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88-622: The official site of the town dates the history of Kowary dates to 1148 when semi-legendary miner Laurentius Angelus mined iron ore in the location on the behalf of Polish duke Bolesław IV the Curly , ten years later on the orders of the Polish ruler a mining settlement was founded in the area, the official page of the town also states that the Kowary miners took part in Battle of Legnica in 1241. Other possible date of

176-427: A ban on sexual relations between Germans and foreign workers . Repeated efforts were made to propagate Volkstum ('racial consciousness'), to prevent such relations. Pamphlets, for instance, instructed all German women to avoid physical contact with any foreign workers brought to Germany as a danger to their blood. Women who disobeyed were imprisoned although executions also took place. Even fraternization with

264-516: A 33% to 40% recovery of magnetite by weight, to produce a concentrate grading in excess of 64% iron by weight. The typical magnetite iron ore concentrate has less than 0.1% phosphorus , 3–7% silica , and less than 3% aluminium . As of 2019, magnetite iron ore is mined in Minnesota and Michigan in the United States , eastern Canada , and northern Sweden . Magnetite-bearing banded iron formation

352-684: A benchmark to be followed by the rest of the industry. Singapore Mercantile Exchange (SMX) has launched the world's first global iron ore futures contract, based on the Metal Bulletin Iron Ore Index (MBIOI) which uses daily price data from a broad spectrum of industry participants and independent Chinese steel consultancy and data provider Shanghai Steelhome's widespread contact base of steel producers and iron ore traders across China. The futures contract has seen monthly volumes over 1,500,000 t (1,500,000 long tons; 1,700,000 short tons) after eight months of trading. This move follows

440-748: A blast furnace more efficient. Others are added because they make the iron more fluid, harder, or give it some other desirable quality. The choice of ore, fuel, and flux determines how the slag behaves and the operational characteristics of the iron produced. Ideally, iron ore contains only iron and oxygen. In reality, this is rarely the case. Typically, iron ore contains a host of elements which are often unwanted in modern steel. Forced labour under German rule during World War II The use of slave and forced labour in Nazi Germany ( German : Zwangsarbeit ) and throughout German-occupied Europe during World War II took place on an unprecedented scale. It

528-721: A direct result of forced labour under the Nazis. After the invasion of Poland , Polish Jews over the age of 12 and Poles over the age of 12 living in the General Government territory were subject to forced labor. Historian Jan Gross estimates that "no more than 15 percent" of Polish workers volunteered to go to work in Germany. In 1942, all non-Germans living in the General Government were subject to forced labor. The largest number of labour camps held civilians forcibly abducted in

616-403: A forced labour fund paid out more than €4.37   billion to close to 1.7   million of then-living victims around the world (one-off payments of between €2,500 and €7,500). German Chancellor Angela Merkel stated in 2007 that "Many former forced labourers have finally received the promised humanitarian aid"; she also conceded that before the fund was established nothing had gone directly to

704-681: A huge range of engineering projects both in pre- World War II Germany , and in occupied Europe from France to Russia. Todt became notorious for using forced labour . Most so-called "volunteer" Soviet POW workers were assigned to the Organisation Todt. The history of the organization falls into three main phases: Millions of Jews were forced labourers in ghettos , before they were shipped off to extermination camps . The Nazis also operated concentration camps , some of which provided free forced labour for industrial and other jobs while others existed solely to exterminate their inmates . To mislead

792-424: A premium price. Due to the high density of hematite relative to associated silicate gangue, hematite beneficiation usually involves a combination of beneficiation techniques. One method relies on passing the finely-crushed ore over a slurry containing magnetite or other agent such as ferrosilicon which increases its density. When the density of the slurry is properly calibrated, the hematite will sink and

880-453: A relatively low-grade ore, they are also inexpensive to collect, as they do not have to be mined. Because of this, companies such as Magnetation have started reclamation projects where they use iron ore tailings as a source of metallic iron. The two main methods of recycling iron from iron ore tailings are magnetizing roasting and direct reduction. Magnetizing roasting uses temperatures between 700 and 900 °C (1,292 and 1,652 °F) for

968-600: A source of iron ore. Prior to the industrial revolution, most iron was obtained from widely-available goethite or bog ore , for example, during the American Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars . Historically, much of the iron ore utilized by industrialized societies has been mined from predominantly hematite deposits with grades of around 70% Fe. These deposits are commonly referred to as "direct shipping ores" or "natural ores". Increasing iron ore demand, coupled with

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1056-597: A switch to index-based quarterly pricing by the world's three largest iron ore miners— Vale , Rio Tinto , and BHP —in early 2010, breaking a 40-year tradition of benchmark annual pricing. Iron is the most abundant element on earth but not in the crust. The extent of the accessible iron ore reserves is not known, though Lester Brown of the Worldwatch Institute suggested in 2006 that iron ore could run out within 64 years (that is, by 2070), based on 2% growth in demand per year. Geoscience Australia calculates that

1144-418: A time of under 1 hour to produce an iron concentrate (Fe 3 O 4 ) to be used for iron smelting. For magnetizing roasting, it is important to have a reducing atmosphere to prevent oxidization and the formation of Fe 2 O 3 because it is harder to separate as it is less magnetic. Direct reduction uses hotter temperatures of over 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) and longer times of 2–5 hours. Direct reduction

1232-655: A typically titanium -bearing magnetite, often with vanadium . These ores form a niche market, with specialty smelters used to recover the iron, titanium, and vanadium. These ores are beneficiated essentially similarly to banded iron formation ores, but usually are more easily upgraded via crushing and screening . The typical titanomagnetite concentrate grades 57% Fe, 12% Ti, and 0.5% V 2 O 5 . For every one ton of iron ore concentrate produced, approximately 2.5–3.0 tons of iron ore tailings will be discharged. Statistics show that there are 130 million tons of iron ore tailings discharged every year. If, for example,

1320-632: A value of $ 2.3 billion. 46% of Canada's iron ore comes from the Iron Ore Company of Canada mine, in Labrador City , Newfoundland , with secondary sources including the Mary River Mine in Nunavut . According to the U.S. Geological Survey's 2021 Report on iron ore, India is estimated to produce 59,000,000 t (58,000,000 long tons; 65,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in 2020, placing it as

1408-742: Is twinned with: Iron ore Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow, or deep purple to rusty red. The iron is usually found in the form of magnetite ( Fe 3 O 4 , 72.4% Fe), hematite ( Fe 2 O 3 , 69.9% Fe), goethite ( FeO(OH) , 62.9% Fe), limonite ( FeO(OH)·n(H 2 O) , 55% Fe), or siderite ( FeCO 3 , 48.2% Fe). Ores containing very high quantities of hematite or magnetite, typically greater than about 60% iron, are known as natural ore or direct shipping ore , and can be fed directly into iron-making blast furnaces . Iron ore

1496-511: Is a high-volume, low-margin business, as the value of iron is significantly lower than base metals. It is highly capital intensive, and requires significant investment in infrastructure such as rail in order to transport the ore from the mine to a freight ship. For these reasons, iron ore production is concentrated in the hands of a few major players. World production averages 2,000,000,000 t (2.0 × 10 long tons; 2.2 × 10 short tons) of raw ore annually. The world's largest producer of iron ore

1584-428: Is expected to rise by a CAGR of 2% between 2023 and 2027, and industry analyst Fitch Solutions forecasted in 2021 that Brazil's annual production will reach 592,000,000 t (583,000,000 long tons; 653,000,000 short tons) by 2030. In 2017, Canadian iron ore mines produced 49,000,000 t (48,000,000 long tons; 54,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in concentrate pellets and 13.6 million tons of crude steel. Of

1672-510: Is followed by Japan and Korea, which consume a significant amount of raw iron ore and metallurgical coal . In 2006, China produced 588,000,000 t (579,000,000 long tons; 648,000,000 short tons) of iron ore, with an annual growth of 38%. Over the last 40 years, iron ore prices have been decided in closed-door negotiations between the small handful of miners and steelmakers which dominate both spot and contract markets. Until 2006, prices were determined in annual benchmark negotiations between

1760-586: Is in the iron ranges around Lake Superior . These iron ranges occur in Minnesota and Michigan, which combined accounted for 93% of the usable iron ore produced in the United States in 2014. Seven of the nine operational open pit mines in the United States are located in Minnesota as well as two of the three tailings reclamation operations. The other two active open pit mines were located in Michigan . In 2016, one of

1848-693: Is mined extensively in Brazil as of 2019, which exports significant quantities to Asia , and there is a nascent and large magnetite iron ore industry in Australia . Direct-shipping iron ore (DSO) deposits (typically composed of hematite ) are currently exploited on all continents except Antarctica , with the largest intensity in South America , Australia, and Asia. Most large hematite iron ore deposits are sourced from altered banded iron formations and (rarely) igneous accumulations. DSO deposits are typically rarer than

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1936-456: Is the raw material used to make pig iron , which is one of the main raw materials to make steel —98% of the mined iron ore is used to make steel. In 2011 the Financial Times quoted Christopher LaFemina, mining analyst at Barclays Capital, saying that iron ore is "more integral to the global economy than any other commodity, except perhaps oil ". Metallic iron is virtually unknown on

2024-476: Is the Brazilian mining corporation Vale , followed by Australian companies Rio Tinto Group and BHP . A further Australian supplier, Fortescue Metals Group Ltd, has helped bring Australia's production to first in the world. The seaborne trade in iron ore—that is, iron ore to be shipped to other countries—was 849,000,000 t (836,000,000 long tons; 936,000,000 short tons) in 2004. Australia and Brazil dominate

2112-425: Is used to produce sponge iron (Fe) to be used for steel-making. Direct reduction requires more energy, as the temperatures are higher and the time is longer and it requires more reducing agent than magnetizing roasting. Lower-grade sources of iron ore generally require beneficiation , using techniques like crushing, milling , gravity or heavy media separation , screening, and silica froth flotation to improve

2200-475: The Reichskreditkassen shall be deferred until the final settlement of the problem of reparations. To this day, there are arguments that such settlement has never been fully carried out. German post-war development has been greatly aided, while the development of victim countries has stalled. A prominent example of a group which received almost no compensation is the Polish forced labourers. According to

2288-878: The Chichester Range , the Hamersley Range and Koolyanobbing , Western Australia . Other types of ore are coming to the fore recently, such as oxidised ferruginous hardcaps, for instance laterite iron ore deposits near Lake Argyle in Western Australia. The total recoverable reserves of iron ore in India are about 9,602,000,000 t (9.450 × 10 long tons; 1.0584 × 10 short tons) of hematite and 3,408,000,000 t (3.354 × 10 long tons; 3.757 × 10 short tons) of magnetite . Chhattisgarh , Madhya Pradesh , Karnataka , Jharkhand , Odisha , Goa , Maharashtra , Andhra Pradesh , Kerala , Rajasthan , and Tamil Nadu are

2376-598: The Earth 's surface except as iron-nickel alloys from meteorites and very rare forms of deep mantle xenoliths . Although iron is the fourth-most abundant element in the Earth's crust , composing about 5%, the vast majority is bound in silicate or, more rarely, carbonate minerals, and smelting pure iron from these minerals would require a prohibitive amount of energy. Therefore, all sources of iron used by human industry exploit comparatively rarer iron oxide minerals, primarily hematite . Prehistoric societies used laterite as

2464-580: The German war economy inside Nazi Germany during the war. The German need for slave labour grew to the point that even children were kidnapped as labor, in an operation called the Heu-Aktion . More than 2,000 German companies profited from slave labour during the Nazi era, including Deutsche Bank and Siemens . A class system was created amongst Fremdarbeiter ('foreign workers') brought to Germany to work for

2552-555: The Pilbara region of Western Australia is approximately 844,000,000 t (831,000,000 long tons; 930,000,000 short tons) per year and rising. Gavin Mudd ( RMIT University ) and Jonathon Law ( CSIRO ) expect it to be gone within 30–50 years and 56 years, respectively. These 2010 estimates require ongoing review to take into account shifting demand for lower-grade iron ore and improving mining and recovery techniques (allowing deeper mining below

2640-609: The Potsdam Agreement . The town was resettled by Poles from the Eastern Borderlands , annexed by the Soviet Union . In 1959, town limits of Kowary were expanded by including the village of Krzaczyna . Kowary is a town with rich historical architecture, which includes: The Lower Silesia Monuments Miniature Park is located in Kowary, and there are also underground tourist routes in the former uranium ore mines. Kowary

2728-698: The Potsdam Agreements of 1945, the Poles were to receive reparations not from Germany itself, but from the Soviet Union 's share of those reparations; under Soviet pressure on the Polish Communist government, the Poles agreed to a system of repayment that de facto meant that few Polish victims received adequate compensation in any way comparable to the victims in Western Europe or Soviet Union itself. Most of

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2816-561: The fall of communism in Poland in 1989/1990 did the Polish government try to renegotiate the issue of reparations, but found little support in this from the German side and none from the Soviet (later, Russian) side. The total number of forced labourers under Nazi rule who were still alive as of August 1999 was 2.3   million. The German Forced Labour Compensation Programme was established in 2000;

2904-407: The silicate mineral fragments will float and can be removed. Iron is the world's most commonly used metal—steel, of which iron ore is the key ingredient, represents almost 95% of all metal used per year. It is used primarily in structures, ships, automobiles, and machinery. Iron-rich rocks are common worldwide, but ore-grade commercial mining operations are dominated by the countries listed in

2992-420: The 13,600,000 t (13,400,000 long tons; 15,000,000 short tons) of steel 7,000,000 t (6,900,000 long tons; 7,700,000 short tons) was exported, and 43,100,000 t (42,400,000 long tons; 47,500,000 short tons) of iron ore was exported at a value of $ 4.6 billion. Of the iron ore exported, 38.5% of the volume was iron ore pellets with a value of $ 2.3 billion, and 61.5% was iron ore concentrates with

3080-680: The 62–64% Fe range. Granite and ultrapotassic igneous rocks were sometimes used to segregate magnetite crystals and form masses of magnetite suitable for economic concentration. A few iron ore deposits, notably in Chile , are formed from volcanic flows containing significant accumulations of magnetite phenocrysts . Chilean magnetite iron ore deposits within the Atacama Desert have also formed alluvial accumulations of magnetite in streams leading from these volcanic formations. Some magnetite skarn and hydrothermal deposits have been worked in

3168-459: The French navy in the occupied zone, stated "We have a special interest in that the workers at our arsenals work, and that they work in the arsenals and not in Germany." From a practical point of view, French workers needed employment and could have been conscripted to work in Germany (as happened to 1   million of them). A small number objected to carrying out war work but the majority were found by

3256-633: The German government to compensate forced labourers from the war period. As stated in the London Debt Agreement of 1953 : Consideration of claims arising out of the Second World War by countries which were at war with or were occupied by Germany during that war, and by nationals of such countries, against the Reich and agencies of the Reich, including costs of German occupation, credits acquired during occupation on clearing accounts and claims against

3344-528: The German subsidiaries of foreign firms, such as Fordwerke (a subsidiary of Ford Motor Company ) and Adam Opel AG (a subsidiary of General Motors ) among others. Once the war had begun, the foreign subsidiaries were seized and nationalized by the Nazi-controlled German state, and work conditions deteriorated, as they did throughout German industry. About 12   million forced labourers, most of whom were Eastern Europeans , were employed in

3432-433: The German war industry with only basic tools and minimal food rations until totally exhausted. To benefit the economy after the war, certain categories of victims of Nazism were excluded from compensation by the German government; these groups had the least political influence they could have brought to bear, and many forced labourers from Eastern Europe fall into this category. There has been little effort by businesses or

3520-466: The Germans to be willing and efficient workers. In the late summer of 1944, German records listed 7.6   million foreign civilian workers and prisoners of war in the German territory, most of whom had been brought there by coercion. By 1944, slave labour made up one quarter of Germany's entire work force, and the majority of German factories had a contingent of prisoners. The Nazis also had plans for

3608-585: The Polish share of reparations was "given" to Poland by Soviet Union under the Comecon framework, which was not only highly inefficient, but benefited Soviet Union much more than Poland. Under further Soviet pressure (related to the London Agreement on German External Debts ), in 1953 the People's Republic of Poland renounced its right to further claims of reparations from the successor states of Nazi Germany. Only after

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3696-464: The Reich. The system was based on layers of increasingly less privileged workers, starting with well-paid workers from German allies or neutral countries to forced labourers from conquered Untermenschen ('sub-humans') populations. In general, foreign labourers from Western Europe had similar gross earnings and were subject to similar taxation as German workers. In contrast, Central and Eastern European forced labourers received at most about one-half

3784-546: The Soviet Union, 1.6   million to Poland, 1.5   million to France, and 900,000 to Italy, along with 300,000 to 400,000 each to Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, Hungary, and Belgium. Hitler 's policy of Lebensraum ('room for living') strongly emphasized conquest of lands in the East, known as Generalplan Ost , and the exploitation of these lands to provide cheap goods and labour for Germany. Even before

3872-429: The United States is estimated to have accounted for 2% of the world's iron ore output. In the United States there are twelve iron ore mines, with nine being open pit mines and three being reclamation operations. There were also ten pelletizing plants, nine concentration plants, two direct-reduced iron (DRI) plants, and one iron nugget plant that were operating in 2014. In the United States the majority of iron ore mining

3960-411: The concentration of the ore and remove impurities. The results, high-quality fine ore powders, are known as fines. Magnetite is magnetic , and hence easily separated from the gangue minerals and capable of producing a high-grade concentrate with very low levels of impurities. The grain size of the magnetite and its degree of commingling with the silica groundmass determine the grind size to which

4048-533: The country's " economic demonstrated resources " of iron currently amount to 24 gigatonnes , or 24,000,000,000 t (2.4 × 10 long tons; 2.6 × 10 short tons). Another estimate places Australia's reserves of iron ore at 52,000,000,000 t (5.1 × 10 long tons; 5.7 × 10 short tons), or 30% of the world's estimated 170,000,000,000 t (1.7 × 10 long tons; 1.9 × 10 short tons), of which Western Australia accounts for 28,000,000,000 t (2.8 × 10 long tons; 3.1 × 10 short tons). The current production rate from

4136-584: The depletion of high-grade hematite ores in the United States, led after World War II to the development of lower-grade iron ore sources, principally the use of magnetite and taconite . Iron ore mining methods vary by the type of ore being mined. There are four main types of iron ore deposits worked currently, depending on the mineralogy and geology of the ore deposits. These are magnetite, titanomagnetite , massive hematite, and pisolitic ironstone deposits. The origin of iron can be ultimately traced to its formation through nuclear fusion in stars, and most of

4224-442: The gangue is separated during the beneficiation process and is removed as tailings . Taconite tailings are mostly the mineral quartz , which is chemically inert. This material is stored in large, regulated water settling ponds. The key parameters for magnetite ore being economic are the crystallinity of the magnetite, the grade of the iron within the banded iron formation host rock, and the contaminant elements which exist within

4312-434: The gross earnings paid to German workers and had far fewer social benefits. Prisoners of labour or concentration camps received little if any wages or benefits. The deficiency in net earnings of Central and Eastern European forced labourers (versus forced labourers from Western countries) is illustrated by the wage savings forced labourers were able to transfer to their families at home or abroad (see table). The Nazis issued

4400-789: The groundwater table). Brazil is the second-largest producer of iron ore after Australia, accounting for 16% of the world's iron ore production. After a somewhat sluggish production volume 2010-2020, partly due to the Mariana dam disaster in 2015 and the Brumadinho dam disaster in 2019, which halted the production at the two involved mines, production has increased steadily since 2021, when Brazil produced 431,000,000 t (424,000,000 long tons; 475,000,000 short tons). In 2022 it increased to 435,000,000 t (428,000,000 long tons; 480,000,000 short tons) and in 2023 to 440,000,000 t (430,000,000 long tons; 490,000,000 short tons). The Brazilian production

4488-521: The internment and transportation to Europe of "the able-bodied male population between the ages of seventeen and forty-five" in the event of a successful invasion of the United Kingdom . Organisation Todt was a Nazi era civil and military engineering group in Nazi Germany, eponymously named for its founder Fritz Todt , an engineer and senior Nazi figure. The organization was responsible for

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4576-450: The iron and carbon smelting must be kept in an oxygen-deficient (reducing) state to promote the burning of carbon to produce CO and not CO 2 . The inclusion of even small amounts of some elements can have profound effects on the behavioral characteristics of a batch of iron or the operation of a smelter. These effects can be both good and bad, some catastrophically bad. Some chemicals are deliberately added, such as flux, which makes

4664-413: The iron from the oxygen, a stronger elemental bond must be presented to attach to the oxygen. Carbon is used because the strength of a carbon-oxygen bond is greater than that of the iron-oxygen bond at high temperatures. Thus, the iron ore must be powdered and mixed with coke , to be burnt in the smelting process. Carbon monoxide is the primary ingredient of chemically stripping oxygen from iron. Thus,

4752-889: The iron is thought to have originated in dying stars that are large enough to explode as supernovae . The Earth's core is thought to consist mainly of iron, but this is inaccessible from the surface. Some iron meteorites are thought to have originated from asteroids 1,000 km (620 mi) in diameter or larger. Banded iron formations (BIFs) are sedimentary rocks containing more than 15% iron composed predominantly of thinly-bedded iron minerals and silica (as quartz ). Banded iron formations occur exclusively in Precambrian rocks, and are commonly weakly-to-intensely metamorphosed . Banded iron formations may contain iron in carbonates ( siderite or ankerite ) or silicates ( minnesotaite , greenalite , or grunerite ), but in those mined as iron ores, oxides ( magnetite or hematite ) are

4840-423: The magnetite concentrate. The size and strip ratio of most magnetite resources is irrelevant, as a banded iron formation can be hundreds of meters thick, extend hundreds of kilometers along strike , and can easily come to more than three billion or more tonnes of contained ore. The typical grade of iron at which a magnetite-bearing banded iron formation becomes economic is roughly 25% iron, which can generally yield

4928-476: The magnetite-bearing BIF or other rocks which form its main source, or protolith rock, but are considerably cheaper to mine and process as they require less beneficiation due to the higher iron content. However, DSO ores can contain significantly higher concentrations of penalty elements, typically being higher in phosphorus, water content (especially pisolite sedimentary accumulations), and aluminium ( clays within pisolites). Export-grade DSO ores are generally in

5016-440: The main causes of death. Many more became civilian casualties from enemy (Allied) bombing and shelling of their workplaces throughout the war. At the peak of the program, the forced labourers constituted 20% of the German work force. Counting deaths and turnover, about 15   million men and women were forced labourers at one point during the war. Besides Jews, the harshest deportation and forced labor policies were applied to

5104-399: The main iron ore producers ( BHP Billiton , Rio Tinto , and Vale S.A. ) and Japanese importers. In 2006, Chinese company Baosteel began handling negotiations for the importer side. The Chinese government replaced Baosteel with China Iron and Steel Association as lead negotiator in 2009. Traditionally, the first deal reached between these the major producers and the major importers sets

5192-410: The mine tailings contain an average of approximately 11% iron, there would be approximately 1.41 million tons of iron wasted annually. These tailings are also high in other useful metals such as copper , nickel , and cobalt , and they can be used for road-building materials like pavement and filler and building materials such as cement, low-grade glass, and wall materials. While tailings are

5280-459: The municipal law from Bohemian king Vladislaus II against the opposition of Hirschberg. Mining flourished until the Thirty Years' War , when the town was destroyed in 1633. The main export partner was Poland, with record trade in 1558, it was also famous for its gunsmiths, with Polish king Sigismund II Augustus ordering 2000 gun barrels (later German publications claimed it was only 200). After

5368-763: The occupied countries (see Łapanka ) to provide labour in the German war industry, repair bombed railroads and bridges, or work on farms. Manual labour was in high demand, as much of the work that today would be done with machines was still done by hand in the 1930s and 1940s, such as digging, material handling , or machining . As the war progressed, the use of slave labour increased massively. Prisoners of war and civilian "undesirables" were brought in from occupied territories. Millions of Jews, Slavs and other conquered peoples were used as slave labourers by German corporations including Thyssen , Krupp , IG Farben , Bosch , Daimler-Benz , Demag , Henschel , Junkers , Messerschmitt , Siemens , and Volkswagen , not to mention

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5456-504: The past as high-grade iron ore deposits requiring little beneficiation . There are several granite-associated deposits of this nature in Malaysia and Indonesia . Other sources of magnetite iron ore include metamorphic accumulations of massive magnetite ore such as at Savage River , Tasmania , formed by shearing of ophiolite ultramafics . Another, minor, source of iron ores are magmatic accumulations in layered intrusions which contain

5544-472: The populations of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia. By the end of the war, half of Belarus' population had been either killed or deported. The defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945 freed approximately 11   million foreigners (categorized as "displaced persons"), most of whom were forced labourers and POWs. During the war, German forces brought into the Reich 6.5   million civilians, in addition to Soviet POWs, for unfree labour in factories. Returning them home

5632-722: The ports of Brest , Lorient and Saint-Nazaire became available, there were insufficient Germans to man these repair and maintenance facilities, so huge reliance was made on the French workforce. At the end of 1940, the Kriegsmarine requested 2,700 skilled workers from Wilhelmshaven to work in bases on the Atlantic coast, but this was out of a total available workforce of only 3,300. This same request included 870 men skilled in machinery and engine building, but there were only 725 people with these skills in Wilhelmshaven. This massive deficit

5720-530: The possessions to the town, which thereby became sovereign. Prussian conquering also meant a relief for local Protestants – they received their own church ( Bethaus ). Nevertheless, an economic decline followed. Aid by the Prussian king, the settling of Saxon damask weavers, couldn't stop the downturn. Only the Industrialisation , beginning around 1850, led to a recovery of the local economy. From 1871 to 1945 it

5808-498: The potential effect of withdrawal of French dockyard workers (considered possible after 32 French fatalities in an air raid at Lorient Submarine Base ) stated that all repairs on the surface fleet would cease and U-boat repairs would be cut by 30 per cent. Admiral François Darlan stated on 30 September 1940 that it was useless to decline German requests for collaboration. In September 1942, Rear Admiral Germain Paul Jardel, commander of

5896-473: The principal Indian producers of iron ore. World consumption of iron ore grows 10% per year on average with the main consumers being China, Japan, Korea, the United States, and the European Union. China is currently the largest consumer of iron ore, which translates to be the world's largest steel producing country. It is also the largest importer, buying 52% of the seaborne trade in iron ore in 2004. China

5984-474: The principal iron mineral. Banded iron formations are known as taconite within North America. The mining involves moving tremendous amounts of ore and waste. The waste comes in two forms: non-ore bedrock in the mine ( overburden or interburden locally known as mullock), and unwanted minerals, which are an intrinsic part of the ore rock itself ( gangue ). The mullock is mined and piled in waste dumps , and

6072-429: The quartz is left behind when the resultant powder is passed under a magnetic separator. Generally, most magnetite banded iron formation deposits must be ground to between 32 and 45 μm (0.0013 and 0.0018 in) in order to produce a low-silica magnetite concentrate. Magnetite concentrate grades are generally in excess of 70% iron by weight and usually are low in phosphorus, aluminium, titanium, and silica and demand

6160-407: The rock must be comminuted to enable efficient magnetic separation to provide a high-purity magnetite concentrate. This determines the energy inputs required to run a milling operation. Mining of banded iron formations involves coarse crushing and screening, followed by rough crushing and fine grinding to comminute the ore to the point where the crystallized magnetite and quartz are fine enough that

6248-446: The seaborne trade, with 72% of the market. BHP, Rio and Vale control 66% of this market between them. In Australia , iron ore is won from three main sources: pisolite " channel iron deposit " ore derived by mechanical erosion of primary banded-iron formations and accumulated in alluvial channels such as at Pannawonica, Western Australia ; and the dominant metasomatically altered banded iron formation -related ores such as at Newman ,

6336-459: The seventh largest global center of iron ore production, behind Australia, Brazil, China, India, Russia, and South Africa. Producers of iron ore in Ukraine include Ferrexpo , Metinvest , and ArcelorMittal Kryvyi Rih . In 2014, mines in the United States produced 57,500,000 t (56,600,000 long tons; 63,400,000 short tons) of iron ore with an estimated value of $ 5.1 billion. Iron mining in

6424-451: The seventh-largest global center of iron ore production, behind Australia, Brazil, China, Russia, South Africa, and Ukraine. India's iron ore production in 2023 was 285,000,000 metric tonnes and was the fourth largest producer in the world. According to the U.S. Geological Survey's 2021 Report on iron ore, Ukraine is estimated to have produced 62,000,000 t (61,000,000 long tons; 68,000,000 short tons) of iron ore in 2020, placing it as

6512-578: The start of the town is 1355 and connects it to Ostsiedlung . Publications published in German Empire disputed the origin of Kowary and called it 'Schmedewerk'. In 1355 year Duke Bolko II the Small , the grandson of the Polish king Władysław I the Elbow-high , the last independent Silesian Piast , granted mining privileges to the local miners. As a mining center the settlement received several privileges and

6600-401: The table aside. The major constraint to economics for iron ore deposits is not necessarily the grade or size of the deposits, because it is not particularly hard to geologically prove enough tonnage of the rocks exist. The main constraint is the position of the iron ore relative to market, the cost of rail infrastructure to get it to market, and the energy cost required to do so. Mining iron ore

6688-479: The town, including three camps for Polish women at local factories, a camp for Polish men at a local mine, a camp for Jews at a sanatorium , three camps for French POWs and a camp for Italian POWs from the Stalag VIII-A POW camp . The town was not destroyed during the war and after the defeat of Germany in 1945, it became again part of Poland. The German population fled or was expelled in accordance with

6776-589: The two mines shut down. There have also been iron ore mines in Utah and Alabama ; however, the last iron ore mine in Utah shut down in 2014 and the last iron ore mine in Alabama shut down in 1975. Iron ores consist of oxygen and iron atoms bonded together into molecules. To convert it to metallic iron, it must be smelted or sent through a direct reduction process to remove the oxygen. Oxygen-iron bonds are strong, and to remove

6864-517: The victims, at the entrances to a number of camps the lie 'work brings freedom' ( arbeit macht frei ) was placed, to encourage the false impression that cooperation would earn release. A notable example of a labour-concentration camp is Mittelbau-Dora , a labour camp complex that produced V-2 rockets . Extermination through labour was a Nazi German principle that regulated most of their labour and concentration camps. The rule demanded that inmates of German World War II camps be forced to work for

6952-598: The war veil weaving became more and more important for the town, whereas mining diminished. In the early 18th century the town became one of the biggest veil trading places in Silesia with trade relations to Bohemia , Italy , Spain , Russia and North America . Schmiedeberg remained in possession of the Schaffgotsch family until 1634. In the 16th century the population adopted the Protestant faith . Hans Ulrich von Schaffgotsch

7040-655: The war, Nazi Germany maintained a supply of slave labour . This practice started in the early days of labour camps for "unreliable elements" ( German : unzuverlässige Elemente ), such as homosexuals , criminals, political dissidents , communists , Jews , the homeless and anyone the regime wanted out of the way. During World War II the Nazis operated several categories of Arbeitslager (labour camps) for different categories of inmates. Prisoners in Nazi labour camps were worked to death on short rations in lethal conditions, or killed if they became unable to work. Many died as

7128-694: The workers was regarded as dangerous, and targeted by pamphlet campaigns in 1940–1942. Soldiers in the Wehrmacht and SS officers were exempt from any such restrictions. It is estimated that at least 34,140 Eastern European women apprehended in Łapankas (military kidnapping raids), were forced to serve them as sex slaves in German military brothels and camp brothels during the Third Reich. In Warsaw alone, five such establishments were set up under military guard in September 1942, with over 20 rooms each. Alcohol

7216-507: Was a high priority for the Allies. However returning citizens of the USSR were often meant suspicion of collaboration or reincarceration in a Gulag prison camp. The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), Red Cross , and military operations provided food, clothing, shelter, and assistance in returning home. In all, 5.2   million foreign workers and POWs were repatriated to

7304-460: Was a vital part of the German economic exploitation of conquered territories. It also contributed to the mass extermination of populations in occupied Europe. The Germans abducted approximately 12   million people from almost twenty European countries; about two thirds came from Central Europe and Eastern Europe . Many workers died as a result of their living conditions – extreme mistreatment, severe malnutrition and abuse were

7392-715: Was arrested as a follower of Albrecht Wallenstein the town came under Imperial custody. In 1639 the emperor sold the town to Bohemian count Heřman of Czernin and his family kept Schmiedeberg until Prussian takeover of Silesia. After the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the town experienced Counter-Reformation . The Protestants could now practice their faith only at the church of peace in Jawor and later in Hirschberg and Kamienna Góra (then Landeshut ). When Prussia annexed majority of Silesia in 1742, Prussian king Frederick II immediately sold

7480-573: Was made up of French naval dockyard workers. In February 1941, the naval dockyard at Brest had only 470 German workers, compared with 6,349 French workers. In April 1941, French workers replaced defective superheater tubes on the Scharnhorst , carrying out the work slowly but, in the opinion of Scharnhorst's captain, to a better standard than could be obtained in the yards in Germany. An assessment commissioned by Vizeadmiral Walter Matthiae in October 1942 of

7568-503: Was not allowed, unlike on the Western front, and the victims underwent genital checkups once a week. French workers at naval bases provided the Kriegsmarine with an essential workforce, thereby supporting Nazi Germany in the Battle of the Atlantic . By 1939, the Kriegsmarine 's planning had presumed that they had time to build up resources before the war started. When France fell and

7656-531: Was part of Germany, however, in the 19th century the Polish magnate Radziwiłł and Czartoryski families were in possession of the Ciszyca Palace and Park in the northern part of today's Kowary. In 1882 the town received a rail connection to Hirschberg (Jelenia Góra), and then in 1895 to Karpacz , which further strengthened the economy. During World War II , Nazi Germany operated multiple slave labour camps in

7744-585: Was seat of a wójt since 1368. It remained part of the Polish Duchy of Świdnica and Jawor until 1392, afterwards it was part of the Bohemian Crown . Since 1401 the village belonged to the possessions of the Schaffgotsch family. An accord with neighbouring Hirschberg ( Jelenia Góra ) in 1454 elevated the settlement above the status of a village, it wasn't until 1513 however that Casper Schaffgotsch acquired

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