Society in the Joseon dynasty was built upon Neo-Confucianist ideals, namely the three fundamental principles and five moral disciplines. There were four classes: the yangban nobility, the "middle class" jungin , sangmin , or the commoners, and the cheonmin , the outcasts at the very bottom. Society was ruled by the yangban, who constituted 10% of the population and had several privileges. Slaves were of the lowest standing.
128-480: Kisaeng ( Korean : 기생 ; Hanja : 妓生 ; RR : Gisaeng ), also called ginyeo ( 기녀 ; 妓女 ), were enslaved women from outcast or enslaved families who were trained to be courtesans , providing artistic entertainment and conversation to men of upper class. First appearing in Goryeo , kisaeng were the government's legal entertainers, required to perform various functions for
256-452: A kisaeng house, but these locations are mostly modern interpretations of old kisaeng houses. The oldest traditional kisaeng house in Korea, Ohjinam (오진암), was closed in 2010. Today, the kisaeng 's evolution and impact on Korean society is receiving new attention as Koreans increase efforts to rediscover and revitalize their cultural and historical heritage. However, this interest
384-484: A Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list . Some linguists concerned with
512-405: A class and rose to prominence during the Goryeo dynasty, 935–1394. They are first mentioned in the early 11th century. At this time, they were primarily engaged in skilled trades such as needlework , music, and medicine. The female entertainers of the court during this period filled a role similar to that later filled by almost all kisaeng . Due to the growth of the kisaeng class, during
640-477: A core vowel. The IPA symbol ⟨ ◌͈ ⟩ ( U+0348 ◌͈ COMBINING DOUBLE VERTICAL LINE BELOW ) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/ . Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for "strong" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice . The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice , but it is not yet known how typical this
768-445: A few kisaeng were able to maintain their business for very long beyond this time. It may be for this reason that the kisaeng training institutes accepted entrants as young as eight. All kisaeng were obliged by law to retire at age 50. The best prospect most kisaeng had for long-term support was through becoming the concubine of a patron. However, even this was not an option unless their patron first purchased them from
896-514: A few hundred in the larger centers and smaller numbers in the hyeon villages. They were also found in the "stations" and inns which provided food and shelter to travelers along the country's arterial roads, such as the Great Yeongnam Road . The number and characteristics of the kisaeng varied greatly from region to region. During the Joseon period, the city with the most kisaeng by far
1024-541: A later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. However, these minor differences can be found in any of the Korean dialects , which are still largely mutually intelligible . The Chinese language , written with Chinese characters and read with Sino-Xenic pronunciations ,
1152-529: A leading role in the independence struggle. Aengmu , a kisaeng of Daegu , was a major donor to the National Debt Repayment Movement in the early 20th century. Some fifty kisaeng of Jinju took part in a demonstration as part of the March 1st Movement in 1919. Kisaeng seem to have been relatively few in number, at the most a few thousand. They were spread throughout the country, with
1280-423: A leading role. This was in part due to their unique role as women who could move freely in society. Kisaeng appear as heroines in stories such as Chunhyangga , and as important figures in many other Joseon-era narratives. Kisaeng also began to appear in the vernacular art of later Joseon. They are particularly common in the work of the famed early 19th-century painter Hyewon , whose work focused on both
1408-528: A million members. Michael Seth, professor of history at the James Madison University , claims that the reason for this was the adaptation of the gwageo ( 과거 ), the government examination system of China, as well as the integration of Confucianism into everyday life, making proving one's lineage of utmost importance. Marriage was conducted at a young age, in 1471 the lowest possible age was 15 for boys and 14 for girls. Men usually got married before
SECTION 10
#17328515121801536-453: A much stricter way than in China, where the philosophy originated. The ensuing shift in social ideology from 1650 onwards has been described as striking. Households headed by women disappeared at the beginning of the Joseon era, and they gradually lost their right to inheritance, as well. Women were expected to be faithful to their husbands beyond death, so widows were not allowed to remarry in
1664-432: A new official arrived in the area. In addition, they were required to report for continuing education , usually focused on music and dance. The frequency and content of this training varied from region to region. However, the detailed affairs of the kisaeng were not directly overseen by the state. Order was kept within each gyobang , which might include some tens of kisaeng , by the haengsu kisaeng , those of
1792-658: A petition to the king. More than 1,300 gyeokjaeng -related accounts are recorded in the Ilseongnok . The basis of Joseon society was a system similar to caste systems . Historian Baek Ji-won considers the Korean system comparable to that of India . According to Michael Seth, the Korean system could, in principle, be compared to India's (apart from the religious connotations). In practice, however, classes may not have been as impenetrable and clearly separated as in India. Bruce Cumings , on
1920-513: A possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre- Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as Amuric ) were once distributed on the Korean Peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding
2048-582: A prevalent practice during the Japanese occupation, even as the face of the kisaeng profession underwent drastic changes. One of the prominent sijo poets of the era was Hwang Jin-I, who was considered to be one of the most irresistible kisaeng of her time. A famous sijo poem that is attributed to Jin-I is entitled (정산리 벽계수야), which is rumored to be a humorous comeback to a yangban official who boasted that he could pass through Jin-I’s territory without stopping or being tempted by her. Such elements were not as prevalent in
2176-430: A socially despised yet popularly (unofficially) acclaimed artist". Not all kisaeng engaged in prostitution as different groups or tiers of kisaeng had different educations and roles. Numerous accounts report individual kisaeng as specializing specifically in arts, music, poetry, and conversation skills. The career of most kisaeng was very short, generally peaking at age 16 or 17, and over by age 22. Only
2304-469: A substrate within the jungin, called seoeol . The illegitimate children of the scholar-gentry were not allowed to be recognised as yangban and so could not inherit land or wealth from their fathers or participate in government exams. Their fate caused much discussion among Confucian scholars, as recognising their existence would have meant that the well-defined lines between commoners and nobility would have been blurred. However, increasing numbers of Seoeols
2432-432: A tourist attraction for the Japanese in Korea, especially Seoul. Even though there is information on prostitution within Korean history regarding the kisaeng over the centuries from pre-modern to contemporary times, there is little information on prostitution and the climate that the kisaeng were exposed to during the colonial period. Prior to the Japanese occupation, kisaeng were courtesans, artists, and poets. However, during
2560-603: Is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and the Korean War . Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic , Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense . Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean , which in turn descends from Old Korean , which descends from
2688-656: Is an agglutinative language . The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech . Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the verb is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. Question 가게에 gage-e store- LOC 가셨어요? ga-syeo-sseo-yo go- HON . PAST - CONJ - POL 가게에 가셨어요? gage-e ga-syeo-sseo-yo store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL 'Did [you] go to
SECTION 20
#17328515121802816-511: Is closer to a near-open central vowel ( [ɐ] ), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun ( -은/-는 ) and -i/-ga ( -이/-가 ). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul ( -을/-를 ), -euro/-ro ( -으로/-로 ), -eseo/-seo ( -에서/-서 ), -ideunji/-deunji ( -이든지/-든지 ) and -iya/-ya ( -이야/-야 ). Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Korean
2944-486: Is focused almost entirely on the historical kisaeng of the Joseon period, and not on the traces of the kisaeng which endure today. In North Korea, all kisaeng descendants were labelled as members of the 'hostile class' and are considered to have 'bad songbun', i.e. "tainted blood". Kisaeng have played important roles in Korean popular literature since the mid-Joseon dynasty. As popular literature such as novels and pansori emerged, kisaeng often took
3072-534: Is likely that their work was not deemed valuable enough to keep or store. A large amount of their poetry survive, Hwang Jin-I being one of the most famous kisaeng poets (Book: Songs of the Kisaeng: courtesan poetry of the last Korean dynasty) . While very little of their painting survive, the National Museum of Korea has thirteen of Juk-hyang's paintings of plants and flowers. In the Japanese colonial period, though
3200-399: Is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies. The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo , which is thought to be
3328-399: Is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language ). This occurs with
3456-534: Is the native language for about 81 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the national language of both North Korea and South Korea . Beyond Korea, the language is recognized as a minority language in parts of China , namely Jilin , and specifically Yanbian Prefecture , and Changbai County . It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin , the Russian island just north of Japan, and by
3584-716: Is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages , in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group . Also, the doublet wo meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on
3712-511: The Koryo-saram in parts of Central Asia . The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form the compact Koreanic language family . Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible . The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria . The hierarchy of the society from which
3840-523: The yangban aristocracy, who looked down upon it too easy to learn. However, it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as the 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By
3968-448: The kisaeng themselves have receded further into the past. One theory actually places their origins in the Silla , among the wonhwa , female predecessors of the hwarang . However, there is little to suggest a concrete link between Silla's wonhwa and the later kisaeng . Also, the wonhwa seem to have been chosen from among the aristocracy, whereas kisaeng were always members of
Kisaeng - Misplaced Pages Continue
4096-471: The 1592–1598 Japanese invasions of Korea , kisaeng were often made to entertain the generals of the victorious army. Some of Korea's most famous kisaeng , including Nongae of Jinju , are remembered today for their bravery in killing or attempting to kill leaders of the imperial Japanese army. Some kisaeng were also active in the Korean independence movements of the early 20th century. In this they resembled other women of Joseon, who often took
4224-528: The Geommu , a traditional sword dance. Those of Jeju were known for their equestrian prowess. In many cases, the noted skills of a region's kisaeng corresponded with some other local claim to fame. The kisaeng of the Gwandong region on the east coast, home to many famous sights including Mount Kumgang , memorized the gwan dong byeol gok ( 관동별곡 ; 關東別曲 ), a poem recounting their region's scenery. Those of
4352-869: The Honam region in the southwest were trained in pansori , while those of the seonbi city Andong could recite the Great Learning (Daxue; Daehak) by heart. Official histories of Korea do not mention kisaeng often. They enter only occasionally into official records such as the Goryeosa or Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty . For example, the Royal Protocols, or Ǔigwe ( 의궤 ; 儀軌 ), records names of those who worked to prepare for important court rituals, and some kisaeng are listed as needleworkers. Yet references to kisaeng are quite widespread in
4480-570: The Proto-Koreanic language , which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria . Whitman (2012) suggests that the proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and
4608-557: The Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while " -eo " and " -mal " mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo , literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters ( 國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China ,
4736-508: The royal examinations to obtain high positions in the government. They did not pay any form of taxes, and they avoided manual labor and conscription. However they had to excel in calligraphy , poetry , classical Chinese texts, and Confucian rites. In theory, commoners could apply for royal exams but in practice, from the 1600s, the family background of applicants was thoroughly checked and had to provide evidence of yangban status on their father's side up to three generations and one generation on
4864-411: The sangeon ( 상언 ; 上言 ), a written petition system, and the gyeokjaeng ( 격쟁 ; 擊錚 ), an oral petition system. Through the gyeokjaeng oral petition system, commoners could strike a gong or drum in front of the palace or during the king's public processions in order to appeal their grievances or petition to the king directly. This allowed even the illiterate members of Joseon society to make
4992-413: The yadam or "anecdotal histories" of later Joseon and Silhak thinkers such as Yi Ik and Jeong Yakyong , known as Dasan , who gave some thought to their role and station in society. A few records of kisaeng that exist are used in the study of their history, such as Joseon Haeeohwhasa ( 조선해어화사 ; 朝鮮解語花史 ), Nogpajapgi ( 녹파잡기 ; 綠派雜記 ), and Joseon miinbogam ( 조선미인보감 ; 朝鮮美人寶鑑 ),
5120-819: The 17th century, the yangban had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reform of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese. Some newspapers were published entirely in Hangul, but other publications used Korean mixed script , with Hanja for Sino-Korean vocabulary and Hangul for other elements. North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools. Their usage in South Korea
5248-415: The 1920s, while Korea remained under Japanese occupation, the role of kisaeng shifted from entertainers to sex workers. This transition allowed the Japanese police to have control over female bodies through the prostitution licensing system that Japan employed. Chang Han, a magazine run largely by kisaeng, discussed the personal lives of a kisaeng in conjunction with their professional ones, stating that before
Kisaeng - Misplaced Pages Continue
5376-499: The 19th century, jungin who spoke foreign languages were the ones who introduced Western culture to Korea. Around 80% of Joseon society was made up of commoners, called sangmin . They were a free class, obliged to pay taxes, serve in the army, and undertake corvée labour. Peasants, artisans, fishermen and merchants made up this class, but merchants were regarded as lowly by yangban. Some peasants owned their lands, but others cultivated yangban property as tenants. The last place on
5504-408: The 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters ( jamo ) and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only a spoken language . Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports . As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language )
5632-442: The Japanese colonial period, between 1910 and 1945. Although true gwŏnbŏn no longer existed, an academic convention developed where students would study privately with former kisaeng or gwŏnbŏn entertainers. Very few traditional kisaeng houses continue to operate in South Korea, and many traditions and dances are considered to be lost forever. Some South Korean businesses continue to escort visiting foreign business people to
5760-414: The Japanese occupation, the kisaeng were of lower caste and able to interact with those of a higher caste. However, after the start of the Japanese occupation, the kisaeng had to actively navigate a restructured sex market in colonial Korea. Chang Han also discussed how the kisaeng of the time were able to interweave femininity with the arts, to create a more cultured approach that allowed them to compete with
5888-452: The Joseon dynasty, the kisaeng system continued to flourish and develop, despite the government's deeply ambivalent attitude toward it. Joseon was founded on Korean Confucianism , and these scholars of the time took a very dim view of professional women and of the kisaeng class in particular. There were many calls for the abolition of the kisaeng , or for their exclusion from court, but these were not successful—perhaps because of
6016-401: The Joseon period: there were times when their numbers reached 30% of the population. Slaves could not have family names except for those who already had one when they became enslaved. So they could not invent their own last names. In theory, marriage between slaves and commoners was forbidden, but the rule was often ignored. By the end of the dynasty, the number of slaves declined. State slavery
6144-476: The Preface of her travelogue she expresses her concern that what she writes of should be correct and checked as far as she can with official returns and documents. Her interests include the people of contemporary Korea and their customs and expectations. Charles Carat, an account of Korean travels in 1892 including many detailed sketches taken from photographs. These are chosen to illustrate the daily lives, trades and
6272-472: The age of 30, women were typically married below 20. Commoners usually married at an earlier age than yangban class children. Significant age difference between husband and wife was daily occurrence. Marriage and married life rituals were regulated by Zhu Xi 's Zhuzi Jiali ( Chinese : 朱子家禮 , Korean : 주자가례 , Juja garye ), but customs were modified according to Korean traditions. For example, according to Confucian customs, wedding ceremonies were held at
6400-451: The age of 50. They received guests only by choice. The haengsu ( 행수 ; 行首 ) of each district, who was the leader of the kisaeng , took charge of discipline and training new kisaeng . Kisaeng of the lowest tier were called samp'ae ( 삼패 ; 三牌 ). The samp'ae were forbidden to perform the songs and dances of the ilp'ae . The three-tiered system, like other aspects of Joseon class division , broke down in
6528-455: The beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/ . A written syllable-final ' ㄹ ', when followed by a vowel or a glide ( i.e. , when the next character starts with ' ㅇ '), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ] . Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j] , and otherwise became /n/ . However,
SECTION 50
#17328515121806656-486: The center of a town, often close to the marketplace. They were laid out to create a welcoming effect; in many cases, a location was chosen with a fine view, and the area around the house would be landscaped with ornamental pools and plantings. Kisaeng played a number of important political roles, as servants of the state and in their own right. They were employed to entertain visiting foreign dignitaries from parts of China , and to accompany them if they travelled through
6784-475: The clan, with birth, marriage and death details of its members are registered in the jokbo ( 족보 ; 族譜 ) even today. This kind of registry making became regular in the 15th century. Traitors and sentenced criminals were expelled from the clan and from the lineage. Outsiders could not join a lineage. The names of Korean men were given relative to a common ancestor, whereby strangers could immediately ascertain whether and how they might be related. Family life
6912-409: The class by families who could not afford to support them. Most such families were of cheonmin rank, but sometimes poor families of higher status sold their children in this fashion. On occasion, even women from the yangban aristocracy were made kisaeng , usually because they had violated the strict sexual mores of the Joseon period. As kisaeng were skilled workers from the beginning,
7040-586: The conscious, government-backed spreading of Neo-Confucianism reinforced this idea. Even though the philosophy originates in China, Korea also adopted and integrated it into daily life, transforming it to fit the nation's needs and developed it in a way that became specific to Korea. Korean society in Joseon was built upon the three fundamental principles (samgang, 삼강 ; 三綱 ) and five moral disciplines (oryun, 오륜 ; 五倫 ): This means that Korean society placed utmost importance on hierarchy between classes, older and younger people, emphasized family values,
7168-447: The country. Thanks to their frequenting the taverns and guest-houses of the town, kisaeng were often among the most knowledgeable on local affairs. For this reason, they were at times a key source of intelligence. It was through information supplied by kisaeng that the rebel army of Hong Gyeong-nae was able to easily take the fortress of Jongju in the early 19th century. When cities fell, as many of Korea's cities did during
7296-400: The couple chose to live where the parents had a bigger need of looking after or where land was more arable. Koreans also adapted another Chinese custom, the minmyeoneuri ( 민며느리 ), or child brides , when 6 and 7 years old girls were given off to marriage. They usually spent the years leading up to the actual wedding ceremony at their mothers-in-law's, where they worked as maids. This custom
7424-468: The education of gwonbeon still focused on traditional music and performance, the scope of their art expanded along with the cultural changes of society to include both folk genres and Japanese music. The transmission of many songs and dances, albeit some with modification, were through the kisaeng of this period. Notable kisaeng include: Korean language Korean ( South Korean : 한국어 , Hanguk-eo ; North Korean : 조선어 , Chosŏnŏ )
7552-495: The film Chi-hwa-seon was a kisaeng , the companion of painter Owon . Fresh treatments of popular kisaeng stories, including the fictional Chunhyang and the historical Hwang Jin-Yi, continue to emerge in popular novels and cinema. There was a modern re-telling of Kisaeng in the TV series New Tales of Gisaeng . Not very many works by kisaeng are extant to this day. While many were accomplished artists in their time, it
7680-399: The first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram or Koryo-in (literally, " Koryo/Goryeo persons"), and call the language Koryo-mal' . Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in
7808-514: The first tier. The course of study lasted three years and covered poetry, dance, music, and art. The most advanced such school was located in Pyongyang . This system continued well into the Japanese colonial period , during which time the schools training kisaeng were known as gwonbeon ( 권번 ). As slaves of the government, the lives of kisaeng were closely regulated. They were overseen by
SECTION 60
#17328515121807936-467: The government took an early interest in ensuring correct education. This first emerged with the establishment of gyobang , training institutes for palace kisaeng during the Goryeo period. During the Joseon period, this became further codified, with instruction focusing on music and dance. In the three-tiered system of later Joseon, more specialized training schools were established for kisaeng of
8064-454: The government. The kisaeng attached to a government office were known as gwan-gi , or " kisaeng of the office". Their role did not, by law, include sexual service to the officeholder; in fact, government officials could be punished severely for consorting with a kisaeng . However, in practice kisaeng were often forced to serve the officeholder. A distinction was sometimes made between those gwan-gi who were obliged to sleep with
8192-516: The highest tier. When problems arose between a kisaeng and a client, or when charges of criminal conduct were made against a kisaeng , the haengsu kisaeng usually took the leading role in resolving the situation. In addition, most kisaeng had a gibu , or " kisaeng husband", who provided protection and economic support, such as buying them valuable things or granting them social status in return for entertainment. Most gibu were former soldiers, government enforcers, or servants of
8320-422: The house of the groom's father, however, in Korea the exact opposite had been the custom. As a compromise, a part of the ceremony was to be held at the bride's home, after which they would proceed to the groom's home. In Goryeo times, the newlyweds usually lived at the bride's home for years, but by adapting Confucianism this had to change. The bride had to move to her new family. In practice there were occasions when
8448-475: The housing of the people encountered. (Written in French). Louise Jordan Miln whose work Quaint Korea , written in 1895, considers the practical position of women and the application of their rights in some detail. Arnold Henry Savage Landor was a popular Victorian travel writer and artist. He also made observations of travel in Korea as he experienced it. His observations of the lives of women are written from
8576-479: The inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l] . All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release , [p̚, t̚, k̚] . Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains
8704-618: The influence of the women themselves, or perhaps because of fear that officials would take to stealing the wives of other men. One such proposal was made during the reign of Sejong the Great , but when an advisor of the court suggested that the abolition of the class would lead to government officials committing grave crimes, the king chose to preserve the kisaeng . During the brief and violent reign of Yeonsangun between 1494 and 1506, kisaeng became symbolic of royal excess. Yeonsan-gun treated women as primarily objects of pleasure, and made even
8832-677: The introduction of hangul , when literacy improved, women who could read and write made up only 4% as late as the 19th century. Women were not allowed to learn hanja , the Chinese characters used to write Korean. Women were also denied the right to participate in the jesa , the ancestor honoring rituals, which is also a significant divergence from the original Chinese practices. Women could only have four types of "professions" in Joseon: they could become gungnyeo (palace women), shamans , physicians or gisaeng . Some revealing scenes from daily life show
8960-408: The issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship , but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese . A good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asá , meaning " hemp ". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it
9088-412: The keeping of order and harmony and the inferior social status of women. Rituals became very important. Ceremonies paying respect to one's ancestors and the need for lifelong learning being highly valued. Neo-Confucians considered hard work, purity, politeness and refraining from improper behaviour as desirable and valuable human qualities. They could be regarded as prudish, since showing passionate emotions
9216-439: The kisaeng out of the palace and replaced their pimps with the Japanese police. This led to the kisaeng being grouped with licensed prostitutes, called ch’anggi. As the overtaking of Korea by Japan continued, the kisaeng profession responded to social and economic shifts in fashion, schools, and brothel management. Guilds or groups of kisaeng were changed to gwonbeon , which not only was a group of kisaeng under registration but
9344-618: The language is most often called Joseon-mal , or more formally, Joseon-o . This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire , which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan . In mainland China , following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or
9472-466: The language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean is written in the Korean script ( 한글 ; Hangeul in South Korea, 조선글 ; Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until
9600-430: The last one being written in the Japanese colonial period. Even today, many formal histories of Korea pay little or no heed to the story of the kisaeng . For example, Lee Ki-baik 's New History of Korea does not contain a single reference to the kisaeng . There are various theories concerning the origin of the kisaeng . The first such theory was formulated by the scholar Dasan, and theories have multiplied as
9728-451: The late 1800s. In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including hanguk-eo ("Korean language"), hanguk-mal ("Korean speech") and uri-mal ("our language"); " hanguk " is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ( 대한제국 ; 大韓帝國 ; Daehan Jeguk ). The " han " ( 韓 ) in Hanguk and Daehan Jeguk is derived from Samhan , in reference to
9856-441: The late 19th century. In the course of their careers, some kisaeng were able to amass considerable personal wealth. However, these were the exception. Kisaeng were required to meet their expenses, including food, clothes, and makeup, out of their own personal funds. Women entered the kisaeng class through various paths. Some were the daughters of kisaeng , who inherited their mother's status. Others were sold into
9984-423: The latter being filled by provincial yangban, whose only way to obtain a scholarly certificate was to become military officials. The men were prepared for the exam by the muhak , the military schools. From the mid-Joseon period, they belonged to different lineages from the civilian officials. The jungin people also included the illegitimate children of yangban. Born from commoner or slave concubines, they made up
10112-457: The latter part of the dynasty. Men were allowed to have second wives besides their first wife as well as concubines , although they often enjoyed a lower status than the first wives. Yangban noblewomen were completely segregated from the rest of society. During the day they could not leave their homes, and if they had to, they were transported in a litter called gama ( 가마 ). These ideals and segregation could not completely be maintained into
10240-403: The licensed prostitutes. The publication also spoke of how their clientele were seen as friends, rather than as oppressors, and they often had a working relationship with Japanese law enforcement. The 1970s onward saw kisaeng dances and vocabulary partially preserved in the contemporary Korean dance and theatre scene observed in the gwonbeon , kisaeng schools, that predominated during
10368-460: The life of the cheonmin , including kisaeng , and erotic themes. During the colonial period, kisaeng were a popular object to Japanese and Korean painters, and postcards with the picture of Korean kisaeng were circulated in Japan. Kisaeng continue to be central to the understanding and imagining of Joseon culture in contemporary South and North Korea . For example, the female lead in
10496-429: The lower classes, as commoner and slave women had various works to do. Nevertheless, even the peasant houses had separate rooms for men and women, and wealthier families had male and female quarters: "outer rooms" called sarangchae ( 사랑채 ) for men, and "inner rooms" called anche ( 안채 ) or anbang ( 안방 ; 內房 ) for women. Most women were illiterate , as the public schools taught males exclusively. Even after
10624-467: The lower classes. For these reasons, few contemporary scholars support this theory. Many others trace their origins to the early years of Goryeo, when many people were displaced following the end of the Later Three Kingdoms period in 936. At this time, a large number of Baekje people wandered the country. It is not clear whether this nomadic lifestyle was already established, or a consequence of
10752-455: The medicinal kisaeng ( yakbang gisaeng ) into entertainers. Yeonsan-gun brought 1,000 women and girls from the provinces to serve as palace kisaeng ; many of them were paid from the public treasury. He may have been the first to institute a formal hierarchy among them, dividing the kisaeng of the palace into "Heaven", those with whom he slept, and "Earth", those who served other functions. In 1650, all kisaeng were made slaves of
10880-604: The mother's side. Nobles lived separately from commoners, in designated areas of a town or village and spent most of their free time at Confucian academies or gisaeng houses. Yangban families were rare in the northern and eastern parts of the country and on Jeju Island and were mostly demoted yangban that were exiled there. High government positions were filled by yangban from Gyeongsang and Chungcheong provinces mainly. The scholar-aristocracy made up about 10% of Korea's population. Civilian offices (munban) , as well as military posts (muban) were occupied by yangban men, with
11008-450: The night. The sijo style later came to be associated with kisaeng women, while women of yangban status focused on the gasa form. Kisaeng attached to a local government office were known as gwan-gi , and their status was differentiated from that of the common slaves also attached to the office. They were separately entered on the census rolls. The kisaeng were regarded as of significantly higher status than
11136-464: The northern border. For instance, in the time of Sejong the Great in the 15th century, there were some sixty kisaeng attached to the army base at Yongbyon . In these areas, kisaeng essentially filled the role of wives for the army and their role was commensurately more focused on domestic tasks than entertainment. The kisaeng of other regions also maintained distinctive local identities. The kisaeng of Jinju were particularly adept at
11264-542: The officeholder, and those who were not. This distinction was featured in the popular play Chunhyangga . The Gabo Reform of 1895 officially abolished the class system of Joseon dynasty, and slavery as well. From that year forward, all kisaeng became nominally free, and the gwan-gi no longer belonged to the government. In practice, many kisaeng , like many other slaves, continued in servitude for many years. In addition, many of those who were freed had no alternative career; they continued as entertainers, now without
11392-413: The officer in charge of kisaeng , known as the hojang . The hojang was also in charge of maintaining the kisaeng register, and ensuring that none of the district's kisaeng had fled. Kisaeng were required to answer the requests of patrons, unless they had previously notified the hojang . The kisaeng of the district were expected to appear for inspection twice a month and also when
11520-550: The old capitals of Gaesong and Pyeongyang . The kisaeng of Pyeongyang were noted for their high level of skill and beauty. The kisaeng school of Pyeongyang was one of the country's most advanced, and continued operating until late in the colonial period. The kisaeng of Pyeongyang were also known for their ability to recite the gwan san yung ma , a song by the 18th-century composer Shin Gwangsu . Other large concentrations existed around military camps , particularly along
11648-411: The other hand, thinks that the Korean structure cannot be called a true caste system but a system where certain castes existed. In theory, there were three social classes, but in practice, there were four. The top class were the yangban , or "scholar- gentry ", the commoners were called sangmin or yangmin , and the lowest class was that of the cheonmin . Between the yangban and the commoners
11776-400: The outer world and every woman had to conform to Confucian ideals of purity, obedience, chastity and faithfulness. Women were subjects of male dominance throughout their lives, obliged to listen to their fathers, husbands, fathers-in-law and firstborn sons. Homes were divided into male and female quarters to separate the sexes. Korean society was hierarchical during most of the Joseon era and
11904-411: The population was illiterate. In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system , known today as Hangul , to promote literacy among the common people. Introduced in the document Hunminjeongeum , it was called eonmun ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. The Korean alphabet was denounced by
12032-461: The protections afforded by kisaeng status. During the subsequent decade, many of these kisaeng went elsewhere to work. The kisaeng were considered to be the lowest of the caste system in the Neo-Confucian way of living that had developed in Korea. Kisaeng often composed and sang their own sijo which allowed them to incorporate their emotions and themes into their work. This continued to be
12160-470: The recent turmoil. In fact, a connection between these wanderers and the nomadic tribes of Manchuria has been conjectured. The first king of Goryeo, Taejo , considered these wanderers to be a threat to the stability of the state. He ordered that they be made into slaves of the government. Although no certain records exist, it is likely that the first kisaeng were drawn from these former wanderers. Regardless of their origins, kisaeng first emerged as
12288-406: The reign of Chungnyeol . The gyobang provided training in the dangak and sogak musical styles. The women trained in the gyobang were exclusively court entertainers. Their role in the affairs of the court became increasingly important as the dynasty progressed. They entertained both the king and visiting dignitaries, a role which continued into the Joseon period. In addition, beginning in
12416-407: The reign of Munjong , they performed at official ceremonies of the state. Just as the origin of the kisaeng is unclear, so is their precise relation to other strata of society. The female entertainers who appear in records are exclusively kisaeng of the court, and are recorded as slaves of the government. Goryeo was succeeded by the Joseon dynasty, which lasted from 1394 to 1897. During
12544-411: The reign of Myeongjong the state began to keep records (called gijeok ) of the kisaeng living in each jurisdiction. Around this time, the state also made its first efforts to set up educational institutions to train kisaeng entertainers. These academies were known as gyobang , and first appear in history with their abolition by King Hyeonjong in 1010. However, they were re-established in
12672-453: The royal household. At times, there was friction between would-be customers and possessive gibu , although the gibu was not the kisaeng 's husband and had no legal claim to her. The role of the gibu changed over time; at first, many kisaeng in government service had no such patron. However, by the late Joseon dynasty, the gibu system was more or less universal. In the Joseon dynasty, kisaeng houses were typically located near
12800-407: The same for five centuries. The ruling class and the recipient of privileges was the yangban class. This elite aristocracy was hereditary and held most of the wealth, slaves and land. They were also called sadaebu , " scholar-officials ", because when compared to Goryeo aristocracy or the Japanese bushido , they were not landowners who engaged in military actions. Yangban strove to do well at
12928-481: The same lineage). Most of the wealth and land of the family was inherited by the firstborn son, with the other sons getting small portions; girls were denied any such rights. Men were allowed to have more than one wife and several concubines . Women saw a decline in their rights and freedoms, particularly during the second half of the Joseon era after the Imjin War . Their life was regulated by Neo-Confucianism but in
13056-660: The short form Cháoyǔ has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian , whereas Hánguóyǔ or the short form Hányǔ is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language . Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting
13184-664: The silk-clad Gisaeng . Marriage for upper-class women involved leaving the seclusion of the mother's quarters for the seclusion of the women's quarters of a new home. Child labour was integral to society, with working children dressed as miniature adults wearing the blue-white traditional clothing adults wore. From the early 1880s, King Gojong and his queen began a process of Westernisation, thereby opening late Joseon society to Western residents and travellers. Amongst these observers are (alphabetically by surname): Isabella Bird , doctor-missionary and travel writer. Her four visits to Korea took place between January 1894 and March 1897. In
13312-405: The slaves, although technically they were all of cheonmin rank. Though they were of low social class, the kisaeng held a unique role in ancient Korea's society, and were respected for their career as educated artists and writers. For this reason, they were sometimes spoken of as "possessing the body of the lower class but the mind of the aristocrat" and as having a "paradoxical identity as
13440-498: The social ladder was the outsider class, the cheonmin . These fell into two groups: the free and the slaves. The free were essentially people outside Buddhist societal norms of acceptability. For example, professionals dealing with animal slaughter (butchers, people working with animal skins), most probably because of established Buddhist religious views. Innkeepers, gisaengs , entertainers, gravediggers, bark peelers, basket makers, shamans and ferrymen were also cheonmin people. It
13568-476: The state, which few men of the Joseon period could afford. Thus, most former kisaeng went on to work in or manage a local tavern. In the later period of Joseon, a three-tiered system developed. The highest tier was occupied by ilp'ae ( 일패 ; 一牌 ) who sang and danced at upper-class feasts. Ilp'ae kisaeng were not permitted to entertain after they turned 30. However, they could continue working in other duties, such as dressmaking and medicine, until
13696-406: The state. Many were employed at court, but they were also spread throughout the country. They were carefully trained and frequently accomplished in the fine arts, poetry, and prose, and although they were of low social class, they were respected as educated artists. Aside from entertainment, their roles included medical care and needlework. Kisaeng play an important role in Korean conceptions of
13824-659: The store?' Response 예/네. ye/ne AFF Society in the Joseon dynasty During this period, the clan structure became stricter and bloodline was of utmost importance. Family life was regulated by law, strictly enforcing Confucian rituals. Compared to Goryeo practices before, marriage rituals were restructured and aggravated. Noblemen could have only one wife and several concubines but their children born from commoner or slave concubines were considered illegitimate and denied any yangban rights. The roles and rights of women were reduced compared to previous eras in Korean history. Yangban women were completely hidden from
13952-441: The tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot ( 버섯 ) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u] , a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i] , a velar [x] before [ɯ] , a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at
14080-450: The traditional culture of the Joseon . Although the names of most real kisaeng have been forgotten, a few are remembered for an outstanding attribute, such as skill or loyalty. The most famous of these is the 16th century Hwang Jini . Throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods, kisaeng held the status of cheonmin , the lowest in society. They shared this status with other entertainers, as well as butchers and slaves. Status
14208-410: The type of sacrificial food and its placement order defined, as well. These rituals became common and solidified during the Joseon era. Just like rituals, marriage also had stern rules to follow. While in Goryeo marriage within members of the same clan was permitted, Joseon took exogamy very seriously and forbade such marriages that violated the sharing of the last name, even if a clan had more than
14336-464: The underlying, partly historical morphology . Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" ( 두음법칙 ) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, ^NOTE ㅏ
14464-590: The work of their male counterparts from the same era. The economic depression that Korea faced at the time of the Japanese occupation led to an impoverished female population being exposed to the labor market. The transition from the Sino-Japanese War to colonial Korea helped expand the sex market. Such expansion came in the form of new laws such as the Kisaeng Regulation Order or Kisaeng Tansongnyŏng ( 기생 단속령 ; 妓生團束令 ) enacted in 1908 which forced
14592-402: The workings of social rules behind them. Elegant and sophisticated luxury clothes and dwellings were the aspiration and expectation of the yangban class. Painted screens and calligraphy were displayed decoratively. Their homes were supported by servant-labour. The trades or professions that catered to the dress and habits of this class included hat-makers, jewellers, cloth-makers, dress-makers and
14720-474: Was Seoul , then called Hanseong, with perhaps 1000. Many of these worked for the court, and helped to fill the vast number of trained entertainers needed for grand festivals. Beautiful or talented kisaeng were often taken from the provinces to Seoul. The required training for kisaeng in Seoul was regular and very strict, with inattentive kisaeng sent home. There were also large numbers of kisaeng in
14848-406: Was a fourth class, the jungin , "middle people". Joseon society is special in that the elite class remained the same for many centuries. While there were constant wars, with different groups changing in top positions throughout Europe and Asia, the Korean ruling class remained largely untouched, from Goryeo times to the end of the Joseon dynasty. The structure of the social system also remained
14976-573: Was a hereditary status, and their children were not allowed to advance on the social ladder. Slaves were divided into two groups: sanobi (private slaves) and gongnobi (slaves owned by the state). Both groups had "in-house slaves" (solgeo nobi) and "outside slaves" (oegeo nobi). The latter lived like any peasant, could own property and, just like peasants, gave a portion of the crop or textile tributes to their owners. This makes Korean history scholars debate whether they should even be considered slaves or serfs. The number of slaves fluctuated throughout
15104-413: Was a small but important one. They were below the yangban nobles but above the common people. They were usually "technical experts", such as interpreters, scribes, astronomers, accountants, physicians, jurists and musicians. Provincial small officeholders also belonged to this class. They oversaw local bureaucracy and so were impossible to overlook. Many of them became wealthy, some by exploiting peasants. In
15232-623: Was abolished in 1800 while private slavery was finally banned in 1894. Korea has a clan system, where every Korean belongs to a bongwan (본관) that can trace ancestry back to the founding father of the clan. Different clans may share certain surnames , differentiated by the founding city or town of the clan. Clan structure had existed well before the founding of Joseon but the spread of Confucianism made its rules stricter, dogmatized in state laws. Clans are based upon paternal blood lineage, named jok ( 족 ; 族 ), pa ( 파 ; 派 ) or munjung ( 문중 ; 門 中 ). The history of
15360-401: Was also a school to teach young kisaeng mainly traditional art, such as calligraphy, dance, and songs. During the colonial period, the preexisting tiers or structures of kisaeng disappeared, and they were more viewed as relevant to prostitution than before. Most of the kisaeng of this time performed in restaurants or entertainment houses to earn a living, and they were often seen as
15488-487: Was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century. Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as Hanja ) to write their own language, creating scripts known as idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil. These systems were cumbersome, due to the fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of
15616-403: Was hereditary, so the children of a kisaeng were also of cheonmin status, and daughters automatically became kisaeng as well. Beginning in the Goryeo period, the governing offices in each district kept a registry of kisaeng , to ensure thorough oversight. The same practice was followed for conscripted slaves. Kisaeng could only be released from their position if a hefty price
15744-455: Was not until the period July- October 1894 that child marriage was banned. The age of marriage was raised for men to 20, and for women to 16. The most important possession for a Korean family was the firstborn son, or jangja ( 장자 ). It had always been the case, but neo-Confucianism strengthened the idea even further. It was so important that no man could die without having a male heir. If they were unable to produce one, they had to adopt (from
15872-431: Was not widespread and mainly observed by poor families, who could not afford to have a wedding otherwise. Because of such poor conditions, it could happen that the age difference between the bride and the groom was more than 30 years. However in the late nineteenth century, European travellers did report encountering male children being married, at which point their attire and hair was altered to match that of adult men. It
16000-432: Was paid to the government; this could only be done by a wealthy patron, typically a high government official. Many kisaeng were skilled in poetry, and numerous sijo composed by kisaeng have survived. These often reflect themes of heartache and parting, similar to poems composed by scholars in exile. In addition, some of the most famous kisaeng poems were composed to persuade prominent scholars to spend
16128-414: Was recognized as a threat that during Seonjo of Joseon 's reign, they were allowed to become officials. But these seoeols could not become ministers or high officials. However, the efforts of those people to abolish discrimination during the 19th century, did increase their social mobility and some, such as Yun Ung-nyeol or Yi Yun-yong , served as ministers. The middle class, called jungin or chungin
16256-475: Was regulated by the Gyeongguk daejeon ( 경국대전 ; 經國大典 ), a code of law compiled in the 15th century. It regulated the jesa , the ancestor rituals, emphasizing that ancestors are important members of a lineage. Jesa is conducted by the oldest male family member of the deceased, the other family members line up behind him according to their ranks in the family. Rituals have strict rules and pre-set orders, with
16384-404: Was something noble people were expected to avoid. It was important that everyone knew their standings in society and behaved accordingly. The Korean language reflects this notion even today, by the use of honorifics , which signal whether the speaker addresses a senior person or someone of a higher social standing. Direct communication between the king and the common people was possible through
#179820