-500: Is active but does not produce noticeable symptoms may be called inapparent, silent, subclinical , or occult . An infection that is inactive or dormant is called a latent infection . An example of a latent bacterial infection is latent tuberculosis . Some viral infections can also be latent, examples of latent viral infections are any of those from the Herpesviridae family. The word infection can denote any presence of

3348-423: Is an infection that is caused by two or more pathogens. An example of this is appendicitis , which is caused by Bacteroides fragilis and Escherichia coli . The second is an iatrogenic infection. This type of infection is one that is transmitted from a health care worker to a patient. A nosocomial infection is also one that occurs in a health care setting. Nosocomial infections are those that are acquired during

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3456-422: Is an initial site of infection from which organisms travel via the bloodstream to another area of the body. Among the many varieties of microorganisms , relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen depend upon

3564-510: Is currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases ( tetanus and botulism ). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent neurotoxins . A significant proliferation of

3672-455: Is in contrast to typical agricultural cultures in which people received the majority of nutrition from cultivated crops. Little of their language, or languages, was recorded; scholars have not agreed on the language of the La Junta people. The most common guess is that they spoke Uto-Aztecan , but Kiowa–Tanoan and Athapaskan ( Apache ) have also been suggested. As the La Junta people lived at

3780-503: Is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon , and an example of the latter are the various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin . Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and

3888-467: Is not an enzyme and has no metabolic function. Serological methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon

3996-425: Is referred to as infectious diseases . Infections are caused by infectious agents ( pathogens ) including: The signs and symptoms of an infection depend on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as fatigue , loss of appetite, weight loss, fevers , night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin rashes , coughing , or

4104-404: Is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those with compromised or weakened immune systems have an increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections . Entrance to the host at host–pathogen interface , generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices like

4212-552: Is risky; the people also depended on gathering wild foods such as mesquite, prickly pears, and agaves. They caught catfish in the rivers. Some of the La Junta Indians journeyed to the Great Plains 150 or more miles northeast to hunt buffalo or trade for buffalo meat with the nomadic Jumano. The Spanish found the Rio Grande Valley well-populated north to present-day El Paso, Texas . Beyond there, they encountered no people until

4320-501: Is similar to current PCR tests; however, an untargeted whole genome amplification is used rather than primers for a specific infectious agent. This amplification step is followed by next-generation sequencing or third-generation sequencing , alignment comparisons , and taxonomic classification using large databases of thousands of pathogen and commensal reference genomes . Simultaneously, antimicrobial resistance genes within pathogen and plasmid genomes are sequenced and aligned to

4428-439: Is that microbial colonization is very common even in environments that humans think of as being nearly sterile . Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds can be classified as infected and how much risk of progression exists. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in

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4536-577: Is used in the taxonomic classification of microbes as well. Two methods, the Gram stain and the acid-fast stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups Bacillota and Actinomycetota , both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinomycetota genera Mycobacterium and Nocardia . Biochemical tests used in

4644-675: The Big Bend area in the mountain and basin region. Spanish explorers first recorded encounters with the Jumano in 1581. Later expeditions noted them in a broad area of the Southwest and the Southern Plains . The last historical reference was in a 19th-century oral history , but their population had already declined by the early 18th century. Scholars have generally argued that the Jumanos disappeared as

4752-588: The Journal of the American Medical Association 's "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection. The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11–20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64–0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64–0.88). Disease can arise if

4860-685: The Julimes , Tobosos , and Conchos living progressively further south along the Conchos River from its intersection with the Rio Grande. The Jumano of the late 17th century sought an alliance with the Spanish. They were under pressure from the Lipan Apache and Mescalero Apache advancing from the north, and drought had adversely affected the agricultural yields and the buffalo herds in their territory. The Jumano asked for Christian missions to be established in their territory; they tried to mediate between

4968-610: The Pueblo settlements fifteen days' travel upriver from El Paso. Above La Junta they encountered peoples later called the Suma and Manso Indians . They seem to have been less agricultural and more nomadic than the people of La Junta. Based on the development of their weapons and shields, warfare between the La Junta Indians and their neighbors seemed common. Spanish explorers described composite bows strengthened with buffalo sinews and "excellent shields" of buffalo hide. Slave raids at La Junta by

5076-468: The oral cavity , nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids. Wound colonization refers to non-replicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue

5184-447: The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids to cause

5292-403: The "strep test", they can be inexpensive. Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as immunoassays . Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro-magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of

5400-511: The 16th to the 18th centuries frequently refer to the Jumano Indians, and the French mentioned them as present in areas in eastern Texas, as well. During the last decades of the 17th century, they were noted as traders and political leaders in the Southwest. Contemporary scholars are uncertain whether the Jumano were a single people organized into discrete bands, or whether the Spanish used Jumano as

5508-461: The 17th century, the accumulated losses due to Eurasian infectious diseases , and Apache and Spanish raids caused the population to diminish. In 1683, Juan Sabeata , a Jumano, re-ignited Spanish interest in La Junta. He appealed to the governor in El Paso to send priests to the area, saying that the Indians wanted to become Christian. Sabeata also asked the Spanish to help the La Junta to defend against

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5616-546: The Apache and Comanche; still others departed to work on Spanish haciendas and in silver mines. The Rio Grande and the Conchos River unite near the present-day cities of Presidio, Texas , and Ojinaga, Mexico . The Conchos is more than twice as large as the Rio Grande, but below the confluence the river is known as the Rio Grande. The area was named La Junta by Spanish explorers for the confluence, or junction, of rivers. A mile-wide floodplain extends from La Junta 35 miles upstream to Ruidosa and 18 miles downstream to Redford on

5724-410: The Apache. Four priests and several soldiers were assigned to La Junta, arriving to find that the Indians had already built thatched-roof churches for them. The Spanish appointed Sabeata as governor and La Junta became temporarily prominent as a regional trade center, but Sabeata could not gain Spanish assistance to combat the Apache. When the Indians all over northern Mexico revolted in 1689 to protest

5832-471: The Indians at La Junta, but whether they were full-time bison -hunting nomads, or lived part of each year in La Junta is uncertain. Charles Kelley has suggested that the sedentary people living at La Junta were Patarabueye and the bison hunters were Jumano. In this scenario, the nomadic Jumano maintained close relations—and possibly spoke a similar language—with the people living at La Junta, but were distinct from them. From their recognized homeland between

5940-539: The Jumano associated with the Pueblo villages were the ancestors of the Kiowa , who are also Tanoan-language speakers. The Tompiro towns were abandoned by 1672, probably due to fatalities from epidemics of introduced European diseases, Apache raids, and burdensome Spanish levies of food and labor. Scholars have suggested that a fourth group of people in Texas may have been Jumano. In 1541, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado encountered

6048-535: The Jumano in 1535 near La Junta , the junction of the Conchos River and Rio Grande at Presidio, Texas . He describes his visit to the "people of the cows" in one of the towns, but these may have been the settled Indians of La Junta. They were people "with the best bodies that we saw and the greatest liveliness." He described their cooking method, in which they dropped hot stones into prepared gourds to cook their food, rather cooking in pottery. Their cooking technique

6156-806: The Jumano includes multiple ethnic groups from diverse regions of Texas. They combined and became a new people in a process of ethnogenesis, formed from refugees fleeing the effects of disease, Spanish missions , and Spanish slaving raids south of the Rio Grande. In the 16th century when the Spanish came to the Tompiro Pueblos of New Mexico, the Tompiro traded extensively with the Jumano. Historical records indicate Franciscan missionaries, including Juan de Salas , were surprised when Jumanos approached them requesting baptism. The Jumanos stated that they received instruction from "a lady in blue", believed to be Sister Mary of Jesus of Ágreda . Scholars estimate that in 1580,

6264-512: The Jumano were one group. Among the other names the Spanish used for Indian groups near La Junta were the Cabris, Julimes , Passaguates, Patarabueyes, Amotomancos, Otomacos, Cholomes , Abriaches, and Caguates. A member of Espejo's expedition identified some bison-hunters whom they encountered on the Pecos River near Pecos, Texas as being Jumano. The hunters were known to have close relations with

6372-470: The Mogollon culture, may have been a different linguistic and ethnic group. Research on bones and teeth indicates that the La Junta people continued to be dependent on hunting and gathering even after they became settled villagers and adopted agriculture. Researchers were surprised to learn that the peoples received less than 25 percent of their subsistence from maize; the rest came from game and wild foods. This

6480-557: The Pecos and Concho Rivers in Texas, the Jumano traveled widely to trade meat and skins to the Patarabueye and other Indians in exchange for agricultural products. The Spanish identified as Humanas or Ximenas the people associated with the Tompiro Pueblos of the salinas , an area about 50 miles east of the Rio Grande on the border of the Great Plains. The pueblo later called Gran Quivira

6588-482: The Rio Grande; it extends up the Rio Conchos 30 miles to Cuchillo Parado. The floodplain supports a thick growth of reeds, mesquite, willows, and groves of cottonwood trees. Two terraces rise 20 and 60 feet above the floodplain. Only desert vegetation grows on the terraces. The La Junta Indians lived on the terraces and used the floodplain for agriculture, fishing, hunting, and gathering wild foods. Rugged mountains ring

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6696-564: The Spanish and other tribes. The Spanish visited them in the homeland on the Concho River in 1629, 1650, and 1654. In 1654, the Spanish of the Diego de Guadalajara expedition aided the Jumano in a battle against the Cuitaos (probably the Wichita ) and gained a rich harvest of bison skins. In the 1680s, the Jumano chief Juan Sabeata was prominent in forging trade and religious ties with the Spanish. In

6804-482: The Spanish may have begun as early as 1563; at about the same time that Apache Indians began raiding from the north. The Spanish transported captured La Junta Indians to work as laborers in the silver mines of Parral, Chihuahua . After the Spanish found shorter routes to travel north to their colonies in New Mexico, they bypassed La Junta. It became a quiet backwater of little interest except to slavers and priests. In

6912-534: The Spanish referred to the two tribes as the Apache Jumanos. By 1750, the Jumano had nearly disappeared from the historical record as a distinct people. They appeared to have been absorbed by bands of Lipan and Mescalero Apache, Caddo, and Wichita; died of infectious diseases, or become detribalized when living at Spanish missions in Central Texas. If Flores' speculation is correct, they may have migrated north to

7020-435: The ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However, a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians, therefore, classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses – either as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens . Primary pathogens cause disease as

7128-458: The basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase , and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic., of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein hemagglutinin to bind red blood cells together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin

7236-463: The case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque". Eukaryotic parasites may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent. In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make

7344-472: The causative agent, Trypanosoma cruzi in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case, xenodiagnosis involves the use of the vector of the Chagas agent T. cruzi , an uninfected triatomine bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of T. cruzi within its gut. Another principal tool in

7452-436: The cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by medical history and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve

7560-431: The composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of HIV in specific communities permitted the advancement of hypotheses as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing

7668-432: The continuing slave trade , the missions in La Junta were closed. The Spanish tried to reestablish a foothold there; a party visited in 1715, when they found the population had declined to 2,100. They did not build a fort and mission until 1760. By this time the La Junta Indians had further declined in number. Many of the survivors soon left the area, discouraged by the harshness of Spanish rule, continuing Apache raids, and

7776-460: The cows" and said they were "people with the best bodies that we saw and the greatest liveliness." These were likely the Jumano, buffalo-hunting Indians who lived further north and east along the Pecos and Concho rivers, and traded and wintered in the La Junta region. Cabeza de Vaca described the area as well populated and agricultural, although with little good land. The Indians had not planted corn for

7884-484: The culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype. Many infectious organisms are identified without culture and microscopy. This is especially true for viruses, which cannot grow in culture. For some suspected pathogens, doctors may conduct tests that examine

7992-400: The destruction of the virus. Instrumentation can be used to read extremely small signals created by secondary reactions linked to the antibody – antigen binding. Instrumentation can control sampling, reagent use, reaction times, signal detection, calculation of results, and data management to yield a cost-effective automated process for diagnosis of infectious disease. Technologies based upon

8100-428: The diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy . Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound light microscope , or with instruments as complex as an electron microscope . Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under

8208-445: The environment as a result of traumatic introduction (as in surgical wound infections or compound fractures ). An opportunistic disease requires impairment of host defenses, which may occur as a result of genetic defects (such as chronic granulomatous disease ), exposure to antimicrobial drugs or immunosuppressive chemicals (as might occur following poisoning or cancer chemotherapy ), exposure to ionizing radiation , or as

8316-426: The expression of symptoms is often atypical, making a clinical diagnosis based on presentation more difficult. Thirdly, diagnostic methods that rely on the detection of antibodies are more likely to fail. A rapid, sensitive, specific, and untargeted test for all known human pathogens that detects the presence of the organism's DNA rather than antibodies is therefore highly desirable. There is usually an indication for

8424-403: The growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of viruses : the medium, in this case, being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In

8532-472: The historical record. Scholars agree that, at a minimum, the Jumanos comprised the nomadic bison-hunting people of the Pecos and Concho River valleys of Texas. Since as nomads and traders, they were often found far from their homeland, this may account for the Spanish having referred to a variety of Indians of different cultures and locations as Jumano. In his book The Indian Southwest: 1580-1830: Ethnogenesis and Reinvention (1999), Gary Anderson proposes that

8640-484: The host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host. Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis . Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with polio develop disease. On

8748-598: The host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing . The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include: As an example, several staphylococcal species remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally sterile space, such as in the capsule of a joint or the peritoneum , multiply without resistance and cause harm. An interesting fact that gas chromatography–mass spectrometry , 16S ribosomal RNA analysis, omics , and other advanced technologies have made more apparent to humans in recent decades

8856-452: The houses at La Junta resembled those of the Mexicans ... The natives built them square. They put up forked posts and in those they place rounded timbers the thickness of a man's thigh. Then they add stakes and plaster them with mud. Close to the houses they have granaries built of willow ... where they keep their provisions and harvest of mesquite and other things. This type of house is called

8964-532: The identification of infectious agents include the detection of metabolic or enzymatic products characteristic of a particular infectious agent. Since bacteria ferment carbohydrates in patterns characteristic of their genus and species , the detection of fermentation products is commonly used in bacterial identification. Acids , alcohols and gases are usually detected in these tests when bacteria are grown in selective liquid or solid media. The isolation of enzymes from infected tissue can also provide

9072-413: The infection cycle in other hosts, they (or their progeny) must leave an existing reservoir and cause infection elsewhere. Infection transmission can take place via many potential routes: The relationship between virulence versus transmissibility is complex; with studies have shown that there were no clear relationship between the two. There is still a small number of evidence that partially suggests

9180-457: The infectious agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that Mycobacteria species cause tuberculosis . Jumano Indians The Jumanos were a tribe or several tribes, who inhabited a large area of western Texas , New Mexico , and northern Mexico , especially near the Junta de los Rios region with its large settled Indigenous population. They lived in

9288-399: The infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria. Given the wide range of bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal, and helminthic pathogens that cause debilitating and life-threatening illnesses, the ability to quickly identify the cause of infection is important yet often challenging. For example, more than half of cases of encephalitis ,

9396-402: The infectious agent, reservoir, entering a susceptible host, exit and transmission to new hosts. Each of the links must be present in a chronological order for an infection to develop. Understanding these steps helps health care workers target the infection and prevent it from occurring in the first place. Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This

9504-460: The latter part of the 17th century, the colonists seem to have lost interest in the Jumano, transferring their priorities to the Caddo of east Texas. The Caddo were more numerous and of greater concern to the Spanish because the French were trying to establish a trading foothold among them. In the early 18th century, the Jumano tried to create an alliance with their historical enemies the Apache. By 1729,

9612-425: The light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on

9720-479: The men were "handsome" and the women "beautiful," although "naked and barbarous people." The Indians lived in low, flat-roofed houses; grew corn, squash and beans; and hunted and fished along the river. They gave the Spaniards well-tanned deer and buffalo skins. The expeditions' descriptions of La Junta indicated a more settled agricultural people than those described 50 years earlier by Cabeza de Vaca. They wrote that

9828-531: The number of new infections. The specific serological diagnostic identification, and later genotypic or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the temporal and geographical origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with anti-retroviral drugs . Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before

9936-455: The onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large. Symptomatic infections are apparent and clinical , whereas an infection that

10044-514: The other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The prion causing mad cow disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease invariably kills all animals and people that are infected. Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some viruses that can maintain

10152-539: The pathogens are present but that no clinically apparent infection (no disease) is present. Different terms are used to describe how and where infections present over time. In an acute infection, symptoms develop rapidly; its course can either be rapid or protracted. In chronic infection, symptoms usually develop gradually over weeks or months and are slow to resolve. In subacute infections, symptoms take longer to develop than in acute infections but arise more quickly than those of chronic infections. A focal infection

10260-477: The people of La Junta may have been indigenous to the area. Between 1450 and 1500 many of the Jornada Mogollon settlements in western Texas were abandoned, possibly because of drought that made agriculture infeasible. The inhabitants possibly reverted to a hunter-gatherer culture that has left few traces in the archaeological record. The settlements at La Junta apparently survived the drought, although changes in

10368-461: The population of Native Americans, partially or wholly Jumano, living along the Rio Grande and the Pecos River was somewhere between 20,000 and 30,000. Other people may have been identified as part of the Jumano people, or at least closely associated with them, living further east in Texas at this time. Other groups closely associated with the Jumano and who at times have been identified as Jumano were

10476-470: The previous two years because of drought. Cabeza De Vaca noted that they put hot stones in gourds to cook their food. They were not described as using pottery; like other nomadic peoples, they found it too heavy to be easily carried. (The Indians did not adopt horses from the Spanish until the 17th century.) In the 1580s, two small Spanish expeditions, that of Chamuscado and Rodriguez and later Antonio de Espejo , passed through La Junta. They reported that

10584-799: The reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease , also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease , is an illness resulting from an infection. Infections can be caused by a wide range of pathogens , most prominently bacteria and viruses . Hosts can fight infections using their immune systems . Mammalian hosts react to infections with an innate response, often involving inflammation , followed by an adaptive response. Specific medications used to treat infections include antibiotics , antivirals , antifungals , antiprotozoals , and antihelminthics . Infectious diseases resulted in 9.2 million deaths in 2013 (about 17% of all deaths). The branch of medicine that focuses on infections

10692-599: The river valley and terraces. La Junta is near the center of the Chihuahua Desert and receives an average of 10.8 inches (270 mm) of precipitation annually. Lengthy droughts are common. Summers are very hot and winters are mild, although freezes are frequent. The abundant water, plant, and animal life attracted indigenous peoples to the La Junta region for thousands of years. Settled village life, with agriculture supplementing traditional hunting and gathering, began by 1200 A.D. Archaeologists suggest that La Junta

10800-457: The target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow

10908-559: The taxonomically classified pathogen genomes to generate an antimicrobial resistance profile – analogous to antibiotic sensitivity testing – to facilitate antimicrobial stewardship and allow for the optimization of treatment using the most effective drugs for a patient's infection. Metagenomic sequencing could prove especially useful for diagnosis when the patient is immunocompromised . An ever-wider array of infectious agents can cause serious harm to individuals with immunosuppression, so clinical screening must often be broader. Additionally,

11016-503: The test. For example, " Strep throat " is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, S. pyogenes , that is retrieved from a patient's throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require refrigeration . Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with

11124-510: The types of dwellings occurred and distinctive, locally produced pottery became common—or more common. The architectural styles of the houses and mortuary practices differ from the Mogollon. Most of the pottery at La Junta from prehistoric times is Jornada Mogollon, but archeologists believe that it was imported by trading rather than locally produced. La Junta eventually produced its own distinct style of pottery, although perhaps not until about 1500 A.D. The La Junta people, although influenced by

11232-411: The use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in embryonated eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent. Chagas disease is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of

11340-428: The various peoples at La Junta as Amotomancos, Otomoacos, Abriaches, Julimes , and Patarabueyes. They were sometimes collectively called Jumano, although that name may more properly apply to the nomadic buffalo hunters who also frequented La Junta. The Spanish castaway Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca probably passed through or near La Junta in 1535 on his way to a Spanish settlement. He reported encountering "the people of

11448-430: Was common among the nomads of the Great Plains , for whom pottery was too fragile to be transported. For this reason, scholars think he may have been describing the semi-nomadic Jumano. The Spanish explorer Antonio de Espejo first used the term Jumano in 1582, to refer to agricultural peoples living at La Junta. This area was a trade crossroads and seems to have attracted numerous Indians of different tribes, of which

11556-618: Was settled as an expansion southeastward of the Jornada Mogollon culture and people who lived around present-day El Paso, Texas , 200 miles up the Rio Grande. It may also have been influenced by Casas Grandes , a notable prehistoric Indian civilization of the late 14th century located 200 miles west in present-day Mexico. Its people built complex communities with multi-story buildings and used highly developed irrigation systems to support agriculture. Based on recent research of architectural styles and mortuary practices, scholars believe that

11664-402: Was the largest of several Jumano towns. This location enabled trading with the buffalo-hunting Indians of the Great Plains. The Jumano also mined extensive salt deposits, for which the Spanish named the region salinas . They traded salt for agricultural produce. The people living in the Tompiro pueblos have been identified as speaking a Tanoan language. The historian Dan Flores has suggested that

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